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Abstract
In this work, an analog neural network is utilized to develop a new image reconstruction technique for the linear as well as the
non-linear process tomography. The ultrasonic computed tomography (CT) and the electrical capacitance tomography (ECT) are
chosen to represent the linear and the non-linear tomography. The image reconstruction technique is based on a multi-criteria
optimization, namely neural network multi-criteria optimization image reconstruction technique (NN-MOIRT). The optimization
technique utilizes multi-objective functions: (a) the negative entropy function, (b) the function of the least weighted square error of
projection (integral) values between the measured data and the estimated projection data from the reconstructed image, and (c) a
smoothness function that gives a relatively small peakedness in the reconstructed image. The optimization image reconstruction
problem is then solved using the Hopfield model with dynamic neural-network computing. The technique has been tested using
simulated and measured data; this technique has shown significant improvement in accuracy and consistency compared with other
available techniques for both linear and non-linear tomography.
# 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Hopfield neural network; Image reconstruction; Linear tomography; Electrical capacitance tomography; NN-MOIRT
1. Introduction
In the past several years, process tomography has
emerged as a powerful technique in the study of a wide
range of multiphase flow systems. The technique
provides both local and global information on the
dynamic behavior of the flow system, which is of
considerable importance to the system design, control
and monitoring.
The process tomography involves the task of reconstructing integral (projection) measurement data from
remote sensors mounted on the periphery of the conduit
of the flow system to generate a cross-sectional image of
the vessel. The process tomography system basically
consists of three parts: (1) a sensoring system to acquire
the measurement data, (2) an electronic system for data
0255-2701/03/$ - see front matter # 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0255-2701(02)00204-0
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p
2. Theory
X (x; y)dl
(1)
L(s; u)
(2)
1
DV (s; u)
(4)
(3)
G(s; u)
Y AX
(6)
(k )
is the
Here, A is the transpose matrix of A, X
estimated image vector in the k -th iteration, a is a
relaxation factor, also called as gain factor or weighting
factor. The ART requires less number of projection data
than IFBPT; it is, however, generally sensitive to noise.
For the ECT, as seen from Eq. (3), it is difficult to
obtain an explicit expression that relates the measured
capacitances to the fraction and position of the dielectric
components inside the measured domain. Since there is
no general method of solution even for the forward
problem, in which the equation becomes linear, approximation methods are usually used. The most common
method is the use of the so-called sensitivity model
[12,14]. Based on this model, Eq. (3) can be written in
matrix expression as:
(7)
C SG
(8)
where S is the matrix transpose of S. The reconstruction technique is referred to as the LBP. The reconstructed image using the LBP is blurred, showing a
smoothing effect on the sharp transitions between the
different dielectric constants. To obtain more accurate
reconstruction results, an iterative procedure as in the
linear tomography is usually applied. Eq. (7) corresponds to Eq. (5) for the linear tomography. Therefore,
W. Warsito, L.-S. Fan / Chemical Engineering and Processing 42 (2003) 663 /674
Y AXe
where e is an M-dimensional error vector. A corresponds to the projection matrix for the linear tomography, and the sensitivity matrix for the ECT. Then, the
reconstruction problem is to find methods for estimating
the image vector (field property distribution) X from the
measurement vector Y, and minimize the error e. Since
we obviously do not know e, the problem is to find a
compromise solution of the system under certain
conditions (criteria), such that
(10)
AX 5 Y
The criteria that have been used for the image reconstruction problem are usually of the form: choose as the
solution of Eq. (10) an image vector X for which the
value of some function fi (X) is minimal, and if there is
more than one X which minimizes fi (X) choose among
these one for which the value of some other function
fj (X) is minimal [9]. The multi-criteria optimization
based solution method is usually employed to find an
image which (a) has the largest entropy; (b) has the least
weighted square error between the measured data set
and the estimated value calculated from the reconstructed image; (c) is smooth and has a relatively small
peakedness. The corresponding objective functions are,
respectively:
f1 (X)g1
N
X
Xj ln Xj :
(11)
j1
f2 (X)
f3 (X)
1
2
g2 AXY2
2
M N
1 X X
g2
Aij Xj Yi
2
i1
j1
(12)
1
g3 (XT NXXT X)
2
(13)
minimize F(X)
XP
wi fi (X);
667
(i 1; 2; 3)
(14)
wi 1 :
(15)
i1
(16)
(17)
1
;
1 exp(buj )
(18)
668
W. Warsito, L.-S. Fan / Chemical Engineering and Processing 42 (2003) 663 /674
duj
dt
@E(v)
(20)
@vj
N
X
Xj ln Xj
j1
1
2
v3 g3 (X NXX X)
M
X
i1
C(zi )
fS1 (X )dX
N
X
1
j1
Rj
(21)
N
X
Aij Xj Yi
(23)
j1
u(t)
t
(25)
Xj
u?(t)
where,
1
v2 g2 AXY2
2
T
(24)
j 1; 2; . . . ; N
(26)
(27)
(28)
W. Warsito, L.-S. Fan / Chemical Engineering and Processing 42 (2003) 663 /674
669
ate the gas and the solids concentrations in the threephase system based on measurements of the time-offlight and the attenuation of the ultrasonic wave
transmitted through the three-phase media. It is, however, only the time average measurement data available,
as the technique is too slow to perform a real time
imaging. The NN-MOIRT reconstructs the time-offlight and the attenuation data to obtain the time
average cross-sectional distributions of the gas and the
solids concentration distributions.
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W. Warsito, L.-S. Fan / Chemical Engineering and Processing 42 (2003) 663 /674
Fig. 3. Comparisons of reconstructed results for ECT from noise free simulated capacitance data.
Fig. 4. Comparisons of reconstructed results for ECT from noise contented simulated capacitance data.
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Fig. 7. Quasi-3D gas and solids holdup distributions in G /L and G /L /S systems based on ECT (UG /5 cm/s).
W. Warsito, L.-S. Fan / Chemical Engineering and Processing 42 (2003) 663 /674
673
5. Concluding remarks
A new image reconstruction technique based on
analog neural network optimization, namely NNMOIRT is developed in this work for linear as well as
non-linear tomography. The reconstruction technique
implements multi-criteria optimization solved by a
modified Hopfield neural network. Comparisons with
the other commonly used reconstruction techniques for
both linear and non-linear tomography revealed much
improvement of the technique in the accuracy, the
consistency and the robustness to noise. The technique
is also applicable for any linear or non-linear tomography using the appropriate projection (or sensitivity)
matrix. The technique also has the advantage of much
reduced computation time due to the possibility for
hardware implementation and inherent parallelism in
the computation. Some examples of the use of the
reconstruction technique to image multiphase flows in
three-phase bubble column based on time average mode
ultrasonic tomography and real time ECT have also
been presented.
Fig. 8. Time averaged cross-sectional distributions of gas and solids holdup in G /L and G /L /S systems based on ECT at UG /5 cm/s (left) and 15
cm/s (right) (color map is the same as in Fig. 1).
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Appendix A: Notations
A
C
C0
E
e
g (s )
k
L, l
M
N
N
R0
S
t
Dt
s
u
uG
DV
v, v
w1,2,3
X, X
x
y
Y, Y
z
projection matrix
capacitance
associated coefficient in Hopfield neuron
network energy
error matrix
filter function
number of iteration
projection line
number of integral measurement
smoothness matrix
number of image pixel
associated resistance in Hopfield neuron
sensitivity matrix
time
time step length
projection distance from origin
neuron internal state variable
gas superficial velocity
voltage difference
neuron output vector, neuron output variable
weight coefficient
image matrix, gray level
variable
variable
projection matrix, projection value
parameter defined in Eq. (23)
Symbols
a
a0
b
o
f
G
g 1, g 2, g 3
h
P
u
t
j
z
penalty factor
initial penalty factor
steepness gain factor
permittivity
electrical field distribution
curve enclosing the detector electrode
normalized coefficients
coefficient in Eq. (24)
set of constraint decision defined in Eq. (16)
projection angle
unit time
coefficient in Eq. (19)
coefficient in Eq. (24)
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