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Elementary Functions
In this chapter, we will consider elementary functions of a complex variable. We will introduce
complex exponential, trigonometric, hyperbolic, and logarithmic functions.
d z
e = ez .
dz
Proof. Exercise.
1
1
ez
6.
ez1
ez2
= ez .
= ez1 z2 .
Proof. Exercise.
Example 1. Solve the equation ez = 1.
Example 2. Find all the value of z such that eiz = 2.
1 iz
(e eiz )
2i
1
cos z = (eiz + eiz ).
2
d
d
sin z = cos z and
cos z = sin z.
dz
dz
k Z.
+ 2k,
k Z.
d
tan z = sec2 z,
dz
d
cot z = csc2 z,
dz
d
sec z = sec z csc z,
dz
Proof. Exercises.
Example 1. Show that tan(z + ) = tan z.
d
csc z = csc z cot z.
dz
sinh z
,
cosh z
coth z =
cosh z
,
sinh z
sechz =
1
,
cosh z
Proposition 8.
1. cosh z = cos(iz) and sinh z = i sin(iz).
2. cosh z and sinh z are entire functions.
3.
d
d
sinh z = cosh z and
cosh z = sinh z.
dz
dz
2| + (
+ 2n)i,
2
n Z.
cschz =
1
.
sinh z
nZ
or
log z = ln |z| + i arg z.
Example 1. Find log(1) and log(1 + i).
Example 2. Find log(ez ).
Remark.
1. logz is not a function. We will call it a multiple-valued function.
2. elog z = z for all z 6= 0.
3. log ez = z + 2ni,
n Z, for all z C.
Definition. The principal value of the logarithm of a nonzero complex number z , log z, is defined
to be
Logz = ln |z| + iArgz.
n Z.
Branches of log z
As we mentioned above, log z is a multiple-valued function. Thus to define a single-valued function
we restrict the domain and define functions as
log z = ln |z| + i arg z,
< arg z + 2,
where is any real number. However these functions are not continuous in their domains. To see
this let us consider Logz. If we approach 1 along the curve z = e(t)i , 0 t , then
lim Logz = lim ( t)i = i.
z1
t0
z1
t0
Thus lim Logz does not exist and hence Logz is not continuous at 1. The same arguments can
z1
be used to show that Log z is not continuous at any negative real number. Deleting these points
from the domain of Logz, we obtain an analytic function
Logz = ln |z| + iArgz,
z
1
z2
= log z1 log z2 .
Proof.
log(z1 z2 ) = ln |z1 z2 | + i arg(z1 z1 )
= ln |z1 | + ln |z2 | + i(arg z1 + arg z2 )
= log z1 + log z2 .
Remark. The statements in the above proposition have the same meaning as the statements for
arg(z1 z2 ) and arg(z1 /z2 ). That is it means that if two of the three logarithms are specified, then
there is a third logarithm such that they are true.
Example 1. Let z1 = 1 and z2 = i. Verify that log(z1 z2 ) = log z1 + log z2 .
Example 2. Let z1 = 1 and z2 = i. Show that Log(z1 z2 ) 6= Logz1 + Logz2 .
Proposition 11. Let z be a nonzero complex number. Then
z n = en log z ,
and
z 1/n = e n log z ,
nZ
n N.
Proof.
Example 1. Show that Log(i3 ) 6= 3Log i.
3/2
3i) .
The function cz
Definition. Let c be a nonzero complex number and let z be any complex number. We define
cz = ez log c ,
where log c = ln |c| + i arg c is the multiple-valued function.
Example 1. Consider 2z and find 2i and 2(i+1) .
Proposition 14. If a value of log c is specified, then cz is an entire function and
d z
c = cz log c.
dz
Proof. Exercise.
10
1
(eiz
2i
eiw = iz + (1 z 2 ) 2 ,
1
w = i log[iz + (1 z 2 ) 2 ].
Definition. ( Inverse of the sine function)
We define sin1 z as
1
sin1 z = i log[iz + (1 z 2 ) 2 ],
p
1
1
2
where (1 z 2 ) 2 = |1 z 2 |e 2 Arg(1z ) .
Remark. sin1 z is a multiple-valued function.
Example 1. Find the values of sin1 2
Solution:
1
sin1 2 = (2n + ) i ln |2 + 3|, n Z.
2
Definition. ( Inverse of the cosine and tangent functions)
We define
1
cos1 z = i log[z + i(1 z 2 ) 2 ]
and
tan1 z =
i + z
i
log
,
2
iz
p
1
1
2
where (1 z 2 ) 2 = |1 z 2 |e 2 Arg(1z ) .
Remark. When specific branches of the square root and logarithmic functions are used, the functions
sin1 z, cos1 z, and tan1 z become single-valued and analytic in some domain because they are
compositions of analytic functions. Moreover we have
1
d
sin1 z =
1 ,
dz
(1 z 2 ) 2
d
1
cos1 z =
1 ,
dz
(1 z 2 ) 2
d
1
tan1 z =
.
dz
1 + z2
11
sinh1 z = log[z + (z 2 + 1) 2 ],
and
cosh1 z = log[z + (z 2 1) 2 ],
p
1
1
2
where (1 z 2 ) 2 = |1 z 2 |e 2 Arg(1z ) .
Example 1. Solve the equation sin z = 1.
Example 2. Solve the equation cosh z = i.
12