THE END OF THE YORKIST MONARCHY AND THE TRIUMPH OF HENRY

TUDOR, 1483-7
WHY DID ED IVS DEATH IN 1483 CAUSE POLITICAL INSTABILITY?

FACTIONS Ed IV had married Elizabeth Woodville, a commoner with a

large, ambitious family. Rival Woodville/Gloucester factions. Woodville =
Elizabeth Woodville (Ed IVs wife), Earl Rivers (EWs father), Thomas and
Richard Grey (EWs sons from a previous marriage). Gloucester faction =
Richard, Duke of Gloucester, Lord Hastings, Duke of Buckingham. Ed V had
grown up around Woodvilles, so was loyal to them. The Gloucester faction
had more noble support and the Woodvilles were unpopular.
ED IVS WILL 1475- arranged for an 8 man regency council (including
EW) to rule for Ed V if he was in his minority. 1485 amended will, but it
did not survive. Woodvilles argued that Gloucester was in the Regency
Council, Gloucester argued that he was Lord Protector.
TIMING Wars of the Roses. Yorkist throne had not been inherited before
and heir was a minor = throne open to claimants.
MINOR HEIRS Ed V was 12, Richard, Duke of York was 10, Earl of Warwick
was 10. Young king = easily manipulated. Fight over minority rule (eg. Lord
Protectorate/ Regency council).

WHY DID RICHARD, DUKE OF GLOUCESTER, MAKE HIMSELF KING IN 1483?

SEIZED THE OPPORTUNITY powerful adult male with good claim to the
throne, Ed V was 12, Gloucester faction had noble support, Woodvilles
were not well liked, access to heirs.
SECURE THE THRONE adult male on throne rather than minor, strong
and well trained soldier, good military leader, reduce the threat of foreign
claimants eg. The Lancastrian Henry Tudor, reduce disputes about
Regency Council. Thomas and Richard Grey had mobilised armies outside
London to protect throne removed this threat.
BUCKINGHAM INFLUENCE met with Buckingham, the kingmaker on 30 th
April, began taking steps to make himself king after this arrested Rivers,
Richard Grey, took sole custody of Ed V, confirmed himself as Lord
Protector, wrote to City of York asking for armed men to protect them from
the Woodvilles (who were all in sanctuary/prison), took Richard Duke of
York, had sermon preached at St. Pauls Cross which praised him and
announced that Ed + Richard were illegitimate because Ed IV had a premarriage contract, took Earl of Warwick into custody. Influenced by
Buckingham? Rewarded him with land in the Marches and West Country
when he was made Lord Protector, had Hastings (Buckinghams enemy)
executed without trial, Buckingham presented petition
at Parliament which petitioned Gloucester to take
throne and read it publicly.
REDUCE WOODVILLE THREAT worried that they
would reduce his land/power /imprison him if they
controlled the King.

(
Nothing to see here...)

RICHARD IIIS GOVERNMENT 1483-5

Just and fair king?
SUCCESS - Introduced laws to protect English traders from foreign imports
and a commitment to the principal of bail for suspected criminals.
FAILURE - Legal reforms reignited old debates often accompanied by
violence
New laws were just reforms of outdated laws insignificant.
Maintain law and order?
SUCCESS - Attainted 97 people after the Buckingham rebellion
consolidated authority.
Avoided creation of an over mighty noble by setting up Council of the
North to control lands instead of putting the Duke of Northumberland in
charge.
Avoided relying on great magnates to govern, relied on lower tier of gentry
instead eg. Lord Scrope of Bolton.
Planted 36 Northerners in positions of power in the South placed his
supporters in charge to crush dissent.
FAILURE - Gave northerners the majority of power likely to cause dissent
among southerners
Placed outsiders in local government tyrannical.
Relied on lower tier of gentry unpopular with nobility, esp.
Northumberland (powerful enemy)
Live of his own?
SUCCESS - Abolished benevolences popular
Ensured that crown estates were well managed and rent collected, liased
directly with local officials.
FAILURE - Ran into debt, had to resort to forced loans to finance his fo po +
domestic po.
Didnt ask Parliament for a subsidy to finance war with Scotland = debt.
Extend and protect the realm?
FAILURE - Continued Ed IVs war with Scotland even though Scottish king
James III wanted peace expensive and English forces defeated at
Lochmaben, after which RIII had to negotiate truce. Distracted him from
HT threat.
Supported Brittany in its attempts to preserve its independence from
France in exchange for HT. HT escaped Brittany and RIII antagonised the
French gave HT a fleet at Le Havre in 1485 and backed invasion
Secure his dynasty?
SUCCESS - Declared Ed IVs sons illegitimate in Titulus Regius 1484 in
Parliament.

Summoned HoL + his household to swear

allegiance to his son as heir.
Negotiated a truce with EW, she came out of
sanctuary and withdrew support for Tudor.
FAILURE - RIIIs son died 1484, wife died 1485.
Weak throne, no heir. Accused of murdering
wife, had to publicly deny it + had to abandon
plans to marry Elizabeth of York (would increase
power of Woodville faction)
Be pious?

(Richard the 3rd, best known for

being King of England from 1483-5
and inventing jazz hands.)

SUCCESS - Founded 18 colleges and chantries

and had Henry VI exhumed and reburied in Westminster (discredited Ed
IV)
FAILURE - Accused Ed IV of immorality in TR, made Jane Shore (his
mistress) do penance for being a whore, condemned HTs ancestry
decreased his popularity, seemed pretty self-righteous for a usurper and
child murderer.
BUCKINGHAM REBELLION AUTUMN 1483
WHAT Rebellion in support of HT + Buckingham. Kent uprising, Sussex uprising,
Surrey uprising in early October. Contained by Norfolk, RIIIs lieutenant in the
south. Devon + Cornwall uprisings days afterwards. More rebel armies raised in
Berkshire + Wiltshire rebels fled. HT sailed to England, didnt land, sailed back
to France. Buckingham captured and executed. Morton, Daubeney, Dorset fled to
HT.
WHY Annoyed about the Earldom of Hereford RIII promised but the letters
patent was never issued. Wanted further gains of land and titles, to be a
kingmaker to HT and be rewarded by him. Opportunity RIIIs son was gravely
ill. Planned to remove RIII and become king? (also descended from Ed III)
Influenced by Morton? (in his custody at Brecon Castle) and LMB? (may have had
contact.) Driven by conscience after murder of princes? (Crowland Chronicler)
HOW SERIOUS SERIOUS uprisings across whole of England. HT seen as a
credible rival, main claimant after disappearance of Ed IVs sons. HT promised to
marry Elizabeth of York if he was king united Edwardian and Lancastrian
Yorkists. HT had French backing disloyalty in kingdom. Threat of HT increasing
more noble support with him. NOT SERIOUS all rebellions easily crushed by
Ricardian loyalists. Buckingham executed. HT fled, didnt even land. RIII used as
an opportunity to create Northern plantations.
PRE- BOSWORTH (LONG TERM)

RIII (32) knows there will be an invasion. Reinforces fleet at Southampton,

places self in Nottingham. Beacon system to warn of invasion. Elaborate
preparations to defend Wales.

HT (28) In France with French backing (fleet + money). Supported by

Edwardian Yorkists because of EoY betrothal. LMB married to Lord Thomas
Stanley large landowner in North + North Midlands. Tenous claim to
throne. Best Lancastrian claimant. Has supporters with him Giles
Daubeney, Jasper Tudor (uncle, main military commander), John De Vere
Earl of Ox, Thomas Grey Marquis of Dorset. Informed by spies. Knows that
Rhys ap Thomas and Sir John Savage in Wales will support him. No great
magnate declares for him. Loaned 60000 francs and 1800 men led by
Philibert de Chande by the French king Charles VIII.

MID TERM

RIII sends out a muster. Learns of HTs arrival,

summons Norfolk, Northumberland, Lovell, Brackenbury.
Expects RapT/Stanley to crush Henry, Declares John
Savage and William Stanley traitors for defecting to
Henry. Moves army to Leicester. Camps @ Ambien Hill on
(JT, uncle of Henry
21st August.
Tudor)
HT sets sail from France with 1800 mercenaries, 3-500 English refugees,
PdeC, JT, GD. Lands @ Mill Bay, sets off for Haverford West, reaches
Cardigan, joined by Richard Griffiths, John Morgan (friends with RapT).
Reaches Machynlleth, sends out messages to potential allies. RapT
declares for Henry at Newhaven, brings 1500-200 men. Reaches
Shrewsbury WS tells bailiffs to open city gates. Corbet, WSs stepson,
joins with 800 men. Arrives at Newport, joined by Sir Gilbert Talbot and
500 more men. Camps @ Stafford, meets WS. TS leaves Cheshire slowly in
response to RIIIs muster. HT arrives @ Atherstone, meets with WS + TS.
Neither promise to support him but TS sends knights to reinforce his
troops. Camps @ Ambion Hill on 21st August.

ON THE DAY 22ND AUGUST 1485

RIIIs army = 10000 Englishmen. Archers at front, commanded by Norfolk,

RIII commanding troops at rear, Northumberland with reserve @rear.
HTs army = less that 5000, mixed nationalities. Vanguard, commanded
by JT, strengthened by PdeC and French mercenaries. Gilbert Talbot
commanded right wing, Savage commanded left wing. WS on Tudors left
flank w/3000 men, TS on Tudors right flank.
Battle was inconclusive, then RIII went for HT. Led a charge, Tudors
standard bearer killed. PdeCs mercenaries execute a complex Swiss pike
manoeuvre, never before seen in England, to protect HT from RIIIs charge.
WS intervened with his retinue to help HT. RIII killed, army retreated. Slung
naked across a horse, taken to Leicester Abbey, on public display for 2
days, buried unceremoniously (in Tescos car park). TS crowns HT HVII,
King of England.

WHY DID HENRY TUDOR WIN AT BOSWORTH?

LONG TERM - HT had a claim to the throne, RIII had a reputation as a

usurper and murderer, relied on gentry rather than nobility for advice
which caused resentment, had no heir (weak throne), alienated southern
nobility because of NP, had an expensive fo po which distracted him from
HT, didnt have the support of his subjects. HT had a small support base in
Brittany.
MID TERM Charles VIII supplied him with 1800 mercenaries, PdeC, ships
and money. Henrys Welsh supporters allowed him to land there. RapT
declared for Henry at Newhaven, added 2000 men. WS allowed HT into
England, calling off bailiffs in Shrewsbury. His stepson added 800 men.
Gilbert Talbot added 500 men. TS sent 4 knights to reinforce Henrys
troops. Henry approached quickly RIII didnt have enough time to muster
troops.
SHORT TERM PdeC executed complex pike manoeuvre which protected
HT. WS intervened to help HT at last minute. TS + Northumberland didnt
help RIII. RIII made a reckless charge without the support of the vanguard.
Duke of Norfolk, leader of RIIIs army, was killed in battle.

HISTORICAL INTERPRETATIONS

Pollard RIII failure to rally support is key

Carpenter RIIIs alienation of southern nobility is key
Lander lost it on the battlefield This day I will die a king or win

HENRY VIIS INITIAL ACTIONS 1485-7

SECURING CLAIM Married EofY Jan 1486. Delayed marriage to EofY until after
coronation crowned king in his own right, not through marriage. Delayed EofYs
coronation until 1487. Arthur born 8 months after wedding. Spectacular
coronation, better than RIIIs. JDLP (Earl of Lincoln and RIIIs heir) joined royal
council, EDLP came to court. Imprisoned Earl of Warwick in the Tower. Called first
Parliament declared king by conquest and hereditary title. Parlaiment reenacted an act from 1397 which declared the Beaufort line legitimate. This was
necessary-in 1407 an act had been passes debarring the Beaufort claim.
Repealed TR which had made Ed IVs children illegitimate made EofY
legitimate. 1486 - Passed Act of Resumption, allowed him to take Warwicks,
Gloucesters and Clarences lands, and restored Henry VIs lands to him. Made
his lands around 5x larger than under Henry VI.
REWARDING SUPPORTERS JT made Duke of Bedford, Earl of Pembrokeshire,
Chief Justice of Wales, Constable of all the royal castles in the Welsh marches,
Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. 55, unmarried, no children stops new magnate
family being created. TS made Earl of Derby, WS made Lord Chamberlain. Sir
Thomas Lovell became Chancellor of the Exchequer, Giles Daubeney knighted
and became Lieutenant of Calais, Sir Reginald Bray became Chancellor of the
Duchy of Lancaster, put in charge of administering HVIIs finances and property.

John Morton, Bishop of Ely, became Chancellor and Archbishop of Canterbury.

Appointed his trusted supporters to key positions.
PUNISHING OPPONENTS declared that his reign began on 21 st August, allowed
him to attain those who fought for RIII at Bosworth as they were traitors.
Imprisoned Earl of Surrey and Earl of Northumberland. Released Northumberland
1485, governed for HVII in the North. Surrey released 1489. Lenient towards
Yorkists - Earl of Westmorland had a bond, son kept at Henrys court, kept title
and lands. Earl of Wiltshire forgiven and kept title, Earl of Shrewsbury kept title.
BOOSTING PUBLIC PROFILE issued a proclamation that RIII was dead and HVII
was king. Went on a royal progress 1486. Created Tudor rose by combining
Yorkist and Lancastrian roses. Adopted Welsh dragon as a supporter of royal coat
of arms to claim descent from ancient Welsh king Cadwaladr. Used portcullis
(Beaufort symbol) to show that he was a direct descendant of John of Gaunt.
LAW AND ORDER Parliament approved a new oath of loyalty to be sworn by
royal household, HoL, HoC. Created the Yeomen of the Guard as a personal
protection squad.

THE REIGN OF HENRY VII 1485-1509: POLITICAL POWER AND CONTROL

PRETENDERS, CLAIMANTS AND REBELLIONS
LOVELL REBELLION, EASTER 1486

Francis Lovell, Viscount Lovell and Sir Humphrey and Thomas Stafford.
Loyal supporters of RIII, had fled into sanctuary. Broke sanctuary 1486 to
lead insurrections using Earl of Warwicks name as a rallying cry (Warwick
was in Tower). Yorkist nobles didnt join revolt after lenient treatment after
Bosworth. HVII arrested the Staffords who had fled back into sanctuary
and changed the law so that sanctuary didnt apply in treason cases.
Humphrey Stafford executed, Thomas pardoned, Lovell fled to Flanders.
Yorkist rebels learned that they needed a Yorkist figurehead to stand
against Henry.

SIMNEL CHALLENGE, 1486-7

Lambert Simnel, 10 year old son of a carpenter from Oxford. Trained to

pretend to be the Earl of Warwick by Richard Simons. Key Yorkist JDLP,
Earl of Lincoln (probably aimed to take throne for himself). JDLP went to
Margaret of Burgundy spring 1487, met up with Lovell there, she
sponsored them with financial aid and 2000 German mercenaries led by
Martin Schwarz. 5th May Lincoln, Lovell and Yorkist army arrive in Dublin.
Anglo-Irish nobles recognise Simnel as King of England. Crowned Edward
VI in Christchurch Cathedral, Dublin on 24 th May.
HVIIS RESPONSE Issued a summons to attend Royal Counsel Feb 1487.
Nov 1486 - Paraded Warwick through London to undermine validity of
claim (largely ignored). Took Elizabeth Woodvilles estates and sent her to
a nunnery.
SPENT 1487 PREPARING DEFENCES repaired beacons on East Coast,
commissioned a fleet at Harwich, used his intelligence network to make
sure he knew when invasion landed, positioned himself at centre of
country in Kenilworth to be ready to march in any direction
REACTED QUICKLY AFTER INVASION mobilised nobles, ordered them to
meet him with their retinues at Nottingham and Coventry (woo!). Planned
battle strategy in advance, relying on experience of Earl of Ox and JT.
Relied on support of key nobles eg. Shrewsbury, Devon, Hastings and
Viscount Lisle. Recruited heavily and successfully in the Midlands, had a
large force by Nottingham inc. tough billmen and skilled archers.
HENRYS ARMY WAS STRONGER rebel army of 8000, royal army of
15000. English longbowmen more powerful than rebel
German crossbowmen could reload and fire more
rapidly. Rebel Irishmen were poorly protected and
suffered badly in longbow volleys. JDLP abandoned his
advantage at the top of hill, after Irish morale collapsed
Earl of Ox defeated his charge down the hill. Rebels lost
their leaders- Lincoln and Kildares brother both killed in
battle.

I hate my job
Guy holding
Simnel up

ENSURED THAT REBELS COULD NOT REGROUP AFTER BATTLE ordered

German mercenaries out of country, hung remaining Irishmen. Avoided
alienating the nobility, didnt execute landed rebels. Imposed fines and
good behaviour bonds. Spent the first part of 1487 putting down
continuing unrest in Yorkshire and Northumberland. Passed Acts of
Attainder against 28 rebels, only confiscated land from JDLP who died in
battle. Simnel captured and put to work as a turnspit in the Kings
kitchens. EofY crowned to unite people.
SIGNIFICANCE OF SIMNEL REBELLION uncovered Yorkist conspiracy at
heart or government (JDLP was in the Counsel). It became clear that some
regions would support any challenge to HVII and foreign attack was likely,
esp. With Burgundys assistance. Allowed HVII to assess the quality of
ministers and servants and understand the importance of cultivating a
network of loyal knights in counties. Cost of campaign + lack of money =
improved crown finances through better financial management under Sir
Reginald Bray. Showed inadequate lawmaking and enforcement Star
Chamber used to strengthen this. HVII started to use bonds to squeeze
rebellious nobles.

WARBECK CHALLENGE 1491-99

Perkin Warbeck, a model and cloth merchant from Flanders. Pretended to

be Richard of York, Edward IVs youngest son.
1491 - Yorkist rebel John Taylor + ex mayor of Cork confirmed his identity
as Richard. Crisis point for HVII coincided with Breton crisis and threat
from Auld Alliance.
1492 - HVII sent army to Ireland and Warbeck fled to France after
receiving little Irish support. Charles VIII received him as a prince (at war
with England over Brittany). After Treaty of Etaples 1492, fled to Burgundy.
MoB trained him as a Yorkist prince.
1493 - HVII placed a trade embargo on the English woollen cloth trade with
Burgundy.
1494 - HRE Maximilian felt betrayed by TofE, recognised Warbeck.
Insufficient military resources to back him in the field. Charles VIII waged
war in Italy and withdrew support to secure Frances northern borders.
1495 attempted to invade England, sailed from the Netherlands and
landed at Deal in Kent. Sir Robert Clifford told HVII beforehand and grassed
on William Stanley (said he wouldnt fight against Warbeck because there
was no proof he wasnt Richard) executed for treason. HVIIs intelligence
network kept him informed of those implicated at home and abroad.
Passed acts of attainder in Parliament. Warbecks small force easily
crushed by local authorities. PW didnt even disembark. Sailed to Ireland,
failed to land in Waterford (lack of support), sailed to Scotland. James IV
welcomed him, provided shelter, pension and royal wife (Lady Catherine
Gordon, his cousin). Cast doubt on Arthur and CofAs betrothal.
1496 invaded England with Scots army, failed to rally support. James IV
more friendly with England, negotiating Treaty of Ayton 1497, 7 year truce,
betrothal to Princess Margaret. PW couldnt return to Scotland.

1497- returned to Ireland, Kildare was loyal to HVII. Went to Cornwall,

several thousand Cornishmen joined his army disorganised, poorly led,
under-equipped, showed Warbecks inequalities
as a military leader. Giles Daubeney crushed it
at Exeter. Fled into sanctuary at Beaulieu Abbey
near Southampton, gave up and confessed.
Lived a court
1498 - tried to escape, moved to Tower
1499 - plot to escape with Warwick, burn down
the Tower and flee to Flanders. Both executed.

Historical interpretations

Carpenter Simnel HVII was well supported, Simnel wasnt. Warbeck

Members of his own household involved, must have alienated ruling
classes to make the plot against him.
Lander Simnel very little support, no Yorkist faction in England.
Warbeck recognition by foreign powers dictated HVIIs fo po, indirectly
produced the most dangerous revolt of the reign (Cornish)

TAX REBELLIONS

King expected to live of his own through crown lands, feudal dues,
customs duties etc.
Ordinary taxation laity pays a fifteenth (1/15th of the value of their
property, based on 1334 valuations). Clergy pays a tenth (1/10 th of the
value of their property, based on 1334 valuations).
Extraordinary taxation for war, in an emergency, had to be approved by
Parliament. People near borders expected to pay for fortifications and
defending forces.
Subsidy based on frequent reassessments of a persons property, paid at
fixed rate, efficient + new = unpopular.

CORNISH REBELLION 1497

HVII asked Parliament for money to resist Warbeck Scots invasion.

Granted one subsidy of two fifteenths and one tenth = 120000. Far more
than any other year and shortly after a collection of a forced loan. The
Cornish were annoyed about it. Felt the tax affected them unfairly (miles
away from the Scottish border, thought locals should pay, collection was
disorganised and corrupt in some parts of Cornwall, no exemption for
poorer people in Cornwall although there was in some parts of England, tin
miners badly hit, HVII had alienated Cornish about regulation of privileges
of Cornish tin mines). Warbeck took advantage and joined rebels. Led by
Thomas Flanack and Michael Joseph. Joined by local gentry and clergymen,
marched peacefully towards London. 16th June reached Blackheath near
London with over 15000 men. Suppressed, many rebels killed, leaders
captured and executed. Some historians suggest widespread resentment
against the taxes nothing seemed to stand in its way. People joined or

sympathised. Local nobles stood aside should have acted immediately to

establish law and order for king.
YORKSHIRE REBELLION 1489

HVII needed money to send troops to Brittany (under threat from France).
Parliament granted Henry a subsidy (new). Northumberland oversaw
collection in the North. Protest in Northumberland
and Yorkshire because France is bloody miles away.
Gathered near Thirsk, met by Northumberland who
was killed by rebels. Had represented royal
authority so shit went down. Rebels asked for a
pardon, denied. HVII sent a large army to the North
led by the Earl of Surrey. John Chambre (their
leader) hanged for treason. Rebels found a new
leader, Sir John Egremont (illegitimate member of
Percy family and Yorkist sympathiser) who promptly pissed off to
Burgundy. HVII didnt try to raise tax from Northumberland and Yorkshire
again.

HENRY VII AND THE COUNTRIES OF EUROPE

EUROPE IN 1485

BRITTANY independent duchy in the NW of France, ruled by Francis II.

HVII had spent most of his exile there, so owed the Duke a debt of
gratitude.
FRANCE ruled by Charles VIII until 1496, then Louis XII. Had increased
quickly in size and power over 15th century. Strong - state had
considerable powers in the collection of taxes, largest population in Europe
(15m ish). Wanted to secure Brittany and claim Milan and Naples.
SPAIN ruled by Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile after their
1479 marriage unites Spain. Strong army, Wanted to drive Muslims out of
Granada in southern Spain, secure northern borders by retaking Cerdagne
and Roussillon and capturing Navarre from France. F had inherited claim to
Naples.
ITALY wealthy and competing states eg. Milan, Venice, Florence, Naples
and the Papal states. Crucial political target of 15 th century weak and
divided, geographically and commercially at the crossroads of Europe,
hugely wealthy and in middle of Renaissance (cultural revolution). France
and Hapsburgs had dynastic claims in Italy
HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE Stretched over central Europe. 20m inhabitants
and lots of states. Emperor = Frederick III 1448-93, Maximilian 1493-1519.
Large and strong, claims and ambitions in Italy, acquired Burgundy when
Max married Mary of Burgundy in 1477.
BURGUNDY collection of towns and states, newly created by dynastic
matchmaking, diplomacy and war over 3 generations. Ruled by Philip with
Max (his father) as regent until 1494. Principal trade and cloth finishing

centre for England. Ed IV/RIIIs sister, Margaret of Burgundy, had it in for

HVII.
SCOTLAND population of 400000 ish, income of 8000 (lol). King James
III reliant on cooperation of nobility and vulnerable to violent usurpations.
Vast countryside impossible to conquer, difficult to invade. Traditionally
allied w/France, could launch a 2 pronged invasion on England. Threat of
border raids = 2 financially draining permanent garrisons at Berwick and
Carlisle.
IRELAND English rule limited to the Pale, ideal springboard for invasion
attempts, deep Yorkist sympathies, ruled by independent chiefs, most
important Fitzgerald of Kildare.
ENGLAND little involvement in Europe since the Hundred Years War
(1337-1453). Limited military forces, vulnerable to attack, island. Calais
controlled by England highly valued English foothold. Netherlands, esp.
Antwerp, essential centre of cloth industry and important for England that
they remain accessible. Yorkist pretenders likely to generate foreignbacked invasion attempts.

HVIIS FO PO AIMS

Prevent other countries backing challenges to his dynasty

Achieve international recognition for his dynasty through diplomacy and
marriage
Avoid the creation of European alliances which
might threaten Englands security
Secure alliances to protect England and prevent
isolation
Promote economic stability and prosperity via trade
Avoid entanglement in foreign wars which he could not afford to pay for

3 key phases:

1485-1492: conflict with France over Brittany issue ending in TofE

1493-1502: Henry negotiates peace with Burgundy and Scotland, secures
A+CofA betrothal
1502-1509: death of Arthur, Castilian succession crisis, League of
Cambrai.

TREATIES

1489 Medina Del Campo. England and Spain. A+CofA betrothed, Spain
wont harbour rebels, will support each other in war against France (HVII
will help Max conquer Cerdagne and Rousillon, Max will help Henry
conquer Normandy and Aquitaine which would totally never happen)
1489 Dordrecht. HRE and England. Provide troops to help Brittany.
1492 Etaples. France and England. France can keep Brittany, wont aid
English rebels, will pay the arrears of the pension decided by Ed IV in the
1471 Treaty of Picquingy, will pay 745000 gold crowns to cover costs of
invasion (5% of Englands annual income)

1496 Magnus Intercursus. Burgundy and England. Lifted trading ban,

improved commercial relations, English merchants allowed to sell goods
wholesale (without tolls or customs duties) anywhere in the Duke of
Burgundys lands, bar Flanders.
1497 Treaty of Ayton. Scotland and England. HVIIs daughter Margaret
marries James IV, James doesnt attack England)
1505 Treaty of Blois. France and Spain. Ferdinand marries Louis niece.
Jan 1506 Treaty of Windsor. Burgundy and England. EDLP handed over,
Henry to marry Margaret of Savoy (Phillips sister), Henry recognised Philip
and Joana as rulers of Castile. Malus Intercursus (new trading agreement,
favourable to England). Philip would hand over EDLP as long as he was not
killed.

INVASIONS AND CRISES

Brittany Crisis 1487-92

Castilian Succession Crisis 1504-06
League of Cambrai 1508
French invasion of Brittany 1487
English invasion of France 1492

BRETON CRISIS 1487-92

1483 Charles VIII ascends French throne. Minor, so sister, Anne of

Beaujeu acts as Regent.
1487 Francis II ill, Anne wants to marry Charles to his heir Anne (12) to
take over Brittany. Spain and Burgundy alarmed.
May 1487 French sent 1500 troops to Brittany, Maximilian
sent 1500, Spain sent 1000, French nobleman Alain dAlbret
(also wanted to marry Anne) sent 4000. HVII sent unofficial
force of a few hundred men under Lord Scales. Offered to
mediate between Francis and the French. Francis
refused. HVII renewed his 1485 truce with France.
1488 France defeats Brittany at Battle of St Aubin du
Brittany crisis
Corbier. Francis forced to sign Treaty of Sable (Anne would not marry
without French permission.) Sept Francis died, France claimed wardship
over Anne, Spain and HRE engaged elsewhere. HVII signed Treaty of
Dordrecht with HRE (agreed to send 3000 troops to relieve a Flemish
garrison at Dixmunde which was under siege, HRE promised to send
troops to Brittany).
1489 - HVII signs MDC with Spain (Spain agree to send troops to help
Brittany) Signed Treaty of Redon with Brittany (agreed to pay for 6000
English soldiers to fight French) HVII dispatched troops, neither Spain nor
HRE keep promises.
1491 Anne marries Max by proxy. French invade Brittany, Brittany accept
defeat, Anne marries Charles VIII in December. Awkward HVII had
promised to go to war to defend Breton independence!

Oct 1492 HVII send 26000 soldiers to besiege Boulogne showed

strength of English army. Late in the campaigning season, showed the
French that he was open to negotiation. Charles VIII also willing to
negotiate (preparing for was in Italy). 9 days later, France and England
sign Treaty of Etaples

OTHER FO PO ISSUES 1485-1492

BURGUNDY Max ruled as regent for Philip until 1494 (elected HRE).
Natural ally for HVII French wanted to annex French part of Burgundy,
long standing trade links with England. 1487 Max sends troops to assist
Bretons against French but soon pulled out. 1489 TofD, HVII keeps his
word, Max doesnt (made separate peace with France summer 1489).
Allies couldnt be relied on. Relationship made worse by MofB (1487
provided military and foreign backing for Simnel invasion, 1492
welcomed PW at court)
SPAIN Natural ally for England rivalry with France over
Rousillon/Cerdagne. 1488 HVII started negotiations for A+CofA marriage
alliance. Negotiations continued over size of dowry etc, agreement
reached in MDC 1489.
SCOTLAND 1488 James III killed by rebel Scots, Scotland ruled by James
IV (minor). 1492 pro-English Earl of Angus became Regent. England
maintained relatively friendly relations. 1493- 9 year truce signed.
SUCCESSES/FAILURES
Successes

Treaty of Etaples 1492 money + security

French invasion Oct 1492 demonstrates strength of English army, avoids
costly war, makes up for humiliation of Brittany takeover.
MDC 1489 powerful alliance
1493 9 year truce with Scotland
1497 gained Maxs help with Brittany
1486 3 year truce with Scotland
1486 commercial treaty with Burgundy

Failures

Let down by allies Max broke terms of TofD, Spain broke

Anne of Brittany
terms of MDC
Brittany taken over by France
Attempt to intervene in 1487 by sending over Lord Scales did nothing.
HVII had to help Spain conquer Cerdagne and Rousillon under MDC. France
unlikely to give up Normandy and Aquitaine.

FO PO 1492-1502
Successes

1496 Commercial treaty with France

Relations with Burgundy improve after PWs failed Deal invasion 1495
1496 Magnus Intercursus, improved commercial relations with Burgundy
1496 further agreement on A+CofA marriage. Ferdinand arranged for
England to join Holy League (alliance of Pope, Spain, HRE, Venice and
Milan against France). HVII joined on the condition that England didnt
have to go to war with France. Marriage treaty signed 1499. 1501,
marriage took place.
1501 Philip married Joana of Castile, cemented Spain/England/Burgundy
relationship. 5 weeks after Arthurs death it was agreed that CofA would
marry Prince Henry, ratified by formal treaty Sept 1502.
1497 Truce of Ayton with Scotland.
1494 HRE gave PW no military support

Failures

1493 MofB continued to support PW

1493 Ban on trade with Burgundy, damaged cloth trade
1494 Max became HRE, Philip took over Burgundy. Continued to harbour
Yorkists.
1496 Trade disputed with Burgundy Philip tried to impose new duties
and confine English merchants to trading in Flanders only
1502 Arthur died 5 months after wedding
1495 James IV came of age, welcomed PW + helped him invade England.
2 years of uncertainty before TofA
1497 James IV would not abandon alliance with France under TofA
1494 Max recognised Warbecks claim

FO PO 1503-9
CASTILIAN SUCCESSION CRISIS

1504 Isabella dies. Stated that Joana would inherit

Castile (married to Philip, duke of Burgundy and heir
to HRE) Ferdinand=now only king of Aragon. Only
way for Spain to remain united= Ferdinand to rule as
regent for Joana. Ferdinand unpopular with Castilian
nobility, regency resisted. Ferdinand and Philip now
both claimed Castile. F wanted to avoid Castile
Pictorial representation of MofBs
becoming part of Hapsburg Empire, Philip wanted
attitude to PW
to rule on behalf of Joana. HVII had to choose
between alliance with Philip and Ferdinand.
H/CofA marriage less useful if F only ruled Aragon but essential for HVII to
maintain trade links with Burgundy. Philip younger/healthier than F,
possibility of a marriage between Prince Henry and Phils daughter
Eleanor. Max sheltering EDLP if HVII made alliance with Phil he might
give him up.
HVII realised it was safer to support Philip, tried to remove himself from
Spanish alliance and marriage alliance. 1505 HVII loaned Philip money to

invade Castile to try to persuade him to surrender EDLP+ to secure better

trading rights with Antwerp. Led to poorer relations with F.HVII considered
marriage to Margaret of Savoy (Phils sister) which antagonised Ferdinand
(EofY had died 1503). F threated H/CofA marriage alliance and kept dowry.
F realised he was losing Hapsburg and English alliance, became proFrench. 1505-signed Treaty of Blois with Louis XII and married Germaine de
Foix, Louis niece.
Philip, Joana, Ferdinand move to secure claim to Castile. P+J set off for
Castile, caught in a storm Jan 1506 + forced to shelter in England. HVII put
them up and arranged secret Treaty of Windsor. P+J arrive in Castile,
welcomed, F retreats
Sept 1506- Phil dies, Joana goes mad. F resumes control of Castile, Max
assumes regency of Burgundy for his grandson Charles. HVII isolated in
Europe. F no longer needed English alliance after TofB, annoyed about Hs
abandonment. HVII still needed marriage alliances for him and his son.
Lost Malus Intercursus but kept good relations w/Max (joined by fear of
France.) Discussed possibility of marriage between Princess Mary and
Charles. MofS remained a stout widow. H feared that France would try to
take Burgundy, sought good relations with F. Sought marriage to Joana to
show good Anglo/Spanish relations and maintain link of England, Castile
and Burgundy against France. F refused and stopped sending Cs dowry.
HVII abandoned S,B,E alliance and focused on France. Suggested marriage
alliance between Prince Henry and Margaret of Angouleme, Louis XIIs
niece. 1508- seemed to be paying off, alliance between Spain and HRE
proposed to fight a crusade against the Turks (fight France). Louis XII
loses his nerve, didnt want to jeopardise position in Italy. Bribed Spain to
join the League of Cambrai against Venice (Spain, France, HRE, Burgundy,
Pope). England isolated in Europe, no longer needed as an ally or to
remain neutral. No one attacking him though, on the positive side.

Successes
Avoids costly European war
No invasion
Gains control of EDLP 1506
Maintains reasonable relations with Burgundy
Still has an insurance bride for Prince Henry
Better relationship with France by 1508
Failures

England and Spains fraught

relationship
Cambrai

England isolated in Europe due to League of

Poor relationship with Spain Spanish alliance smashed due to alliance
with Phil
F allied with France under TofB didnt need England
Had to abandon Malus Intercursus
Didnt achieve marriage alliance for himself or a more profitable one for
Prince Henry

Lost alliance with Phil when he died + Ferdinand took Castile

Historical interpretations

Polydore Vergil more inclined to peace than to war

Carpenter used diplomacy to discourage foreign intervention in
challenges to his throne
Lander sacrificed English commercial interest to dynastic fears and
dynastic safety.

ESTABLISHING ROYAL AUTHORITY

Did HVII have anything to fear from the nobility?

Had to contend with overmighty subjects JDLP Earl of Lincoln

supported Simnel, led his vanguard at Stoke. WS supported Warbeck.
Thomas Howard, Earl of Surreys family was Ricardian. Northumberland
had supported RIII.
Nobles were keen for stability (little support for PW/LS)
HVII didnt give out land to keep the nobility happy gave out patronage
as a reward for good and loyal behaviour rather than in the hope of it.
Didnt give much land and usually from attainted lands, not his own.
Sort of showed loyalty to his loyal supporters gave patronage to those
who supported him at and before Bosworth and those who behaved well.
Fined his close friend Earl of Ox 15000 marks for having an unlicensed
retinue
HVII became more suspicious of the nobility as time went on AofA passed
= 24 in 1495, 51 from 1504-9. Acts against retaining 1487 and 1504.
Included some nobles in decision making Kings Council (smaller group of
nobles, sometimes including bishops, met regularly to advise the king),
Great Council, Earl of Surrey is Treasurer.
Quick to punish nobles who showed disloyalty WS executed, Thomas
Grey held in 11000 worth of bonds
Relied more on the gentry than the nobility for the preservation of law and
order

Retaining

Livery = giving a uniform or badge to a follower

Maintenance = protection of retainers interests
Retaining = great lords recruited those of a lower social status to advance
their position within the land (used arms when necessary). Wore the
nobles livery. Allowed nobles to assert
authority in their locality = guarantee social
stability in the kingdom. Also allowed the king
to gather a large number of trained men at
short notice (no standing army)
One or several noblemen could become more
powerful than the king.

1485 all member of HoC+L have to swear an oath to obey retaining laws
1486 Ed IV passed law which mostly outlawed retaining, but lawful
retaining is allowed. Nobles carry on retaining.
1487 HVII clarified what was meant by lawful retaining, law contained
a rider that retaining was not to be misused eg. To raid farms and steal
livestock.
1504 HVII brought in a licensing system lord could employ retainers for
the kings system alone. Wanted to restrict retaining rather than outlaw it
Northumberlands army had saved Henrys ass in Yorkshire 1486 + HVII
needed retainers because there was no standing army.
Number of retainers fell as reign progressed. Magnates eg
Northumberland, Buckingham, got around this by employing more men to
work on their lands (left no evidence).
Those who caught were fined eg 1506, Lord Burgavenny fined 70,550 for
having too many retainers (5 each). This showed the nobility the fine
they could pay and secured a noble implicated in the Cornish rebellion.
Treated all nobles the same eg fined his friend Earl of Ox 15000 marks for
unlicensed retaining

Controlling the nobility

INDUCEMENTS

PATRONAGE giving of positions, titles, land etc. HVII made it clear that
patronage came as a result of, not in the hope of, good behaviour and
loyal service. Applied to nobility and gentry. Rewarded those who helped
him in exile and at Bosworth: Earl of Ox became major landowner in East
Anglia, JT made Duke of Bedford, restored to his Welsh estates, rewarded
with extra land. Rewarded others for good service: GD promoted to
peerage after leading royal forces against Cornish rebels 1497.
ORDER OF THE GARTER Significant honour reserved for the kings closest
servants. Created 37 eg Earl of Ox, GD, Reginald Bray. Gave the recipient
prestige but no power or land = perfect for an avaricious miser!!
KINGS COUNCIL sign of trust for loyal service eg. John Morton was
Chancellor for 5 years, Richard Fox was Keeper of the Privy Seal from
1487-1516, gave positions for good behaviour eg. RB, GD, Thomas Lovell,
Richard Guildford (involved in Buckingham rebellion), John Riselly (joined
HVII in exile)

SANCTIONS

ACTS OF ATTAINDER - led to a family losing right to inherit/possess land =

economic and social ruin for any family. Reversible, could be used as a
reward for good behaviour. Passed 138, reversed 46. 9 passed against
nobles, 5 reversed, reversals all had special features attached + usually
cost money eg. Thomas Tyrell paid 1738 for reversal of his fathers
attainders. Passed more as reign progressed eg. 1485/6 - 28, 1504/9 51
(after deaths of Arthur, EofY and Edmund). Ensured that power of crown

was elevated over power of nobility, esp. By absorbing more land into the
crown estates and giving out titles sparingly.
BONDS AND RECOGNISANCES - Bond a lump sum of money. The person
involved recognised himself as owing the lump sum stated, which was not
payable if the condition (usually good behaviour)
was observed. If the condition was not observed
the sum stated was paid. Recognisance When a
person formally acknowledged a debt of
obligation (often enforced by a bond). Promises
usually involved good behaviour eg. Thomas Grey,
Marquis of Dorset held in recognisance for 1000
for defecting from HVIIs camp in France, and his
friends had 10000 of recognisances on his
behalf. Agreements cancelled after he fought for HVII in the Cornish
rebellion. 36/62 nobles held in recognisances during reign.
FEUDAL DUES one off taxes from the nobility payable on a special
occasion. Wardship: the king took control/profits of the estates of the
minor until they came of age. Fines if broken eg. 1498 Edward, Duke of
Buckingham, fined 7000ish for entering his inheritance without licence
when he was under 21. Marriage: king profited from arrangements of
marriages of heirs and heiresses eg. Katherine, Dowager Duchess of
Buckingham, fined 7000ish in 1496 for marrying without Hs licence.
HVIIs income from wardship and marriage increased from 350 in 1487 to
6000 in 1507. Relief: king took money when land was inherited.
Escheaps: payment made when land reverted to the crown.
RETAINING (see above)

Also controlled the nobility through:

GREAT COUNCIL meetings of all noblemen called together by the king to

discuss high matters of state, usually in moments of emergency when
calling Parliament would take too long. Gained agreement and support of
nobles for any potentially controversial policy. Nobles are all involved
could not later criticise policy. Called in 1485 to announce H+EofYs
marriage, 1487 in response to LS, 1488 to organise subsidy for Brittany
campaign, 1491 to authorise war against France, 1496 to grant a loan of
120000 for war with Scotland.
CROWN LANDS Crown lands 5x larger under HVII than HVI. Warwick,
Clarence and Gloucesters lands all absorbed into crown lands. 1486 Act of
Resumption passed by Parliament recovered all crown lands granted
away since 1455 (pre Wars of Roses). HVII gave subjects attainted lands
rather than crown lands. More land = more money = more authority.

HISTORICAL INTERPRETATIONS

MATTHEW CHRISTMAS he was as dependent on the nobility as his

predecessors and successors

J R LANDER Henrys tyranny came out most strongly in the matter of

attainders and his treatment of the nobility

Not quite.

GOVERNMENT AND THE CHURCH

CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
Kings Council
Clerics half of total membership. John Morton (Chancellor), Richard Fox
(Principal Secretary)
Nobles plenty of them! Capacity for promotion Earl of Ox became Great
Chamberlain and Lord Admiral. HVII only really close to JT (Duke of
Bedford), Earl of Ox, Earl of Derby (TS)
Lawyers Sir Reginald Bray, Edmund Dudley, Sir Edward Poynings.
Council Learned In The Law
Small and very professional. Responsible for keeping up to date with
collections of money owed to the king through wardship etc. (hated). Sir
Richard Empson was president and Edmund Dudley was also in charge
(executed 1509)
Court of Star Chamber
Set up Star Chamber Court in 1487 to deal with overmighty subjects, it
met rarely and withered away.
Parliament

To legislate and grant tax. Called 7, first 5 in the first decade of reign
(more secure as time went on)

REGIONAL GOVERNMENT
The Council of the North
Run by Earl of Northumberland 1486-9, Earl of Surrey from 1489.
Controlled the North. HVII appointed key members and kings council kept
an eye on them.
Wales
Traditionally ruled by kings eldest son. HVII appointed JT to run Wales.
Made up of Principality (ruled by Kings eldest son, separate from England,
no MPs) and Marcher Lordships (own systems of government, different
from England and each other). Both owed allegiance to the king and he
had ultimate control, but absence of continuous effective rule from London
led to frequent breakouts of disorder. 1493 HVII revived council
established by Ed IV, made Arthur (7) Prince of Wales (nominal head).
Appointed Welshmen to key positions eg. RapT in charge of SW Wales,
William ap Gruffudd in charge of N Wales. By 1495 due to inheritance,

purchase, death and forfeiture, HVII controlled a larger proportion of Wales

than ever before.
Ireland
England only really controlled the Pale.
Poynings Law = Irish parliaments could only be
called and pass laws with prior approval of king,
any law passed in England applied to Ireland.
1494 HVII made Prince Henry Lord Lieutenant
and Sir Edward Poynings deputy. Didnt really
The Council of the North
work, HVII reverted back to ruling through Irish chieftains.
LOCAL GOVERNMENT
1 per county. King communicated with them via writs. Work was checked
by judges and commissioners at regular intervals.
Sheriffs
Appointed annually from local landowners. Kept the kings peace arrest,
detention, prosecution of criminals. Organised and supervised elections to
Parliament. MPs could only take their seats if they had sheriffs writ to
confirm election. Responsible for supervising musters. Gradually being
replaced by JPs and chief local government officers.
Justices of the Peace (JPs)
Appointed annually from local landowners (about 18 pa). Defended public
order, implemented statutes eg. Regulation of wages, guilds. Dispensed
justice to criminals brought in by sheriffs. Attended Quarter Sessions every
3 months to try more serious criminals, except treason (passed over to
Council). Passed more difficult cases to Assize courts (held twice a year,
professional judges). UNPAID (perfect for a rapacious miser!).
HVII relied on JPs weakened power of magnates. Had power to arrest
hunters/poachers, grant bail, act without jury except in capital offences,
reward informers, replace members of jury. Relied on lesser officials to
bring offenders to them. Every hundred (a subdivision of a county) had a
High Constable and every parish had a Petty Constable. Court of Kings
Bench could override decisions made at QS.
English Court
HVII developed existing institutions and relationships. From 1471, the crown
regarded the nobles less as independent local power-brokers, more as local
agents with specific responsibility to transmit royal authority. HVII increasingly
managed his own finances to enhance royal authority. Greater emphasis on the
dignity of the monarch with the court being reformed to project royal majesty in
the fashion of continental Renaissance courts. Wealth = power. Kings court was
magnificent and generous, copied Burgundy and Frances courts. HVII cultivated

his personal image to increase authority eg through propaganda. Widespread

illiteracy- built grand palaces, presentation of elaborate ceremonies, public
spectacles eg. Rich Mount, Kings College Chapel. Court grew in size and
importance as power of magnates decreased and bureaucracy increased. Least
political parts = service departments. Politically important Privy Chamber set
up by HVII in 1490s to provide a place for his personal servants, and the
Chamber, overseen by the Chamberlain centre of communication and
patronage. The Counsel =nerve centre of Hs govt. Ruled
through his counsel by issuing decrees and proclamations.
Counsel advised the king and acted as a court of law.
Flexible body with few procedures/formal rules. 227 men
attended Counsel during the reign, HVII trusted 6 or 7.
Named the others as counsellors to give status and sent
them to foreign embassies or outlying parts of the region.
Acted as the link between the king and central
government, and his subjects and local government.
Administraton of justice
HVII respected judicial independence, kept the same judges as under RIII eg. Sir
William Huse was still Chief Justice of the Kings Bench. Some historians criticise
him for corrupting administration of justice to secure his monarchy, but did try to
improve justice eg. Passed acts to strengthen law against perjury/riotous
assembly, statute in 1496 allowed poor men to sue in forma pauperis (didnt
have to pay).
Management of the church
Kept tight control over Church appointments, selected loyal, well-educated
churchmen for important state and episcopal posts eg John Morton was
Chancellor and Archbishop of Canterbury. Strength through admin archbishops
and bishops responsible for running churches in their diocese. Punished
disloyalty and rewarded loyal service eg. Thomas Langton, Bishop of Salisbury
under RIII, excluded from Parliament and Convocation and stripped of his livings,
made Bishop of Winchester by 1493 for loyal service.
Relations with the papacy
No dispute between HVII and the 3 popes during his reign. Received papal
support and gave Pope support to resist French and Spanish aggression in Italy.
After Bosworth, H declared his obedience to Pope Innocent VIII who provided
dispensation for King to marry EofY and legitimised their children. Pope didnt
object to the 1486 changing of sanctuary laws to not apply in treason cases. HVII
provided 4000 in 1501 towards Alexander VIs crusading levy.

HENRY VIIS FINANCES

SOURCES (people are OK with) crown lands, loans, treaties eg.pensions,

dowries, fines, customs duties.
(people are not OK with) benevolences, licences eg. Retaining, tax
(granted by parliament), forced loans, bonds and recognisances.
EXPECTATION OF KING some government expenditure eg. Law and order,
defence, live of his own (support himself), land used as a reward,
minimal taxation in emergencies, expectation of wealth and opulence, use
money for patronage.
EXPENDITURE patronage (expectation of largesse), defence eg ships,
soldiers, Scottish/French border fortification, maintaining law and order,
building palaces and churches, entertainment, lifestyle, household,
crushing rebellion.

Ordinary Revenue

Crown lands - most important source of income. HVII had more land than
any other monarch due to attainder and resumption. Did not give away
much land. Inherited land which belonged to York, Lancaster, lands owned
by JT upon his death. Fluctuated land under wardship inherited when
heir turned 21, land seized by attainder returned upon payment. Result:
under RB, annual income increased from 12000 in 1486 to 42000 in
1508. Lands 5 times larger in 1509 than 1450s.
Customs duties duties levied on cloth, wool, leather, wine, alum. Cracked
down on corrupt officials. Updated the Book of Rates of Customs duties
and in 1486 tried to reduce privileges held by foreign merchants. Result:
initially HVIIs main source of income, overtaken by crown lands. Ed IV70000pa. HVII - 33000 for 10 years, then 40000pa (recovering from
medieval depression)
Feudal dues given to monarch in role as landowner granting lands to his
tenants-in-chief. Wardship, livery, relief (money paid when land was
inherited), escheaps, marriage dues, aid (when kings eldest son was
knighted). Result: enforced to the fullest eg MoDs widow had to pay 200
to allow her daughter to marry. Set up office of the Surveyor of the
Kings Prerogative under Sir Edward Belknap. Sir John Hussey made
Master of the Kings Wards. Profits from marriage and wardship = 350 in
1487, 6000 in 1509. CLIL enforced. Collected 30000 on Arthurs
posthumous knighting in 1504, collected feudal aid on Princess Margarets
marriage to James of Scotland.

Profits of justice all court actions started with

issuing of royal writs and letters which had to be
paid for in fees. Any fines imposed by Kings
courts were paid to the crown. Result: punished
most crimes with fines, brought him more profit.
Legal fines made a significant contribution to
HVIIs income, expected for serious crimes eg.
Northumberland fined 10000 for ravishing a
royal ward (dont know what this is but it sounds
fun) at the same time as HVII lost income because
he turned 21.

Extraordinary Revenue

Henry VIII was very good at

Parliamentary Grant parliament granted monarch alargesse
subsidy when
national interest threatened. Basic tax of 15ths and 10ths. 1489, HVII tried
to levy a new kind of income tax, Yorkshire rebellion, Northumberland
killed. Only 1/3rd of the 10000 levied was collected. Result: reluctant to
tax unless it was necessary. Each subsidy = 29000 ish. Efficient tax
collection. Raised taxes for wars that never took place eg 1496 received
grant after a failed Scots invasion (may have still needed money to secure
threat). Used some to suppress Cornish rising in 1497.
Loans voluntary loand from richer subjects in an emergency eg.
Merchants, the city of London. If a loan was asked for it was virtually
impossible for a subject to refuse. HVII appears to have paid them back
because subjects who were owed by HVII more likely to support claimants.
Result:1485 over 10000 raised in loans. Reign- 203000.
Benevolences forced loan, not repaid. Result: 1491 raised 48000 to
fund French invasion. One lady offered 5 instead of 20 threatened with
being summoned before the Kings Council.
Bonds and recognisances became the normal way of ensuring payments
of legal debts owed to the crown. 46/62 noble families held, 7 under
attainder, 36 by recognisances, 3 others. HVII trying to maintain loyalty
rather than money eg Northumberland charged 10000, paid 2000.
Result: payments enforced by CLIL. 1st 10 years of reign 191 bonds
collected, increased as reign went on. 1493 - 3000, 1505 - 35000. 1491
MoDs friends signed bonds totalling 10000 as a promise of good
behaviour. 1485 demanded a recognisance of 10000 from Viscount
Beaumont of Pewicke.
Clerical taxes received substantial sums from Church. Convocation
matched every parliamentary subsidy. Used simony to fundraise. Didnt
exploit vacant bishoprics, rarely left open for more than a year. Result:
each CG raised 9000 ish, church contributed 25000 to cost of French war.
Charged 300 for Archdeaconry of Buckingham. 6000pa for vacant
bishoprics.
French pension 1475 Ed IV agreed a pension with France under Treaty
of Picquingy. Renewed under ToE. Result: promised 159000 to
compensate for cost of war, 5000pa.

Innovator or traditional monarch?

Traditional used traditional methods to raise money eg. Ordinary

revenue is same as any other medieval monarch. Abandons innovation
(tax increase) as it causes rebellion.
Innovator exploited and enforced traditional methods, improved
efficiency. Increased use of Chamber, more efficient than Exchequer.
Used conciliar committees to enforce feudal dues and B+R, eg CLIL.
Relies on professionals eg RB and new accounting methods (easier to
keep track of income and expenditure) A system which can work
without the king (good for HVIII)

Miser or not?
Sees money as a route to power and security.
Exploits rights to combat increasing financial
demands on the monarchy without finding
new sources of income. Other Tudor/Stuart
monarchs do the same. All of the harsh
financial actions relate to the
Basically HVII, right?
nobility=control. Apart from his treatment of
nobility, he is fair eg. With the Church. Died
solvent income was 113000pa by 1509 (20X greater than richest
noble.) Far above primus inter pares. Determined to be a rich king
former penniless exile.
The Exchequer

Traditional method of administering finances. Centre of Crowns financial

administration. Collected revenue from royal property and taxes and
customs. Audited the accounts. In order to prevent fraud and
embezzlement, there was a complex hierarchy of officials and a detailed
paper trail. Accurate and subjects often took years to collect unpaid sums.
Usually dealt with finances recorded on paper rather than cash.

The Chamber

Developed by Ed IV, used by RIII. HVII used many of the same officials as
Yorkist regime. Use of the Chamber to administer the kings finances led to
reorganisation of the kings household. The PC took over administration of
the kings private expenditure eg clothes, jewels, entertainment. By 1490s
had become the centre of most royal finance collections and accounting.
Took over much of royal finance from the exchequer, although there was
some overlap. Close cooperation between the two organisations. Used
receivers and officials to run groups of estates. Directly supervised by the
king, as run by kings chamber. Chests of currency kept in accessible
strongholds. Informal and flexible. Used receivers and officials to get more
profit from estates. Part of the royal household. King had direct control

over land revenues and a ready supply of cash if he needed it. Faster than
the exchequer.
Income from crown lands = 1484 - 25000 under Chamber (efficient).
1486 - 11700 under Exchequer (less efficient), 1508 42000 under
Chamber (more efficient)
By late 1490s, chamber at the centre of royal finance, handled an annual
turnover of over 10000. HVII ensured its efficiency by creating Court of
the General Surveyors all land revenue receivers accounted to the Court
and everyone took a bond to guarantee their work for the king. HVII relied
on loyal servants within Treasury. Treasurer of the chamber = Sir Thomas
Lovell until 1492, Sir John Heron until 1509. Under their influence,
Chamber scrutinised a range of financial documents list of debts owed,
recognisances, payments for land sales, wardships, collections of fines.
Relied on RB until 1492, appointed kings financial advisor. Informal but
key introduced new methods of accounting and auditing, discussed and
examined Chamber accounts with Lovell and Heron, increased efficiency of
Chamber. Exchequer retained control of customs duties and accounts of
sheriffs. Chamber allowed HVII much closer control over his finances
checked accounts himself and counter signed their accuracy.

AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRY

AGRICULTURE - HVIIs primary aim =

stabilise economy and ensure financial gain
for personal wealth/state of the people.
90% of population = peasants who lived off
the land, paid rent, tithes, taxes,
supplemented income with cottage industry
eg spinning and weaving. More than just
subsistence farming. Open field system (strips, 3 course rotation,
common land) declining. Profitability of wool encouraged enclosure and
engrossment. Both made farming less labour intensive and caused
rural depopulation. HVII passed legislation in 1488 and 1489 to prevent
depopulation never enforced.
Enclosure= ending the open field system and shared land.
Engrossment= amalgamation of smaller farming strips into one larger
one. Houses on land left to decay.
Landlords benefited from enclosure made more money through the
wool industry, more organised could clearly see what land belonged
to who, can practice selective breeding and develop new farming
techniques on own land, can employ fewer men.
Peasants suffered from enclosure evicted from their homes (land
reclaimed or fewer men needed for pastoral farming), could no longer
use common ground, can lose job/money and turn to vagrancy.
Enclosure could benefit country when done legally, shady debate over
what was legal. Practiced for centuries before HVII, during 15 th century
population was low and workforce small. Many landlords turned to
pastoral farming needed fewer labourers, used land up, increased

demand for wool. In the midlands, where problem was most

concentrated, less than 3% of land was enclosed. Most enclosure done
with consent of lord and tenant. Enforced enclosure was rare, most of
the worst cases pre HVII.
Acts against enclosure 1489 specifically aimed at Isle of Wight
(depopulation = threat to defence of realm). Didnt distinguish between
enclosure and engrossment, more to do with interests of crown. 1489
more general, didnt mention enclosure, criticised conversion of arable
land to pasture, decay of villages, churches, defences, unemployment
(affected law and order). Banned the destruction of houses attached to
over 20 acres of land to prevent depopulation. Not successfully
implemented enforcement left to landowners.
INDUSTRY England primarily agricultural, industry only employed 1%
of population. Not a major source of crown income just customs
duties. Main bulk of industry is the wool and cloth trade= 90% of
exports. 1485 export of raw wool had halved. Wool pressed into
broadcloth, main ingredient in Flemish cloth industry in Antwerp.
Increase in demand for broadcloth = raised prices of English wool,
made it worth converting to pastoral farming. Broadcloth production
increased employment opportunities, offset job losses and evictions
cause by enclosure. Cottage industry, carded by hand, spun, woven on
handloom. Virtually no manufactured goods besides broadcloth. Cloth
trade = impact on trade and employment. Al members of family
involved in production, suited to home environment. Wool distributed
to workers by clothier, organised and
financed operation = hierarchy.
Emergence of merchant clothiers
altered production of cloth. Industry at
risk from danger of war abroad, poor
harvests, plague. Drop in demand = less
money to spend = unemployment.
Other industries
Coal mined since 13th century.
Exported from Durham and
Northumberland. Output of coal accelerating, esp. In areas short of
wood = easier to transport coal by water than bring wood from another
area. Used domestically important source of fuel for poor Londoners.
Iron produced in Forest of Dean, Weald of Kent, Sussex. 1496, Crown
Enclosure
sourceWeald,
of all evil.
sponsored building of a blast furnace at Newbridge,
the =
Kentish
as part of iron smelting works to make armaments for Scottish war.
1509 1st time cast iron guns were made.
Metals enough to satisfy local market and export. Lead from
Pennines, North and central Wales. Tin from Devon and Cornwall. Some
brass-making based on copper mining in Cumberland and zinc ore in
the Mendips. Metal-working important in Midlands labourers in
Coventry (woo!) made nails, Sheffield had a cutlery industry.
Building- manor houses built by gentry.

HVIIs actions

Reformed coinage for economic and political purposes. Little

development in coinage since Ed III. Nov 1485 GD made Master of
Monies, keeper of Exchange in the Tower (trusted friend and
advisor). Titles held under indentures that set out the value and
weight of new coins in great detail. Introduced a shilling piece, 1 st
ever coin to have a true portrait of the King, shown wearing a
closed crown (symbol of imperial power), a deliberate copy of
Maximilians coin cast in 1487 for Philip. New coins= Angel, Anglet,
Ryal of Gold, Half Ryal, Quarter Ryal. Overall = innovations in
different areas but still industrially backward compared to European
nations.

HVII AND TRADE

ENGLISH TRADE IN EUROPE
England= major producer of broadcloth. Burgundy = main recipient of English
broadcloth (Antwerp). Hanseatic League = very powerful group of merchants
combined to control trade around the Baltic Sea. Venice= very wealthy and
controlled the highly lucrative trade in sweet wines, siks and spices from the
Middle East. France= important trading partner, esp. Wine from Gascony, woad
(blue dye) from Toulouse. Spain= important new trading partner, trade expanded
in to New World (potentially very lucrative)
HENRY VII AND OVERSEAS TRADE
Always put dynastic security above interests of trade.
Cloth trade=90% of Englands exports, mostly cloth
rather than wool (raw wool heavily taxed). Export of raw
wool declined 30% during HVIIs reign. Export of cloth
increased by 60%. Deliberate move to protect domestic
cloth industry. Act of 1489 imposed heavy taxes on wool
and made it illegal for foreigners to buy wool for
manufacture into cloth outside England. Cloth exported
from London or eastern ports eg. Ipswich. Sent to
Antwerp to be dyed, finished and made into clothing.
Calais Staple also important for cloth trade. Imports also
Another
happy
customer to
rose at beginning of 1500s, esp. Wine need a thriving cloth
industry
to balance
Coventrys
nail
industry.
level of imports. Customs duties royal income - 40000 during HVII.
KEY DEVELOPMENTS IN TRADE 1485-1509
CLOTH TRADE AND BURGUNDY Antwerp=main European outlet for English
cloth, trade complimented by fop o. 1493 HVII imposed ban on cloth trade with
Burgundy, English merchants able to export to Europe via Calais Staple. High
demand for English broadcloth=European merchants prepared to transfer

business to Calais. Negative impact on trade anyway. 1496 PofB withdrew

support for PW and signed MI. English merchants could sell goods wholesale
without customs duties or tax anywhere in Burgundy except Flanders. When
disputes arose, English merchants could be judged impartially in local courts.
Disputes continued, esp. When PofB tried to impose new import duty on English
merchants and limit trade to Antwerp and over EDLP (sheltering in Burgundy).
1506- MalusI. Agreed free trade between England and Burgundy, English
merchants allowed to anchor or stay in Burgundian harbours and transport goods
without charge unless sold or loaded ashore, Burgundy continue to pay customs
duties on goods sold to England. Philip and heirs would not exclude English cloth
trade from their dominions or impose any duties on English cloth. P died. MalusI
unrealistic and more about EDLP. From 1507, MI remained basis of AngloBurgundian trade.
HANSEATIC LEAGUE- powerful trading coalition from German cities, essentially
had a monopoly on trade around Baltic Sea. 1474-EDIV signed Treaty of Utrecht
with Hanse, prevent them attacking English shipping (planning to invade France).
Treaty worked in Leagues favour, exempt from paying duties on goods exported
from England and had preferential rates imposed on goods they imported. HVII
set out to challenge Leagues monopolies. Ad to be careful League well placed
to support challenge to throne. 1487- banned foreign merchants from exporting
unfinished cloth from England. 1489- ended Hanses monopoly over export of
bullion from England. Hoped to bypass the Hanse and sell English cloth in
northern markets. Restricted HLs privileges in imports. Hoped HL would
challenge legislation and renegotiate TofU. 1491 Antwerp Conference no
solution. HVII also reached agreements with Leagues rivals. 1485- treaty with
Denmark gave English ships the right to fish in Icelandic waters and 1499,
made a treaty with Riga (temporarily left HL) but soon rejoined. 1504
abandoned policy and situation reverted to 1495. Confirmed privileges in Act of
Parliament (concerned about EDLP)
SPAIN AND PORTUGAL MDC developed trading links England had in south of
Europe with Portugal. Fixed customs duties at low rates, gave each country equal
access to others ports. HVII never able to become involved in New World
Spanish trade and dynastic aspects of treaty (A/C marriage) more important.
FRANCE- wanted to extend trade with France for Antwerp alternative. 1486
negotiated a commercial treaty, lifted restrictions on Anglo-French trade During
Breton crisis, France imposed higher duties on English goods. ToE reduced
duties. 1495 removed in return for English
neutrality in IW. 1497 trade relations fully
restored.
VENICE HVII wanted to extend ability of English
merchants to trade in the Med, esp. Florence. Venetian monopoly
esp. In luxury goods eg silk, spices. Long standing dispute
between England and Venice over tariffs on sweet wine from
the Levant. Determined to challenge Venetian monopoly. 1488 encouraged

English ships to sail to the Levant and return with cargoes of malmsey (sweet
wine). Venetians imposed heavy duties on English goods, England imposed large
duties on malmsey and approached Venices arch rival Florence and agreed to
establish a Florentine staple. Restricted cloth sales to Venice, Venice removed
duties on English shipping in the Levant. Aided by IW distracted king of Venice,
unwilling to enter commercial war with England.
Venetian monopoly
ENGLISH SHIPPING number of ships 1483 15,
1509 9. Unwilling/unable to fund regular army,
realised that merchant ships could be converted to fight in times of war,
encouraged merchants to build ships no smaller than 80t. Built first fortified
naval base at Portsmouth. Passes Navigation Acts to increase amount of trade
undertaken by British shipping. Necessary 1485, most English goods carried in
Hanse ships. 1485-6 forbade English merchants from loading goods onto
foreign ships if English ships were available. Wine from Gascony only to be
imported from English ships with 50%+ English crew. 1489 English merchants
only import goods to England in English ships unless none were available. 1489
50% of English trade in English ships.
EXPLORATION 1497 sponsored John Cabot in an expedition westwards across
the Atlantic, in search of a new route to Asia. Specified that any land discovered
to be occupied in Kings name. Landed somewhere in NA coast, granted annual
pension. Set off again 1498 but never returned. 1501/2/8 other expeditions set
off for new found lands. Sebastian Cabot (JCs son) set out and probably landed
in Hudson Bay. HVII dead on return, HVIII did not sponsor expeditions.
HOW SUCCESSFUL? Increased outlets for English trade, forward looking Treaty
with Spain, forged openings in Venice and Scandinavia. Didnt greatly benefit
finances customs revenues rose at beginning of reign, due to more efficient
collection of duties rather than trade expansion. English shipping expanded by
1509, English merchants shipping more broadcloth than combined exports of all
other merchants. Still on a small scale except trade with Burgundy, compared to
Venice or Spain. Dynastic considerations 1st priority eg Hanse, Netherlands.
Valuable possibilities sacrificed in interests of regimes security. Stopped trading
with Netherlands because of PW. Opened doors in Med and Baltic but no more.
Began development of English trade but no more.
HVII DIED. HVIII BECAME KING. LOL.
HVIII IN 1509
CHARACTER a Renaissance prince. Well educated and talented, excelled at
archery, tennis, jousting. Taught the classics and philosophy and theology.
Idealised Henry V and the Battle of Agincourt commissioned a translation of a
book about his early life. Very religious, attractive, flirt and practical joker.

UPBRINGING the spare, not the heir. Second

child, spent childhood with mother and sisters
surrounded by women. Separated from his
brother, well educated. After Arthurs 1502 death
he joined HVIIs court, very restricted and not
allowed to be in charge of anything/do anything
for himself. Taught to rely on his own ability and
not trust councillors.

The resemblance is striking.

ATTITUDE TO WAR wanted to be a warrior king.

Rejected HVIIs defensive foreign policy, for a more expensive and traditional
interventionist policy. Longed for the glory of Henry V at Agincourt.
ATTITUDE TO KINGSHIP wanted to be an imperial king referred to England as
an empire governed by one supreme head and king. Not interested in crown
affairs.
INITIAL ACTIONS
MARRIAGE- announced intention of marrying C 5 days after HVIIs death. Married
6 weeks later, kept dowry and secured Anglo-Spanish relations.
EUROPE married C, wanted to declare war on France and had to remove HVIIs
pacifist policy and advisors before he could do so.
HVIIS UNPOPULARITY WITH THE NOBILITY surrounded himself with young
nobles, minions eg Charles Brandon, William, Thomas Parr, Thomas Boleyn.
Ignored his council about France. Executed E+D, set up oyer + terminer and
abolished CLIL.
ADVISORS began reign with a cautious, hard-working, established council set
up by HVII strained relations as HVIII wanted war and glory. LMB directed affairs
at start of reign, disliked Wolsey, died soon after. Anti and pro war factions broke
out in the council. Policies and decisions increasingly determined at court and in
the PC. PC became more important, overtook management of Kings affairs from
Chamber. Had its own royal treasury known as the Privy Coffers, had access to
Kings Signature.
RISE OF WOLSEY REASONS
CHARACTER AND PERSONAL ABILITIES highly intelligent, graduated Ox at 15.
Ambitious and determined. Used his initiative eg. Built Hampton Court. Good and
persuasive speaker, impressed HVIII and spoke well in Council. Worked hard,
solved weaponry, transport and supplies crisis in 1513 French campaign.
Excellent diplomat negotiated French peace of 1514. Ability caused patrons to
recommend him to HVIII.
SUPPORTED HVIII changed sides within council to HVIIIs pro-war faction,
determined to be on winning side of council

INFLUENCE OF PATRONS Richard fox, Keeper of the Privy Seal, recognised his
ability and recommended him to HVIII. Soon became Royal Almoner. Chaplain to
Deputy of Calais recommended him, soon made Royal Chaplain.
SEIZING OPPORTUNITIES New, young (lazy) and
impressionable king opportunities for ambitious men if they
hard and agreed with HVIII. Switched sides in council,
masterminded French campaign to prove ability to HVIII.
LUCK patrons were old and prepared to move aside for
eg Fox resigned as Lord Privy Seal 1516, Warham resigned as
Chancellor 1515. HVII, LMB die. England win Battle of Spurs.
Henry Deane, AofC dies less than 2 years after being appointed.
TG,MOD out of favour with HVII.

worked

him

WOLSEY BECAME
Royal Chaplain 1507, joined Council 1507, Dean of York 1513, Bishop of Tournai
1513, Archbishop of York 1514, Bishop of Lincoln 1514 (made him a Peer of
Realm) Cardinal 1515, Lord Chancellor 1515, Lord Privy Seal 1516, Papal Legate
1518.
HISTORICAL DEBATE

master and servant wolsey was only the alter rex (Starkey).
Partners Henry treated him more as a partner than a servant
(John Guy).
Wolsey in charge the Kings court should have excellence, but
Hampton court hath the pre-eminence (John Skelton, poet
laureate)

HOW DID WOLSEY MAINTAIN HIS POWER?

KEPT IN CLOSE CONTACT WITH THE KINGS COURT weekly audience with HVIII,
sent frequent letter via Royal Secretary
USED POWER AS LORD CHANCELLOR presided in courts of Chancery and SC.
Pomp and circumstance, reminded people of his status, checked up on nobility.
WATCHED ROYAL COUNCILLORS put his own man, Richard Pace, into the Royal
household to report back on minions as they could influence HVIII.
EXPULSION OF THE MINIONS came up with reform 1518 which sacked minions
and hired older, more experiences officials. HVIII agreed (cheaper) but made
minions gentlemen of the privy chamber 1520.
CONTROLLED GOPC sent abroad as ambassadors. Peace in 1525 ended this
tactic. Claimed that they had not listened to his advice after AG crisis.

ELTHAM ORDINANCES reduced number of GOPC from 12 to 6. Hostile GOPC eg

William Copton, Groom of the Stool, replaces. New Kings Council of 20 set up
kept them occupied elsewhere and away from H most of the time.
NOBILITY used to maintain law and order. Kept a check on nobles. Made
enemies of Norfolk and Suffolk.
MAINTAINING WEALTH AND STATUS Hampton court, elaborate daily procession
in his legatine robes.
DEFEATING BUCKINGHAM Wolseys enemy. Did not build up support at court,
complained about councillors, asked for a licence to visit his
Welsh lands with armed men 1521. H asked W to keep an
eye on B, Suffolk, Northumberland, Derby, Wiltshire. B
arrested, found guilty of treason, executed 1521. Wolsey
most likely influenced H over this.
WOLSEYS DOMESTIC POLICY
DISCREDITING OPPONENTS nobility saw him as a usurper of
their right to advise the King. He was low born and the role of nobility is to help
the king rule primus inter pares
SUCCESSES Eltham Ordinances, reduced number of councillors in PC, boosted
his control of counsel and PC. Increased authority of SC and allowed peasants to
bring cases forward against senior members of council eg prosecuted Henry
Standish, Bishop of Asaph, for praemunire in SC revenge for previous legal
dispute. Enclosure policy weakened his wealthy opponents who profited from
enclosure.
FAILURES 1526, H demands reform of royal household, argued that he was
denied access to sufficient councillors because of Wolseys control of opponents.
AG crisis discredited W. Caseload of SC backs up embarrassing. Problems
managing parliament eg. Refused to increase subsidy 1523. 1523 suspended
enclosure policy.
MAINTAIN RELATIONSHIP WITH KING political power relies on Henry, if he cant
have personal contact he needs a spy at court.
SUCCESSES in HVIIIs favour relieves him of his admin duties. Audience once
a week, Brings all JPs to court and makes them swear an oath of allegiance to H
while he sat on throne under gold canopy. EO replaced minions with his
supporters. Executed Buckingham, reduced power of nobility.
RAISE STANDARDS IN PUBLIC AFFAIRS AND ADMINISTRATIONS OF JUSTICE
interested in law and legal reform. Lord Chancellor head of legal system.
SUCCESSES legal reforms all should be equal before the law. Used SC to try
nobles as well as commoners eg Sir Robert Sheffield (convicted of being
accessory to a felony, imprisoned, fined). Caseload rose from 12pa to 120pa.

Strong control over JPs local justice/law and order easier to control from centre
of govt. Wolseys household trains administrators.
FAILURES 1529 SC almost collapsed under workload (W didnt plan ahead).
Judicial trials sometimes biased eg. Henry Standish. Used court system to settle
own grudges.
PROVIDE MONEY TO FUND HVIIIS FO PO
SUCCESSES attempted to reform taxation (15ths/10ths). Introduced to idea of a
subsidy assessed on current wealth , each individual except married women
and those under a certain income level. Collected 300000.
FAILURES 1525 AG crisis. Parliament would not grant another subsidy,
widespread opposition esp in East Anglia and Suffolk. Nobles would not crush
rebellion argued that they couldnt as people couldnt pay. Wolsey had to
apologise/pay costs. 1523 subsidy granted by Parliament,
less than half collected.
APPLY HUMANIST PRINCIPLES improve society, help the
poor, iron out abuse, increase learning, create a
commonwealth.
SUCCESSES Enclosure policy 1517, Wolsey launched
enquiry into the effectiveness of enclosure legislation. 264
landlords investigated, most found guilty, 74 landowners entered into
recognisances to restore arable farming (employed
Amicable Grant
more). Court of SC dealt with food rackateers. Fixed
poultry and meat prices. Proclaimed against grain
dealers who profiteered from grain trade.
FAILURES 1523 enclosure policy abandoned to appease landowners so Wolsey
could collect subsidy to fund fop o. Granted amnesty and allowed landowners to
enclose again. Policies to protect the poor had no long term effect on prices. By
1520, was too busy to deal with food rackateers sent back to be tried by local
courts.
Henry VIIIs foreign policy 1511-1529

1511 Henry joins anti-French Holy League.

1513 Henry attacks Bayonne in SW France, lost while Ferdinand took
Navarre.
1514 Second French campaign, allied with HRE. Henry wins Therouanne
(benefited Max) and Tournai, wins the Battle of the Spurs.
- Deserted by Max + Ferdinand, so had to sign Treaty of St. GermainEn
Laye with France: - Henry agreed not to claim title of King of France
- Increased French pension
- Marriage alliance (Louis XII = Princess Mary, sister of HVIII)
- Kept Tournai

 1515 Louis XII dies, succeeded by Francis I captures Milan and returns
Duke of Albany to Scotland (assumes regency and makes Queen Margaret
flee to England in 1516)
1516 Ferdinand dies, succeeded by Charles I. Treaty of Noyon between
France and Spain. Max makes peace with France.
1518 Treaty of London pisses off Lorenzo Campeggio (came to get
support for Popes anti- Ottoman policy) 20 countries. Anglo-French treaty
2 days later: - returns Tournai + Mary, daughter of HVIII, betrothed to the
Dauphin
1519 Max dies. Charles V succeeds controls Spain, Austria, Burgundy
and Netherlands. (surrounds France)
1520 FOCOG
- Wolsey meets Charles V in secret, doesnt commit to war.
1521 Francis declares war on Charles. Wolsey brokers peace treaty at
Calais conference. Treaty of Bruges with Charles V. Agreed to declare war
on France if it didnt keep the peace + betrothes Charles to Mary.
1522 Charles + Henry invade France under terms of Treaty of Bruges.
Charles takes Milan, deserts Henry + no spoils given.
- French campaign, nearly reaches Paris under Charles Brandon, but let
down by Duke of Bourbon + Charles + lose.
- 16 year truce with Scotland refused. Henry sends raiding parties.
1525 Battle of Pavia Charles takes Francis. Couldnt raise money to
attack France (AG crisis). Charles annulled Mary betrothal, hadnt
supported French invasions or given talian rewards = generally a shit ally.
- Treaty of More with France, pension
- Death of Duke of Albany
1526 League of Cognac. England paid + hoped to be arbiters once
Charles surrendered. He didnt.
1527 Sack of Rome Charles controlled Pope.
- Treaty of Westminster (perpetual peace with France, betrothed Mary
and now widowed Francis or his 2nd son) Treaty with Amiens with France
against Charles V.
1528 War declared on Charles V. Stupid trade embargo with Burgundy
(Wolsey) + bad harvest = riots, humiliating climb down, truce with
Burgundy.
1529 Charles defeats Francis at Battle of Landriano
- Pope signs Treaty of Barcelona with Charles
- Treaty of Cambrai, peace between Charles and Francis, ignored English
interests.
Henry by 1529:- No money! No mates! No empire! No annulment!
Why was Henry VIIIs foreign policy ultimately unsuccessful?

POOR HVIII had or 1/3 of the income of Charles or Francis eg in 1509,

income was 130000pa, Francis income was 800000pa. By 1514,
Treasury was bankrupt- any new war had to be financed by taxes. 1525insufficient funds to invade France.
LET DOWN BY ALLIES 1512, let down by Ferdinand. 1516/7 Ferdinand
and Max make peace with France. 1522/3 Charles didnt provide
reinforcements for Henrys army. 1525 Charles doesnt support Henry
after Pavia. 1529 Francis and Pope make peace with Charles.

CHANGES IN FORTUNES OF ALLIES Ferdinand and Maxs death= Charles

V most powerful ruler, less reliant on English alliance. Hapsburg/Valois
conflict. 1529 Landriano France defeated by Spain, leaves England
without an ally. 1527 sac of Rome Charles controlled Pope.
UNREALISTIC AMBITIONS Wanted to be King of France not enough
money, France and Spain allied in 1516. Wanted an annulment Charles V
controlled Pope, Pope didnt favour England because of Campeggios
treatment. Ran for election as HRE ridiculous, didnt stand a chance
against Francis and Charles. Ambition to be a peacemaker was impossible
Hapsburg/Valois wars inevitable.
UNEXPECTED EVENTS Battle of Pavia and capture of Francis. Battle of
Landriano and French defeat 1529. Sack of Rome, even Charles didnt
expect it. Capture of Milan 1515 Francis victory unexpected.

WOLSEY AND THE CHURCH

The Pre-Reformation Church

Reformation = the transformation from Catholic to Protestant 1529-36. By

1534, HVIII had become Supreme Head of the Church of England and
gradually a range of protestant reforms were
introduced to the Church. Debate over whether it was
driven by the Churchs abuses, or HVIIIs
political/dynastic concerns. Weaknesses in the Church
that HVIII was willing to exploit, without his leadership
its doubtful that a state protestant church would have
been founded.
Christopher Haigh widespread evidence of
satisfaction with the Church...without HVIIIs
imposition of reform England may have stayed
Catholic
A. G. Dickens the Church was subject to widespread corruption...Anticlericalism was widespread and the European humanist movement had a
significant impact

Problems with the Church

#nofilter

Allegations of corruption

Bishops were often political appointees who served the monarch rather
than the Church eg Warham, Fox, Wolsey.
Pluralism (one cleric holding more than one office) eg Wolsey was Bishop
of Lincoln, Archbishop of York, Bishop of Tournai, a cardinal and a papal
legate.
Very wealthy too much money spent on pomp and circumstance, not
enough on helping the poor. Practices such as the sale of indulgences,
exploitation of relics and pilgrims used to raise money for church buildings
or individual clerics.

Accusations of a poorly educated clergy, although a visitation by

Archbishop Warham in 1511-12 found that only 4/260 clerics were
ignorant
Nepotism eg Wolsey found appointments for his second son
Simony (clerical offices being sold for money)
Absenteeism as a result of pluralism and the King keeping posts vacant to
collect revenue
Corruption in monastic houses abbots exercising power as greedy
landlords, monks neglecting duties and vows, some houses falling into
disrepair and lacking a full complement of monks.

Allegations of abuse of power

Some accused the Church of having too much legal and political power.
Clerics often filled political posts and church had its own law (canon
law). Clerics tried under canon law less harsh penalties than secular
courts. Church had jurisdiction over laity in matters eg marriage,
annulments, wills and burial. Abuse of power lay at heart of anticlericalism. Quite widespread, esp in South and East England. Eg
Richard Hunne Londoner, refused to pay the small fee charged by the
Church on the death of his child. Sued by the Church, they won, he
sued under praemunire, arrested and died in suspicious circumstances
in Church custody Church blamed for his death. Criticisms of the
amount of money raised by church tithes, fees charged for dealing with
wills and death.

Allegations of religious malpractice/superstition

Some criticised Church for some religious practices that had developed
over the centuries were not based on the Bible, reminiscent of Pagan
superstition rather than Christian ideology
eg adulation of the Virgin Mary, the doctrine
of her apotheosis. Stress placed on the
intercession of saints in prayers, rather than
praying directly to God, emphasis placed on
relics, esp touching, praying to or
venerating relics and the way in which they
were exploited by the Church during pilgrimages.
Practice of selling indulgences. Practice of
Just another day at the office,
singing prayers for the dead in chantry
pre-Reformation
chapels and the concept of purgatory
which had no basis in the bible.

Critics of the RC Church

1525 William Tyndale published an English version of the Bible. Sold

strongly in England, may have helped to spread protestant ideas.
ANTI-CLERICALISTS included people that criticised some church
practices, did not envisage a challenge to the concept of a Catholic

church with the Pope at its head. Anti-clerical feeling often directed at
Church when it tried to raise money or appeared to abuse its privileged
legal position. Anti-clerical feeling fairly widespread, not organised.
LOLLARDS critics of the Church. Pre-Humanist, late 15 th Century, led
by John Wycliffe, similar to Lutheran ideas.
HUMANISTS small group of educated scholars, influenced by changes
on the continent. European Christian humanists emphasised the role of
education in religion, importance of studying Greek and Latin so people
could read and understand the Bible for themselves. Wanted a Church
founded on Biblical principles with focus on the word of God rather
than superstitious practices which surrounded the Catholic mass.
Heavily influenced by Martin Luther (from 1517 challenged the power
of the Church, disputed the concept of papal infallibility, stresses
importance of justification by faith alone.) Believed each person should
have a personal relationship with God based on prayer and power of
the Bible. Church was important, but took second place to personal
faith.
Important humanists in England:
DESIDERIUS ERASMUS Dutch priest who criticised the Church in In
Praise of Folly 1511. Became a professor of Divinity at Cambridge.
Translated and wrote interpretation of the Bible and helped to spread
new thinking about Christian doctrine and teaching.
JOHN COLET played a key role in foundation of St. Pauls School in
London one of the first schools run entirely by the laity. Preached a
1511 sermon to the clergy in Convocation where he set out what he
saw to be the major abuses of the Church.
THOMAS MORE wrote Utopia, believed in a reformed Church, the
power of education for both men and women, replaced Wolsey as
Chancellor, close friends with HVIII, executed for opposing the
Reformation.

Supporters of the Church

Catholic Church popular in 1520s, very few actively considered replacing
it.
HVIII staunch Catholic. 1521 published In Assertio Septem
Sacramentorum (In Defence of the Seven Sacraments, defended
authority of the Pope and sacraments, made Fidei Defensor (Defender of
the Faith) by the Pope.
Most people continued to go to Church, leave money to the Church in their
wills and actively support fabric of the Church through donations. There
were many able bishops who did not neglect their duties eg Bishop
Longland of Lincoln, replaced Wolsey. Stayed in his diocese and insisted
that the clergy did the same. Bishop Fisher of Rochester, strong spiritual
leader in his diocese did his best to

eliminate abuses eg pluralism amongst
(a little joke for the humanists among
middle-ranking clerics.
you)

Many monasteries performed important roles in the community, provided

focus for local economy, education, support for poor, care for sick. When
HVIII appeared to be attacking monasteries in 1536, there was serious
protest from attached communities in the Pilgrimage of Grace, the largest
rebellion in the whole Tudor period.
To what extent did Wolsey seek to reform the Church?

Pretty much in control of the church

Plans to reform the tax discipline of the monks and friars and to reform
hierarchy of the Church, Last plan would have meant the creation of 13
new bishoprics out of monastic foundations. English dioceses would have
reflected the population distribution of Tudor England, not that of an
earlier age. 1524-9, Wolsey dissolved 30 religious houses and used the
money to build colleges at Oxford (eg Christ Church) and Ipswich. Had
ambitious plans for his foundations and the advancement of learning
seized by the crown upon his death. Doubt expressed at the time and
since whether he wanted to promote learning or build monuments to
himself.

The Kings Great Matter 1527

Mary Tudor was 11 in 1527, could have solved the succession crisis by
marrying James V, King of Scotland. Henry appears to have thought this
insufficient.
Catherine of Aragon was 42 in 1527. She had been married to Arthur in
1501 but always claimed that the marriage was not consummated, so it
could be annulled and there was no impediment to the marriage with
Henry. She had around 6 or 7 pregnancies, Mary was the only surviving
child, had not been pregnant since 1518.
HVIII had a son by Elizabeth Blount named Henry Fitzroy. 8 in 1527. Made
Duke of Richmond in 1525 and recognised by Henry. Groomed to be
heir/regent? Died 1536 of natural causes.
Arthur Tudor had married CofA 1501, died 1502. Papal dispensation from
Julius II following his death.
Anne Boleyn second daughter of Thomas Boleyn, sister of Mary Boleyn.
Mary had an affair with Henry before Anne was at court. Thomas Boleyn
was married to Elizabeth Howard, related to Norfolk. A family on the make,
joined Howard faction. Convinced Protestant. Highly intelligent and
educated at French court airs, graces and ease of French.
The obvious solution to the problem was to annul his marriage and marry
Anne Boleyn. HVIII needed legal basis, used Leviticus 20:21 If a man
marries his brothers wife, they shall die childless. Interpreted this as
without a son (recruited Richard Wake to translate the Bible from Hebrew,
stated that childless meant without a son). Argued that Julius II was wrong
to grant dispensation because of marriage to Arthur. Divorce unnecessary
as marriage was null and void in the first place wanted annulment.

TIME FOR A TIMELINE

1526 Henry began to woo Anne Boleyn (no plans for
marriage)
1526-7 decided on an annulment
Easter 1527 Henry offered Anne the title of
matresse en titre. She refuses.
They say Wolsey was
May 1527 Secret proceedings started for the
compensating for something
annulment. Charles sacked Rome, controlled
Pope.
June 1527 Henry told Catherine of his plans
July 1527 Henry and Anne agreed to marry after the annulment was
granted
September 1527 Henry applied for a papal dispensation to marry Anne
December 1527 Negotiations in Rome for the annulment
Sept 1528 Anne sent to Hever Castle
October 1528 Lorenzo Campeggio arrived in England
December 1528 Anne returned to court
May 1529 proceedings for hearing the annulment case started at
Blackfriars
June 1529 Catherine made her single appearance before the hearing
July 1529 A summer recess was called and the case was recalled to
Rome by the Pope (under the control of Charles V)
October 1529 Wolsey accused of praemunire, forced to surrender the
Great Seal, replaced as Lord Chancellor by Thomas More
November 1529 the Reformation Parliament was assembled.
Role of Wolsey in the annulment

To liaise with the Pope and secure the annulment. Wolsey advised HVIII
that he needed the Pope to declare the dispensation invalid. Many
precedents for the annulment and the Pope owed HVIII a favour for ASS
(lol). Wolsey had good contacts in Rome as was Cardinal, Archbishop and
Papal Legate. HVIII pursued a technical approach and insisted on the
nature of arguments Wolsey presented. Tried to persuade HVIII to use a
more diplomatic approach as foreign policy and public opinion swung
against annulment. Made the Great Matter public in 1527 summoned
HVIII to appear before legatine court to address issues concerning the
salvation of the royal soul.

Catherines response

Devout Catholic, devoted wife, proud and politically astute queen.

Annulment = Mary illegitimate, CofA royal mistress rather than Queen.
Stuck to her argument that marriage with Arthur was not consummated
made Leviticus argument invalid. Had the judicial right to oppose
annulment by appealing to Pope. Popular in England, seen as a victim.
Marriage to Henry had been happy and successful, thought that Henry was

corrupted by his advisors, esp Wolsey. Others at court resented Wolsey

and his influence over HVIII.
Why did attempts to get the annulment fail?
RELUCTANCE OF POPE TO CONDEMN A
PREVIOUS POPE Julius II granted dispensation,
Clement VIII current Pope. Theologians divided
over whether Leviticus was open to papal
dispensation. HVIIIs approach made the case so
matresse en
high-profile it would be embarrassing to back
titre
down. Curia not swayed by public opinion or HVIIIs
representatives. Clemet was vacillating and despondent, didnt want to
be manipulated by Charles or Henry. Ruled in CofAs favour in 1534.
WOLSEYS LACK OF INFLUENCE IN ROME despite being Papal Legate,
Wolsey did not have political influence in Rome. Pope refused Wolsey sole
authority to decide matter, granted Campeggio dual authority. Delayed his
journey and was slow in negotiation. After a summer recess, Pope decided
that the matter must be decided in Rome.
INTERNATIONAL SITUATION From 1526, Wolsey followed a pro-French fo
po, after the Sack of Rome in 1527, Charles V controlled Pope and Spanish
version of the dispensation. After the Popes release he made it clear that
there would be negative consequences if the pope was hostile. Catherines
nephew, wanted to protect Hapsburg family pride from stigma of divorce,
stop his rival HVIII from having a more profitable marriage, CofA one of his
favourites.
POPULAR OPINION IN ENGLAND WAS AGAINST THE ANNULMENT
Catherine was a popular Queen, popular support for her and marriage.
Saw her as a victim. Bishop Fisher of Rochester published 7 books arguing
Cs case and came off best in the debate.
WOLSEYS DELAY IN PURSUING THE ANNULMENT some historians argue
that Wolsey didnt want annulment to happen, deliberately delayed
seeking Papal authority. Wolsey and AB resented each other Wolsey
hated ABs political influence, Boleyns were in anti-Wolsey faction.
Thought HVIII would get bored of her (had happened before). Decided
against matter being settled in English church hierarchy, stated that it had
to be resolved in Rome.
CATHERINES ACTIONS Spanish version of the dispensation without a
prohibitive technical error included in the English version, Charles V
refused to allow it to leave Spain. Bribed theologians who voted in favour
of divorce to denounce their verdict and admit bribes from HVIII. Wrote to
the Pope begging to support her, in frequent correspondence with Charles
to put pressure on the pope. Appeared in the legatine court in 1529 before
C,W. Pleaded on her knees for HVIII to treat her justly and stop annulment.
Swept from the court despite judges demands that she stay, like the
fearless diva that she was.
DECLINE OF WOLSEY

By August 1529 Wolseys power was ended. Sept 1529 ordered to hand
over the Privy Seal and resign as Lord Chancellor and all of his other posts
except Archbishop of York. Charged with praemunire (treating papal law
above kings law), allowed to remain in York. April 1530 began
correspondence with the Imperial ambassador, CofA, France, hoping to
make a political comeback. Charged with treason and ordered to make his
way to London. Died on the way, at Leicester in 1529.
FAILURE TO OBTAIN AN ANNULMENT after the failure of the legatine court
there seemed to be no solution to KGM. Charles V in control of Pope, no
inclination to help Wolsey (pro-french fo po), showed that he capable of
utter failure.
HVIII DECIDED TO SACRIFICE WOLSEY TO MAKE
HIS CASE EASIER TO WIN HVIII was in control of
factions at court, decided Wolsey needed to be
sacrificed to strengthen his case, since Wolsey was
associated with church corruption and papal power.
WOLSEYS FOREIGN POLICY WAS UNSUCCESSFUL
After
BoP, Wolsey followed a pro French fo po eg League
Bishop Fisher on his day off
of Congnac 1526, Treaty of Amiens 1527. Failed
had to abandon war with Charles in 1528, France
made peace with Charles 1259 after Landriano, Chalres Saced Rome 1527.
FACTION HAD DEVELOPED AT COURT pre 1527, Wolsey could restrain
development of factions at court, eg. Eltham Ordinances 1526 reduced
number of Kings Councillors and made sure that most of them were sent
abroad. Post 1527 occupied by foreign policy and KGM, ability to control
court decreased.
WOLSEY BECAME INCREASINGLY ISOLATED ROM HVIII Worked in separate
buildings, communicated by letter and weekly appointments. From 1525,
Boleyn faction and Norfolk and Suffolk spent more time with Henry at
Greenwich. Distanced by fo po too eg when Wolsey was away negotiating
Treaty of Amiens
FAILURE OF AMICABLE GRANT forced HVIII to abandon his ambitions to
conquer France after Pavia. H distanced himself from Grant and forced
Wolsey to take blame.
WOLSEYS ENEMIES AT COURT BECAME MORE POWERFUL Norfolk and
Suffolk used AG to increase influence over the king spent time with him
at Greenwich, advised him on foreign affairs.
ANNE BOLEYN INFUENCED HVIII AB initially willing to work with Wolsey,
by 1529 had become convinced that Wolsey was an obstacle to the
annulment. Put pressure on Henry to destroy Wolsey and had access to
the King that no male councillor could emulate. Boleyns and Howards were
in anti-Wolsey faction.
Historical Interpretations
David Starkey brought down by Boleyn and Howard factions
John Guy Continued to behave arrogantly after his banishment from
court... gave his enemies damning evidence

Peter Gwyn Henrys scapegoat...blamed after failure to obtain

annulment although it was impossible
Political life after Wolsey remaining court factions

CONSERVATIVES faction which rebutted religious reform. Hostile to

Wolsey and opposed his pro-French foreign policy.
Norfolk and Suffolk included.
BOLEYN distant relatives of Norfolk. Annes
father, Lord Rochford, associated with Dukes of
Norfolk and Suffolk, on the make. Initially
supported Wolsey, wanted annulment. Little
support in Privy Chamber only a few members
including Thomas Cranmer and Thomas Cromwell.
ARAGONESE conservatives loyal to CofA
including John Fisher, William Warham.

(also, if you want to know how it ends, Henry carries out

the Reformation, marries Anne in 1533, and they all lived
happily ever after. Until Anne was accused of incest and witchcraft and beheaded
3 years later.)
Ravish wenches, augment
coffers Henry VIII