DEVELOPMENT OF MYSTIC THOUGHT AND

INDIAN SUFIS
by
Dr. Abroo Aman Andrabi
Assistant Professor
Department of Islamic Studies
Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi-62

The Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad (peace and
blessings be upon him) dont actually mention the word Sufism.
However, the main idea behind Sufism was in the Holy Quran and
the Sunnah. In other words, Allah urged the Muslims to purify
themselves from diseases and from evil in general, and in my
opinion, this is the main purpose behind Sufism. But, this word
Sufism is not found at all in the Quran or the Sunnah. This call
actually came into being some 200 years later.
When we look at the history of Sufism we find that Sufism was born in
the eighth century when Muslims had gained power over a large part
of the globe. People were engaged in political and material things on
a large scale. At that time Muslim Sufis, by remaining away from
politics, made a concerted effort to bring about spiritual awakening
among the Muslims and spread human values. Materialism infected
the hearts of many Muslims, and then those scholars (Sufis) came
forward with the call to go back to your God, purify yourself, go back
to the reality of Islam. They told the people not to be influenced by
materialism, that they had to be closer to Allah, that they had to
practice their religion, and remember the approaching hereafter. This
is the reason why Sufism was established at the time - because of the
civilization which took place in the Western society at that time. Dar
al-Majnoon was established during the reign of Khalifah Ma'moon,

where he invited the scholars of the Romans and Greeks to meet with
the Muslims and 'discuss' their respective positions. This provided the
perfect breeding ground for the synthesis between Islam and Pagan
theology, to produce the Sufism of the like of Ibn Arabi.

(1)

Sufis dont have their own separate set of hadith or traditions,

supporting their beliefs; neither have they interpreted parts of the
Quran differently than other Muslims. Sufism considers the two main
sources, the Quran and the Sunnah. However, on occasion they
explained some of the sayings of the Quran and the Sunnah in
different ways. That is, some but not all of these. The verses which
relate to the purpose of Sufism - purifying the soul the Sufis talk
about these verses deeply, and maybe sometimes they added some
meaning which other scholars dont agree with. But all of them, the
Sufis, agreed on one thing - that there were two sources for authority,
the Quran and the Sunnah.
Sufism gives special attention for the spiritual issues, because they
believe that when a Muslim has good faith and good spiritual life
then he will be a good Muslim. He will practice Islam perfectly, and
he will follow the Shariah - the Islamic law at the same time. So
they insisted on this point of rituals. I mentioned at the beginning
the reason behind that is materialism which established shortly
before Sufism, and then this movement we consider it as a
reaction in our Islamic history. Even now some Muslims are
following Sufism, for the same reasons.
Sufism developed in the 8th and 9th centuries in three major centers:
1. The cities of Basra, Kufa and Baghdad in Iraq. 2. The city of
Balkh in the Khorasan district of Persia. 3. Egypt. Perhaps Muslims
in India became closer to Sufism because of their environment.

In its early stages of development Sufism effectively referred to

nothing more than the internalization of Islam. According to one
perspective, it is directly from the Qur'an, constantly recited,
meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its origin and
its development. Others have held that Sufism is the strict emulation
of the way of Prophet Muhammad (peace & blessings be upon him),
through which the heart's connection to the Divine is strengthened.
More prosaically, the Muslim Conquests had brought large numbers of
Christian monks and hermits, especially in Syria and Egypt, under the
rule of Muslims. They retained a vigorous spiritual life for centuries
after the conquests, and many of the especially pious Muslims who
founded Sufism were influenced by their techniques and methods.
From the traditional Sufi point of view, the esoteric teachings of
Sufism were transmitted from Prophet Muhammad (peace and
blessings be upon him) to those who had the capacity to acquire the
direct experiential gnosis of God, which was passed on from teacher
to student through the centuries. Some of this transmission is
summarized in texts, but most is not. Important contributions in
writing are attributed to Uwais al-Qarni, Harrm bin Hian, Hasan Basri
and Sayid ibn al-Mussib, who are regarded as the first Sufis in the
earliest generations of Islam. Harith al-Muhasibi was the first one to
write about moral psychology. Rabia Basri was a Sufi known for her
love and passion for God, expressed through her poetry. Bayazid
Bastami was among the first theorists of Sufism; he concerned
himself with fan and baq, the state of annihilating the self in the
presence of the divine, accompanied by clarity concerning worldly
phenomena derived from that perspective.
Sufism

had

long

history

already

before

the

subsequent

institutionalization of Sufi teachings into devotional orders (tariqat) in

the early Middle Ages. Almost all extant Sufi orders trace their chains

of transmission (silsila)

(2)

back to Prophet Muhammad (peace and

blessings be upon him) Hazrat Ali (May Allah be pleased with him).
The Naqshbandi order is a notable exception to this rule, as it traces
the origin of its teachings from Prophet Muhammad to the first Islamic
Caliph, Abu Bakr (May Allah be pleased with him).
Actually, Sufism depends on shaikhs (religious leaders), special
scholars who lead their students, teaching them and watching them.
Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) is regarded
as the first Sufi master who passed his esoteric teachings orally to his
successors who also received his special grace. An unbroken chain of
transmission of divine authority is supposed to exist from Muhammad
(peace and blessings be upon him) to his successor 'Ali (May Allah be
pleased with him) and from him down to generations of Sufi masters
(Sheikhs, Peers). Each order has its own Silsilah (chain) that links it
with Prophet Muhammad (Peace and blessings be upon him) and 'Ali
(May Allah be pleased with him).
Sufism or Islamic Mysticism came to India with Sufi Saints with the
spread of Islam from the Middle Eastern countries during the 11th
and 12th Centuries A.D. It was by the overpowering spell and
charm

of

their

magnetic

personality,

spiritual

powers

and

excellent conduct that they won the hearts of millions of people of

India and thus laid the foundation of Islamic Mysticism in this
country.(3) During this time the social situation was very pathetic
in India (Indian Subcontinent). The society was divided on the
basis of caste, creed, religion and region. It was a period of
oppression and dominion. The Sufis moved around putting on the
grab of faith in God. By the time the Muslim Empire was
established at Delhi, Sufi fraternities had come into being and the
Sufi influence was far more powerful than it was in earlier days
under the Arabs in Sindh. Sufi Saints preached love among all

classes of people. The lives of these humble and peaceful Sufi

saints, who brought nothing with them except the name of
Almighty

Allah

and

the

message

of

universal

love,

were

exclusively dedicated to the cause of religious and spiritual

enlightenment of the suffering humanity. As such they were
naturally loved and respected by all classes and ranks of people
from a peasant to a prince. They made India their home, lived
here and gloriously passed away in the service of mankind. The
Sufis never feared men not even the powerful tyrant kings and
rulers. They never people to accept the faith but the people
themselves felt the need for it. People were attracted to the Sufis,
all that they said, did and approved mad a deep impact on the
people. As a result of which there was tolerance, peace, mutual co
existence and harmony among the people.
The numerous Sufi religious establishments in India were the major
means of spreading Islam and adapting it to original cultural
tradition. The Sufis converted a civilization into a better one,
which is beyond the imagination of ordinary people. Four branches
of

Sufism,

namely

Naqshahbandya

were

Qadriya,

Chishtiya,

introduced

in

India

Suharawardya
by

Syed

and

Bandqi

Mohammad Ghosh, Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti, Shaikh Bahawaldin

Zakariya and Khwaja Mohammad Baqi Billah respectively. (4)
Suharawardy Sufis were the first to arrive in India and made their
headquarters in Sindh. The Suhrawardiyah order was founded by
Sheikh Ab-al-Najib Suhrawardi (1097 - 1162) and was introduced
into India by Sheikh Baha-ud-din Zakariya (1182 - 1268) of Multan.
This order achieved much success under the leadership of Hazrat
Baha-ud-Din Zakriya

in Multan.

The

Suhrawardiyya

order

became popular in Bengal with the arrival of Sufis to Maner Sharif.

Noted Sufis of the order in Bihar and Bengal include Makhdoom

Kamaaluddin Ahmed Yahya Maneri, Makhdoom Shahabuddin Pir

Jagjot, Makhdoom Salah Darwesh Maneri and others. Maner Sharif
is still considered a center of the Suhrawardiyya order.
Four Islamic mystics from Afghanistan namely Moinuddin Chisti (d.
1233 in Ajmer), Qutbuddin Kaki (d. 1236 in Delhi), Nizamuddin Awliya
(d.1335 in Delhi) and Fariduddin Gungbaksh (d.1265 in Pattan now in
Pakistan) accompanied the Islamic invaders in India. All of them were
from the Chistiyya order of Islamic mysticism. The impact of Chisti
order is still visible even in small villages of India. Kwaja Moin-ud-Din
Chisti, was a disciple of Khwaja Abu Abdal Chisti, who came to India
with the army of Shihab-ud-Din Ghuri in 1192 AD and selected Ajmer
as his permanent abode since 1195. Because he established the first
Sufi Silsilah in the Indian sub-continent, he is often referred to as
Hind-al-Wali. Khawaja Muin-ud-din Ajmeri's chief disciple, Khawaja
Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki, who lived at Delhi, was held in high
esteem by Al-Tutmush. The influence of Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki on
Sufism in India was immense. As he continued and developed the
traditional ideas of universal brotherhood and charity within the Chisti
order, a new dimension of Islam started opening up in India which had
hitherto not been present. He forms an important part of the Sufi
movement which attracted many people to Islam in India in the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Baba Farid who was the disciple
of Khawaja Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki, decided to settle in Punjab.
The Chishtiyah order remained the most popular order during the
Sultanate period.
The Chishti saints had two hallmarks which differentiate them from
other Sufi saints. The first was their ethical relations to the
institutional powers. This meant voluntarily keeping a distance from
the ruler or the government mechanism. It did not matter if the ruler
was a patron or a disciple: he was always kept at bay since it was felt

that mixing with the ruler will corrupt the soul by indulging it in
worldly matters. In his last discourse to disciples, Khawaja Moinuddin
Chishti said:
Never seek any help, charity, or favors from anybody except God.
Never go the court of kings, but never refuse to bless and help the
needy and the poor, the widow, and the orphan, if they come to your
door.

(5)

The second distinctive dimension was related to the religious practice

of the Chishtis. It was proactive rather than passive; a ceaseless
searches for the divine other. In this respect the Chishtis followed a
particular ritual more zealously than any other brotherhood. This was
the practice of sama, evoking the divine presence through song or
listening to music.

(6)

The genius of the Chishti saints was that they

accommodated the practice of sama with the full range of Muslim

obligations.
Sufis world is a world of Peace and Harmony, Their Mission is always
service to mankind and worship only for Almighty Allah, they believe
in Peace, Tolerance and Compassion. Khawaja Nizamuddin Aulia was
one of the most renowned and revered Sufi saints of India, also known
by his title of Mehboobe Elahi (Beloved of God). His shrine at Delhi is
a world-renowned spiritual center, has a magnetic power to attract
the people in large number irrespective of faith and religion. The
Shrine reflects the true Sufi traditions. It is well known that Hazrat
Nizamuddin Aulia used to make his holy devotions, meditation and
religious practices in its seclusion. And at his Langar Khana (Kitchen)
thousands of people, especially the needy and poor were fed daily. He
had propagated the teachings of Islam and the teachings of real
Sufism (Islamic Mysticism) to the people of the India. He spread the

message of peace, love and tolerance to the mankind. He lived a life

of strict austerity in the tradition of the Sufi saints.
Hazrat Nizamuddin Aulia did not like to meet any King or Sultan of his
time, he has said,
A Sufi must never go to the courts of Kings and must refuse to
accept any kind of reward or gratification for his maintenance

(7)

But after the death of the Saint all kinds of People including kings
started visiting the Shrine in a very large number from different parts
of India and other countries of the world, they pay their respectful
tributes to the great saint. This center of spiritualism promotes world
peace, universal brotherhood, communal harmony and tolerance. The
marvelous teachings of Indian Sufi saints for peace and harmony have
great relevance today.
The Chishti Order in India split into two branches.
Nizamuddin Auliya - This branch became the Chishti Nizami branch.
Nizamuddin Auliya was the master of Nasiruddin Chiragh Dehlavi who
in turn was the master of Khwaja Bande Nawaz. All these are
important saints of the order.
Alauddin Sabir Kaliyari - This branch became the Chishti-Sabiri
branch.
Over time (principally after the 17th century) many further branches
emerged which routinely united or diverged towards other popular
Sufi orders in India. Prominent people of later times who trace their
spiritual lineage through the Chishti order include:

1. Ashraf Jahangir Semnani - He further extended the litanies the

Chishtiya Nizami branch. His followers became the members of
the Chishti Nizami Ashrafiya branch.
2. Haji Imdadullah Muhaajir Makki - He extended the litanies of the
Chishtiya Sabaria branch. His followers became the members of
the Chishtiya Sabaria Imdadiya branch.
3. Shah Niyaz Ahmad- He united the Chishti Nizami order with the
Qadriya order to form the Chishtiya Qadriya Nizamia Niyazia
branch.
4. Habibi Silsila - In century 13th Hegira - Silsila Chishtiya Nizamia
Habibia emerged at Hyderabad, India - Khaja Habib Ali Shah.
As a result of this metamorphosis of the Chishti order with other
branches, most Sufi masters now initiate their disciples in all the four
major orders of India: Chishti, Suhrawadi, Qadri and Naqshbandi. They
do however; prescribe prayers and litanies, only of the order with
which they are primarily associated.
The famous Qadriya order entered India through Sindh in AD1482.
Syed Bandagi Mohammad Ghouse, one of the descendants of the
founder (Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani, 1078-1116) took up residence in
Sindh at Uch (now in Bahawalpur) and died in AD1517. Qadiri
leadership is not centralized. Each centre of Qadiri thought is free to
adopt its own interpretations and practices. Teachings emphasize the
struggle against the desires of the ego. Gilani described it as "the
greater struggle". This has two stages; first against deeds forbidden
by religious law and second against fundamental vices such as greed,
vanity, and fear. Names of God are prescribed as wazifas (mantras)
for repetition by initiates (dhikr). Formerly several hundred thousand
repetitions were required and obligatory for those who hold the office
of sheikh.

The origin of Naqshbandi order can be traced back to Khwaja Yaqub

Yusuf al-Hamadani (b. AD 1140), who lived in Central Asia, and was
later organised by Bahauddin Naqshband (13181389) of Turkestan,
who is widely referred to as the founder of the Naqshbandi order.
Khwaja Muhammad al-Baqi Billah Berang, introduced the Naqshbandi
order to India. The essence of this order was insistence on strict
adherence to the shariah and nurturance of love for the Prophet
Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him).(8)
All over the India these Sufis spread the message of love and
compassion between both Muslims and Hindus. Their attempt to
balance the religious harmony was immemorial. Their preaching of
Islam was in very systematic style and manner which inclined the
love to the objective. Considering the existing life style and religious
and cultural differences, These Muslim saints behaved in a pluralistic
way.
By their social interaction the Hindu society welcomed them and
accommodated with great respect. From the royal family to common
people gave them whatever they wanted and the kings ordered the
people to give these saints the lands and helped to build up the
mosques.
The Sufis made untiring, selfless and incessant struggle for the spread
of Islam. They devoted their lives and gave up their homes to
champion the cause of Islam in a miraculous way. Neither did they
resort to arms nor to swords for this. It was their affection, sympathy,
fraternity and unlimited humanitarian actions that won the hearts of
people.
Sufism had an important part in the formation of Muslim societies as
it educated the masses and met their felt needs, giving spiritual

meaning to their lives and channeling their emotions. The impact of

Sufism on Indian culture created an integration which no political
force could have done. Sufis brought about a synthesis which
definitely shaped the very outlook of the people thereby a rare quality
of absorbing diverse influences, which was the responsible for
cohesion and harmony was brought in.
The Sufis were successful because of their noble deeds and the
amazing examples they set. They never imposed their beliefs on nonMuslims. The khanqas provided protection to nomads, travelers,
institutions for those who wanted to reduce their thirst for knowledge,
food to the needy and love to all. People rallied round the ideology of
Sufism which was simple to digest, practicable to exercise. Before
they started preaching, firstly they set noble and brilliant example
through their behaviour and conduct. Secondly, Islam was preached
by them in a simple, pragmatic and flexible way, contrary to the
ulemas who laid much emphasis on the rigidity of rules. Thirdly, they
highlighted Allahs positive and merciful attributes to ignite a love of
God in peoples hearts. The Sufis disliked formalities and ceremonial
acts, preferring to lead simple lives, and their lofty and admirable
principles became guidelines for the people. They were against
suppressions and social evils, condemning the use of force to gain
power. Then their khanqahs were always open for everyone, and
those with money had to donate generously to the needy. People
flocked from time to time to the Sufis for solace and comfort.
There is no Sufism and Spirituality without Islam and Shariat. The real
Sufism is based on the strict Islamic faith and its teachings. It works
within the framework of Shariat. The Tariqat i.e. the Sufi way of life
for spiritual upliftment, advancement and purity of ideas, is not
separate from Shariat or Islamic Laws. An eminent and earliest Sufi
Saint Hazrat Ali Hujweri (Data Ganj Baksh) says,

As light cannot be separated from the sun, similarly Shariat cannot

be separated from Tariqat.

(9)

The Sharia-guided mystic influence of Sufis produced the Muslim

thinkers like Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, Shah Wali Ullah, Sayied
Ahmad Barelavi, Karamat Ali, Sir Sayed Ahmad Khan, Allama Iqbal
and Maulana Maududi. They used the mystic philosophy befitting
to the political exigencies of the time for revival of political
supremacy of Islam. Of them the Sufis like Sirhindi and Wali Ullah,
who politicised the mystic ideology for political domination of
Islam. They were projected as Islamic reformists for purifying
Islam from any extraneous influences. They conveyed the political
aspect of Islam to Muslim masses so aggressively that it created a
permanent imprint on their psyche. It is therefore said that the
Sufi Islamists saved the Islam in that period.
Sufis were also great missionaries. There cultural contribution was a
rich poetry in Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Urdu, Sind, and Pashto
which spread its mystical ideas all over the Muslim world and
enriched local literature and identity.
Towards the end of the first millennium CE, a number of manuals
began to be written summarizing the doctrines of Sufism and
describing some typical Sufi practices. Two of the most famous of
these are now available in English translation: the Kashf al-Mahjub of
Hujwiri, and the Risala of Qushayri.

Notes and References:

1. Ibn Arabi a prolific writer, main works Futuhat al Makkiyah,
Fusus al Hikmah, Risalat al khalwah.

2. Silsila is a term, besides tariqa which is used to describe a Sufi

order or a Sufi lineage, the article Tarika in the Encyclopedia
of Islam, by massignon, 2011
3. S. A. A. Rizvi, A History of Sufism in India, Vol. I, Delhi, 1978, P.
26
4. A.J.Arbery, Sufism: An Account of the Mystics in Islam, reprinted
in Delhi, 2003, p.84
5. Hakim Moinuddin Chisti, The Book of Sufi Healing. Rochester:
Inner Traditions International. (1991).
6. Muhammad Hisham Kabbani, The Naqshbandi Sufi Tradition
Guidebook of Daily Practices and Devotions, Islamic Supreme
Council of America, 2004, p.83
7. Shaikh Hakim Chishti, The Eleven Hijabaat (Veils) of Sufism,
Home Islam Healing, Chisti.org
8. Carl W. Ernst, Bruce B. Lawrence, Sufi martyrs of love, 2002, P. 5
9. Ali Hujwiri, Kashaf al Mahjub, tr. R.N. Nicholoson, P.130

Bibliography

Arbery A. J, Sufism: An Account of the Mystics in Islam,

reprinted in Delhi, 2003,

Ali Hujwiri, Kashaf al Mahjub, tr. R.N. Nicholoson.

Saiyied Athar Abbas Rizvi, History of Sufism in India, Volume 2,

1992.

Chishti, Hakim Moinuddin, The Book of Sufi Healing.

Rochester: Inner Traditions International, (1991).

Syed Moinul Haq. Islamic Thought and Movements in the

Subcontinent, 711-1947, Historical Society, 1979.

Encyclopaedia

of

Islam,

Second

Edition,

Nizami,

K.A.

"ishtiyya.". Edited by: P. Bearman; , Th. Bianquis; , C.E.

Bosworth; , E. van Donzel; and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2011.

Haeri, Muneera, The Chishtis: a living light, Oxford University

Press, Oxford, UK, (2000)

Ernst, Carl W. and Lawrence, Bruce B. (2002) Sufi Martyrs of

Love: The Chishti Order in South Asia and Beyond Palgrave
Macmillan, New York

Faridi, Ihtishamuddin, Tarikh-i iblagh-i Cisht al Indiya Baz-i

Hanafi, Delhi, 1992, (Urdu).

Kabbani, Muhammad Hisham, The Naqshbandi Sufi Tradition

Guidebook of Daily Practices and Devotions, Islamic Supreme
Council of America, 2004

Nagendra Kumar Singh, Islamic Mysticism in India, A.P.H

Publishing Corporation, Darya Ganj, New Delhi, 1996.

Nasr, S.H., Three Muslim Sages, Cambridge, MA: Harvard

University Press, 1968.

Nasr, S.H., Suffi Essays, London 1972

Nasr, S.H., Introduction to the Mystical Tradition in History of

Islamic Philosophy, Part I, S.H. Nasr and O. Leaman (eds.),
London: Routledge, 1996.

A History of Modern India edited by Claude Markovitz, Anthen

Press, 2002.

Contemporary Relevance of Sufism, published by Indian Council

for Cultural relations, 1993.