Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
PRC presently regulates the Professional Regulatory Board (PRB) offices of fortytwo (42) professions excluding law. Through Executive Order (EO) No. 496, s. 1991,
PRC implements a uniform procedure for the selection of members of any
Professional Regulatory Board office. The PRC gives an award to outstanding
professionals for the year. This year's awardee for the PRC Award is Susima
Gonzales. There is an association of the different professional regulatory boards
and its members, which is the Philippine Association of Board Examiners (PABE).
RA 9246 was approved on February 19, 2004. It has taken into effect on March 16,
2004.
2.2 RA 6966 vs. RA 9246
The phrase "an act modernizing the practice of librarianship" is the key difference
between the old and the new law in Philippine librarianship.
Resolution (Res.) No. 1 of the Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRR) in Section
(Sec.) 3 of RA 9246 defines the phrase as referring to as:
Signed into law by the President (RA 9246) - February 19, 2004
Admission
Registration of librarians
Regulation
Integration
Manila on December 3 and 4, 1992. The forthcoming examination on November 34, 2005 will be the thirteenth (13th).
active in the practice of librarianship for at least ten (10) years, five (5)
years of which is in a managerial position
must not be a member of the faculty of a university, college, school, or
institution conferring the academic degree of librarianship or offering
review classes for librarian licensure examination nor a person who has a
direct/indirect pecuniary interest in any such institution
must not be an incumbent officer of the accredited integrated national
professional organization of librarians
within five (5) years from the effectivity of the law, graduate of the
following courses are also qualified:
Retired librarians can be members of the board if they are still active in the practice
of librarianship. Furthermore, under RA 9246, age is no longer one of the
qualifications of members of the board. Under RA 6966, a librarian must be at least
40 years of age at the time of appointment.
The chairperson and members of the board shall hold office for a term of three (3)
years renewable for another term of three (3) years but in no case shall the whole
term exceed six (6) years. The members, like in other regulatory boards are
selected though the provision in Executive Order (EO) No. 496, s. 1991, which
instituted procedures and criteria for the selection and the recommendation of
nominees for appointment to vacant positions in the Professional Regulatory
Board.
The PRB for Librarians embody their decisions and actions in the exercise of its
powers and functions through Board Resolutions. The Implementing Rules and
Regulations (IRR) of RA 9246 is the first PRB for Librarians Resolution issued in
2004. Incumbent members of PRB for Librarians are:
Cora Nera
Elizabeth Peralejo
2.6 RA 8047
On June 7, 1995, RA 8047, the Book Publishing Development Act was signed into
law. The law is geared at promoting the growth and development of book
publishing. It envisions the promotion of book readership among Filipinos,
particularly the young through book fairs, exhibits, or programs which enhances
literacy and good reading habits.
up-to-date
complete
properly organized
Copies of the roster shall be provided as permanent record to The National Library
(TNL), Civil Service Commission (CSC), and the Accredited Integrated National
Organizations of Librarians. To date, there are 4,120 licensed librarians throughout
the Philippines.
fine not more than thirty thousand pesos (Php30,000) nor more than one
hundred thousand (Php100,000), or
Imprisonment of not less than one (1) month but not more than three (3)
years.
Note: In RA 6966,
fine not more than five hundred pesos (Php500) nor more than two
thousand (Php2,000), or
imprisonment of not less than one (1) month but not more than two (2)
years.
5.1 ALA
The American Library Association (ALA), is the oldest and largest library
association in the world, founded in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1876, and
comprising mainly librarians, library trustees, and people and organizations
interested in the improvement of library and information services and the
profession of librarianship. The objectives of the association include promoting
professional library training, improving library service, encouraging the use of
books and libraries, and protecting intellectual freedom and public access to
information.
Activities of the ALA include conferring awards for distinguished service in
librarianship, administering awards for outstanding literature and other media,
publishing books and periodicals relating to the library field, and sponsoring
National Library Week in the US every year in April. The ALA also establishes
educational standards for librarianship and accredits graduate library schools. The
activities of the ALA are carried out by various divisions, each of which is
concerned with a particular phase of library work. The Association for Library
Service to Children is one such division.
The ALA has contributed considerably to the evolution of the modern library
movement. Throughout its early years it advocated public access to library
collections; circulation of books for home reading; extension of library services to
rural areas; and municipal, state, and federal aid to libraries. In 1939 the ALA
adopted the Library Bill of Rights, endorsing the right of libraries and readers to
freedom of choice in reading materials.
The ALA has about 57,000 members worldwide; its headquarters is in Chicago,
Illinois.
5.2 CONSAL
The Congress of Southeast Asian Librarians (CONSAL) was formed in August
1970. CONSAL convenes a general conference at least once in three (3) years in
each member country by rotation. In 2006, CONSAL XIII will be held in Manila.
Likewise, CONSAL II and VII were held in the Philippines.
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Brunei
Indonesia
Laos
Myanmar
Malaysia
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
Vietnam
Cambodia
5.5 PLAI
On October 23, 1923, the Philippine Librarians' Association, Inc. (PLAI) was
established. PLAI has a National Board of Trustees elected by the House of
Delegates. Its officers may serve for not more than three terms. The PLAI
Secretariat on the other hand, is responsible in providing administrative and
technical support to the organization, headed by an Executive Officer.
There are two (2) big annual celebration of PLAI mandated:
Proclamation No. 109, s. 1936 designated the period from November 2430 each year as National Book Week.
Proclamation No. 837, s. 1931 declared the month of November 1991 and
every year thereafter as "Library and Information Services Month."
Agencies tasked to spearhead this celebration are The National Library
and the National Committee on Library and Information Services (NCLIS)
of the National commission on Culture and Arts (NCCA).
5.4 NCLIS
The National Commission on Libraries and Information Services (NCLIS) is a
committee under the Sub-Commission on Cultural Heritage of the NCCA which is
tasked to formulate policies for the development of culture and arts by libraries,
librarians, and library educators.
Members:
o Claudette Albano
o Arabella Ananoria
Rosemarie Ante
Cynthia Dagus
Dr. Wilma Medrano
Rebecca Napiere
Rosario Ruiz
Lourdes Soriano
Iluminada Yap
Representatives from TNL and PLAI
As an art, it brings ends and means together. Skills are basically required
in this sense. This can be found in the task of communicating, leadership,
and goal-setting.
There are four major phases that can be identified in tracing how management
theories have evolved:
Classical movement
Self-actualizing movement
Systems approach
o Decision-theory movement
o General systems theory movement
o Psychological theory movement
At the turn of the century, the most notable organizations were large and
industrialized. Often they included ongoing, routine tasks that manufactured a
variety of products. The United States highly prized scientific and technical
matters, including careful measurement and specification of activities and results.
Management tended to be the same. Scientific management theory espoused this
careful specification and measurement of all organizational tasks. Tasks were
standardized as much as possible. This approach appeared to work well for
organizations with assembly lines and other mechanistic, routinized activities.
2. Self-actualizing movement
This is closely related to human behavior movement. Here, the management is
encouraged to let employees develop social groups, move toward employees'
participation in management, and allow democracy within the organization.
Henry Fayol is the father of classical movement. Like Taylor, he also believed that
workers are naturally lazy, and they can be motivated by higher wages. Fayol and
Taylor are considered as the founders of the theory of management.
There are certain concepts that are significant in this movement. Chester Barnard's
idea of contribution-satisfaction equilibrium is one key concept in this movement.
Barnard emphasized the role of communication as the first function of managers.
Lyndall Urwick and Luther Gulick set the organization and system movement which
distinguished administration (representing ownership viewpoint) and scientific
management applicable to the operational level.
1. Decision theory movement - This is primarily concerned with the study of rational
decision-making procedures and the way managers actually make decisions. This
movement introduced mathematical methods and quantitative models to serve as
the basis for all management decisions. Major by-products of decision theory
management are management information systems (MIS) and decision support
systems (DSS).
Planning involves setting up objectives (both long and short term) and developing
strategies for achieving them. It is done in order to
time
level of planning
flexibility, and
accountability
10
7.
8.
Standards - They mean being able to set any measure by which one
judges a thing as authentic, good, or adequate.
9.2 Organizing
Organizing determines the specific activities necessary to accomplish the planned
goals. It is aimed to group the activities into a logical framework of structure,
assigning authority and responsibilities to people for their accomplishment.
Certain principles are employed in organizing.
Line and staff positions - Line positions are responsible and accountable
for the organization's primary objectives. Staff positions provide advice
and support to the line position.
Unity of command - The main idea here is that every person within the
organization should orders from and report to only one person.
A very crucial part in the process of planning is decision making -the process of
making a choice between alternatives. Decision making process has four phases.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Group authority - Group decisions prevent the fear of allowing one person
to have too much authority. The role of leadership in the organization is
not diminished but altered.
9.3 Staffing
Staffing is the function that involves recruitment, selection, hiring, placement, and
development of human resources required by the organization.
11
The staff should be provided with knowledge and skills that are directly related to
their responsibilities in the organization. Training and staff development is a broad
range of activities that may include any of the following:
orientation
on-the-job training
counseling
seminars
4.
more than one need may be operative at the same time, and
5.
The leadership grid is a measure that involves two primary concerns in the
organization: concern for production and concern for people.
James McGregor Burns identified two types of leadership styles:
Leadership is an essential tool for directing. An effective leader has the ability to
influence others in a desired direction and thus is able to determine the extent to
which both individual employees and organizations as a whole reach their goals.
9.4 Directing
Directing is the managerial function that enables managers to communicate with
and influence subordinate towards the achievement of organizational goals. An
important ingredient of this function is motivation - the willingness to exert high
levels of effort towards organizational goals, conditioned by the effort's ability to
satisfy some individual needs.
2.
3.
According to Fred Fiedler, three situational variables determine how favorable any
particular situation is for a leader. These three constitute the Fiedler's Leadership
Contingency Model.
1. Leader-member situation - the degree to which members like and trust a
leader and are willing to follow him/her
2. Task structure - the clarity and structure of the elements of the tasks to be
accomplished
12
3.
Power position - the power and authority that are associated with the
leader's position
3.
4.
5.
6.
9.5 Controlling
Controlling is the function of monitoring performance and undertaking corrective
action(s) to assure the attainment of pre-determined goals and objectives of the
organization.
There are several techniques employed in controlling.
1. Evaluation - This identifies areas needing improvement with an aim toward
corrective action.
2. Cost-benefit analysis - This is a systematic approach which seeks to
13
2.
3.
4.
9.6 Marketing
Marketing is the analysis, planning, implementation, and control of carefully
formulated programs designed to bring about voluntary exchange of values with
target markets for the purpose of achieving the organization's objectives. The
marketing mix consists of the following:
5.
6.
7.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Presenting alternative ways to achieve objectives with costbenefit ratios presented for each
Not all library managers probably appreciate the significance of marketing, but that
does not invalidate the premise that this function is central to the library as an
organization. If the library is to be a responsive organization, one whose primary
goals relates to satisfying the information needs and wants of its real and potential
clients, then librarians would do well to consider the contribution of a marketing
program to the achievement of that goal.
14
The academic library should have a vision, as well as clear and concise objectives
that are in line with the mission and vision of the parent institution. It must be
customer/client-based. Also, it must have concern for its staff. The academic
library must be efficient. The imaginative use of information and communications
technology (ICT) must be possessed. The academic library must also have good
public relations and should market its services. The academic library must not be
hesitant to implement necessary changes. It must be designed for continual
flexibility. First class service must be provided by these institutions.
In managing the academic library, the approach is dictated by many factors like
funding
In most academic settings, the library committee forms the central matrix for this
relationship. Library committees however, must not be controlling bodies, but
advisory bodies. There is need for a good relationship between the librarian and
15
the chair of the committee. The committee is a legitimizing body for policies, rules,
and regulations, but the librarian must see to it that she has control over the
minutes. It is very important for the librarian to secure the minutes by any means.
11.2 Planning
Planning establishes goals, and develops policies, procedures, and programs to
achieve them. It is the process of getting an organization to where it is to where it
wants to be in a given period of time by setting it on a pre-determined course of
action.
The librarian needs control over all of these areas for effective management.
Threats in relationships with the academic community include influencing
academic decisions in areas outside the library, and indifference of the faculty, in
action of the chief librarian. The chief librarian must act as leader for his/her staff
and library matters. It is crucial for him/her to be identified with the library. He/She
must display good judgment over organizational and professional matters, and
must take risks when necessary. In most academic settings, the chief librarian
must be able to relate well with the board of trustees, the president, the library
committee, the dean, the faculty, the students, and the finance officer. If
relationship with these people is not good, the librarian will find himself/herself
members of groups such as the school forum, the administrative council, or the
curriculum committee among others, and will be appointed to represent the library
outside the institution.
Planning is working out in the broad outline of things that must be done and the
methods of doing them in order to accomplish the organizational purposes.
The construction of a strategic development plan with a long term vision and a
short-term plan is also involved. The plan will set out the aims and objectives of the
organization and decide where the library would want to be in certain time and
indicate how to get there through various activities. Targets and performance
measure for each activity must be set.
11.3 Organizing
Organizing is grouping activities and establishing organizational structures and
procedures to ensure that activities are performed. It is the process by which the
manager brings order out of chaos, removes conflicts between people over work or
responsibility, and establishes an environment suitable for teamwork.
Organizing ensures the establishment of the formal structure of authority through
which work subdivisions are arranged, defined, and coordinated for the defined
objectives. Organically oriented systems/organizations are where authority and
power are delegated and dispersed. Collaboration and consultation are
emphasized, and the organizational chart features a wide span of control.
inadequate space
low image of librarians as compared with the faculty, which might be the
reason for lack of cooperation of faculty
11.4 Staffing
Staffing is the process of obtaining and training personnel to work in the
organization in order to achieve goals and objectives. This is the whole personnel
function of bringing in and training the staff and maintaining favorable conditions of
work.
16
collections
cooperation
evaluation
physical facilities
11.6 Budgeting
Budgeting is what encompasses fiscal planning, accounting, and control. It is the
primary means by which formulated plans can be carried out.
Several techniques can be considered in budgeting. However, academic libraries
must follow the budget cycle and the budgeting scheme of the parent institution.
Finances must not only be based on the allotment of the parent institution alone,
but the library must find other ways of securing funds and securing them in an
account that will be used for library operations.
The final outcome of budgeting is accounting and reporting. Outputs include
monthly income statement or balance sheet and formal written reports.
11.7 Communicating and Reporting
Communication is basically the transfer of information on goals, objectives, and
performance to personnel throughout the organization and the environment.
Communication may be horizontal, diagonal, as well as vertical. It consists more of
advice, information, and suggestion than direct orders.
12.3 Collection
Since financial resource is finite in academic libraries, academic librarians have to
make decisions regarding the collection. The collection must be guided by the
nature of the academic library and the mission and vision of the parent institution.
Some issues related to content are:
print or online
17
12.5 Cooperation
Because of the increase in the availability of publications, libraries cannot purchase
everything in the market. Instead, they must have policies on which materials must
be available from the stock and which ones may be borrowed from other libraries if
they are members of consortia.
electronic transmission
cost
Several issues concerning different areas in library use and services must be taken
onto account.
1. Cataloging and classification
usability
in-house creation
quality control
access
presentation
2. Reference and information services
level of service
3. Circulation and reserve
retention of stock
user interface
4. Services to external users
size of stock
management style
functional structure
recruitment
promotion
performance evaluation
job rotation
stress
implications of automation
18
PAASCU, PACOCOA, Phi Kappa Phi, ISO, and others).The rule of thumb is be
oriented to actual and potential user needs with actual users given high priority.
who are willing to pay a fee for access. The exposure to external users will also
provide contacts and can expand fee-based services. Examples of actual and
potential sources of income include:
staff salaries
consumables
communication
travel
training
overheads
collection
services
staff
environment
reporting
line-item budgeting
formula budgeting
program budgeting
performance budgeting
furniture
lighting
temperature control
space
Academic libraries should initiate projects that earn extra income for the library.
The extra income provides greater flexibility and financial independence.
Resources which can be income-generating are special collections which cannot
be found in other libraries and therefore will be of great interest to external users
19
4.
5.
6.
Design a web site for the library. The home page of the web site must
display hyperlinks to every online resource available from the library.
Train library staff and library users in using ICT equipment, facilities, and
resources in the library.
Consider the latest developments in ICT like wireless technology.
relevant
good value
high quality
adaptable
The marketing plan is divided into several stages. These stages are
allocating resources
20
information explosion
The special library deals with a specialized clientele, or with specialized materials,
or a combination of both. According to Polly Beam of Rutgers University Special
Libraries Association (RUSLA), special libraries are hard to define. There is no clear
cut line for what is or what not a special library is. So, they tend to be in private,
non-profit, and government organizations which serve the information needs of
those organizations rather than the information needs of the general public.
There are many associations of special libraries throughout the different parts of
the world. In the United States, The Special Libraries Association (SLA) is the most
prominent. The SLA publishes a directory of special libraries and information
centers.
The special library collects books, magazines, and other library materials related to
certain fields of subjects. They cater to specific professional or academic groups
21
The following are the well-known special libraries or parent institutions of special
libraries in the Philippines.
MERALCO
research
corporate or industrial
government
institutional
Most of the time, names of special libraries assume the form name of the parent
institution + "_______ Library"to indicate the subject scope or clientele (e.g.
Technical Library, Business Library, Corporate Library, and so forth).
22
3.
4.
The following table features the various functions in a special library (or in any other
library) according to certain degree.
communication patterns
Personal qualifications - The person must be able to deal and interact with
diverse clients and personalities. He must have good communication skills
and must be able to establish priorities for competing demands. Other
characteristics include perseverance, a sense of intellectual sympathy
with other persons and their work while retaining objectivity, and a sincere
desire to work with and assist others in furthering the organization's goals.
reporting relationships
Outside resources
2.
Organization
Indexing
Abstracting
3.
Dissemination
Readers' services
Reference and research service
Current awareness service (CAS) - routing, acquisition bulletin, library
display, newsletters, selective dissemination of information (SDI)
Since the daily functions of the library require clerical and routine work (receipt and
routing of publications, typing, filing, data entry, clipping, etc.), the organization
may hire a clerk to do all these tasks.
Good information service begins with a professional librarian planning and
supervising clerical and support work to be able to achieve the library's more
extensive goals.
14.4 Space and Equipment
There must be a clear understanding of the role of the library in the organization,
how it achieves its aims, how it is used by clients (degree and nature of use), the
kind of collection, how its staff operates, and its future plans.
In the planning process for space and equipment, the participants are the librarian,
architect and/or space planner or interior designer, and the management. Here are
things that must be taken into account.
1. Location - The library must be visible and convenient to access.
23
2.
library user space ((service and information area, lounge area, study
carrels, group seating, etc.),
3.
For each library worker - 13.9 m2, but the typical is 9.3 m2 for each
office worker
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
The budget process, structure and planning, will depend upon the type of budget
the organization or institution employs. There are several variations in budget
preparation.
salaries
electronic resources
cataloging tools
facilities
photocopying equipment
supplies
services
equipment
furnishing
Potential sources of funds for the library are:
parent organization
fee-based services
projects
14.6 Evaluation and Measurement
Evaluating the library's collection and services are needed to be able to monitor
how far the library has gone in fulfilling its objectives. Therefore, evaluation should
be related to objectives.
There are several methods that can be considered in performing evaluation.
1. User surveys (formal or informal) - Formal user surveys can be conducted
by the management or outside groups. Informal user surveys can be
based on daily interaction with clients.
2. Statistics - This is accomplished by recording all library usage like types
of materials borrowed, frequency of use of a certain material, number of
reference questions answered, etc.
24
3.
4.
5.
confidentiality
financing
library network
library council
library consortia
library cooperative
share resources
exchange information
subject
type of library
multi-type
geographic
15.2 e-Libraries
With the gaining popularity and usage of information and communications
technologies, libraries or learning resource centers have been greatly affected.
While others may have already adopted the concept of an e-library, others are still
left on the crossroad: will they espouse on the idea of an electronic environment, or
will they gear away from this and continue doing what they have been traditionally
accustomed to? There is indeed a big question between traditional and electronic
resources.
translation of materials
document delivery
cooperative acquisition
shared cataloging
creation of records
staff training
25
While the concept of an e-library amazes almost everyone with its advantages of
making available to users or clients the information they need whenever and
wherever, it has some management issues that need to be considered.
26
every 500 students (in the DCS, the proportion is 1:100). The librarian should be
aware of their responsibilities in order that each student will be able to achieve the
optimum of his potential as a learner, as a citizen, and as a human being.
In order that the function of the school library is executed and its purpose be
realized, there is a need for a competent, effective librarian to administer the
library. The librarian should not be only educationally qualified but must also
possess
leadership skills
initiative
ability to manage
enthusiasm
friendliness
cooperative attitude
mental alertness
creativity
tact
variety to interests
John Newberry is considered the "Father of Children's Literature." He was the first
to conceive the idea of publishing books for children.
The modern concept of a school library was introduced in the Philippines by Lois
Osborn. The first school library established in the Philippines is Pampanga High
School Library.
Chapter 17 - Administration of School Libraries
27
information they need to carry out classroom learning activities and to satisfy their
own personal interests.
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
The library must be located as central as possible and in a relatively quiet area.
According to DECS Order 6, s. 1998, there must be a separate building or room
properly constructed for a school library which is well lighted, ventilated, free from
noise, centrally located to be accessible to teachers and pupils, with modified
open-shelf system, and can accommodate at least fifty (50) pupils for library
lessons once a week.
The library can organize a Book Lovers' Club among students. Students who are
members of the club can serve as student assistants who will perform library
chores that can be assigned to them such as cleaning and shelving of library
materials.
Tables and chairs are to be preferred over arm chair and desks.
Tables that can accommodate 4 to 6 students are preferred to
avoid too much talking from the students.
Shelves should be placed along the walls for students to have
free access to library materials.
The circulation desk must be large enough to be able to charge
books to be loaned out. No charging must be needed for
materials to be used within the library.
Card catalog is very necessary for it is the index of what is
contained in the library.
Filing cabinets for vertical files and pictures 85 must be provided.
Carrels for individual study and research may also be
considered.
A bulletin board that and display information should be provided
in order to inform users of recent library developments.
Equipment such as book stand for atlas and dictionary,
newspaper rack, magazine stand, and book truck or book trolley
must also be acquired.
Proper lighting and ventilation is very important to facilitate
comfort for library users. Curtains may be installed to ward off
the glare of the sun.
28
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Provide reading guidance - This can be done through book talks, bulletin
and book displays, reading lists, discussion groups, conference with
teachers and students, assistance in the selection of teaching materials,
maintaining a reader interest file and records for library users.
Preparation and dissemination of library handbooks to students
Organizing library tours - The school librarian can organize library tours to
other school libraries or public libraries.
Encouraging observance of special events - The National Book Week and
book fair are among special events that the library can spearhead.
Consulting other school libraries - The school librarian can consult other
school libraries on the availability of books. Cooperation between the
school library and other libraries can also be considered to maximize
library resources.
2.
Books on history
Skillbooks
Workbooks
Reviewers
3.
4.
5.
The school library must contain the following materials in its collection:
1. General reference - These materials provide a variety of information on
topics of general interest. These include
o Encyclopedia
o Dictionary
o Atlas
o Globe
o Map(s)
o Almanac
6.
7.
photocopy services
Book of knowledge
Philippine yearbook
Book of facts
Thesaurus
Handbooks
Manuals
Literary classics
Book of etiquette
Book of world records
Fiction books
29
Concerning educational materials, there are certain offices under the Department
of Education (DepEd) which are responsible for evaluating and approving
instructional and supplementary materials.
1. Instructional Materials Council (IMC) - This office is responsible for the
approval of all instructional materials used in government schools. For
printed supplementary materials, the IMC Secretariat (IMCS) shall be
responsible for content evaluation of all submitted materials. Evaluation of
prices for these materials is under the jurisdiction of the Price Committee
under the DepEd Office of the Undersecretary for Administration and
Finance. The IMC gives the approval on the procedures followed by the
Price Committee and CET in evaluating prices of materials submitted IMC
finalizes the decision on all evaluated materials by the IMCS, Price
Committee, and CET.
2. Center for Education and Technology (CET) - This separate office is
responsible for content and price evaluation of non-profit supplementary
materials.
The Department of Education for its part has continuously implemented various
programs for the establishment and enhancement of school libraries in the
government schools. One very important program for the improvement of the
school library is the establishment of Learning Resource Centers (LRC's) in the
70's. In most cases, they started as a library, where old and new instructional
materials were stored. With the introduction of new technologies like slides, film
strips, transparencies, and audio-visual materials, the LRD has expanded to
include media services.
Are the materials in the collection appropriate for the ages, abilities, and
background of their users?
Does the library catch and hold the interest of the users?
It is very unfortunate that many of the LRC's established in the 80's and early 90's
do no longer exist due to lack of funds. With the issuance of Order No. 6, s. 1998
of the Department of Education (Department of Education, Culture, and Sports or
DECS at that time) entitled "Policies and Programs for School Library
Development", it is hoped that every school will strive to have a functional school
library.
30
November 1994 has the following key missions of the public library. The Manifesto
is included in the Guidelines for Public Libraries published in 1986 by IFLA which
replaced the Standards for Public Libraries published in 1977. These missions
relate to information, literacy, education, and culture and should be the core of
public library services. The Manifesto proclaims UNESCO's belief in the public
library as a living force for education, culture, and information, and as an external
agent for the fostering of peace and spiritual welfare through the minds of men and
women. UNESCO therefore encourages national and local governments to support
and actively engage in the development of public libraries.
The public library is the local center for information, making all kinds of knowledge
and information readily available to its users. The services of a public library are
provided on the basis of equality of access for all, regardless of social and cultural
background. Specific services and materials must be provided for those users who
cannot use the regular services and materials for reasons like linguistic minorities,
people with disabilities, people in hospitals and prisons, and other relevant
reasons.
All age groups must find materials relevant to their needs. Collections and services
have to include all types of appropriate media and modern technologies as well as
traditional materials. High quality and relevance to local needs and conditions are
fundamental. Materials must reflect current trends and evolution of society, as well
as the memory of human endeavor and imagination. Collections and services
should not be subject to any form of ideological, political, or religious censorship,
nor commercial pressures.
The Public Research Group of London and Home Counties Branch of the Library
Association of United Kingdom set out in 1971 the following objectives for the
public library services.
In 1977, The Public Library Association of the American Library Association (ALA)
issued the Mission Statement for Public Libraries in the United States. In 1987, ALA
published Planning and Role Setting in Public Libraries, a manual devised by the
Public Library Association to help public libraries identify their priority roles and
The UNESCO Public Library Manifesto, first issued in 1949, revised in cooperation
with International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA) and adopted in
31
plan, measure, and evaluate services to suit these roles. These public libraries
include the Community Activities Center, Formal Education Support Center,
Independent Learning Center, Popular Materials Library, Preschoolers' Door to
Learning, Reference Library, and Research Center.
congressional districts, the only congressional district library so far since the
enactment of RA 7743 is the congressional district library in Mandaluyong City.
Forty nine (49) provincial libraries out of 79 provinces have already been
established. Out of ninety nine (99) cities, 79 were able to establish city libraries.
One hundred five (105) out of 1510 municipalities have their municipal libraries. Of
more than 41,000 barangays, around three hundred were able to put up barangay
reading centers. Forty one (41) bookmobile units were also established under the
supervision of selected provincial or city libraries.
Act No. 1849 - passed on June 3, 1908, this provided for the
establishment of a public library to be known as The Philippine Public
Library, making suitable appropriations, and for other purposes.
The first effort to establish a public library outside Manila was made on June 21,
1904 with the enactment of Act No. 1175, AN Act Authorizing the Establishment of
a Circulating Library in the Province of Albay. No provision was given for the
implementation of the Act, thus the library did not materialize. It was in 1955 when
Albay Provincial Library was organized. Iloilo Provincial Library was the first to earn
the distinction of being the first regular provincial library established in the
Philippines; it was organized on October 29, 1916.
March 2000 marked the centennial celebration of the public library system in the
Philippines. A nationwide search for Outstanding Public Libraries was conducted.
Fifteen (15) public libraries (three provincial libraries, six city libraries, five municipal
libraries, and one regional library) were awarded.
19.3 Public Libraries Categorized
There are more than one thousand (1,000) public libraries in the country. However,
only about 50% of this number is operational. Public libraries are categorized as
follows: national, regional, congressional district, provincial, city, municipal, and
barangay reading centers.
At present, the only regional library established in the Philippines is the regional
library in Autonomous Region for Muslim Mindanao (ARMM). Out of more than 200
32
collections and annual report of activities. These are required because of the
Property Accountability set by the government.
A clear policy must be formulated defining objectives, priorities, and services in
relation to the local community needs. The public library has to be organized
effectively and professional standards of operation must be maintained. According
to the Minimum Standards for Public Libraries, public library services in the
Philippines are aimed to
develop a national network and linkage among public libraries with The
National Library as the center in order to facilitate research and reference
needs of patrons.
Cooperation with relevant partners - for example user groups and other
professionals at local, regional, national, as well as international - has to
be ensured.
Services have to be physically accessible to all members of the community. This
requires well suited library buildings, good reading and study facilities, as well as
relevant technologies and sufficient opening hours convenient to users. It equally
implies outreach services for those unable to visit the library.
The library must be adapted to the different needs of communities in urban and
rural areas. The librarian is an active intermediary between users and resources.
Professional and continuing education of the librarian is indispensable to ensure
adequate services. Outreach and user education programs have to be provided to
help users benefit from all the resources.
Formulation of public library standards reflects the fresh concept of public library
service and organizational goals to stimulate new developments and focus
attention in the field. Standards are used as guides when implementing goals for
development and setting directions for the future. The UNESCO Public Library
Manifesto is a broad charter of public library goals. It states that public libraries are
local centers of information, making all kinds of information readily available to its
users. It does not cover the full variety of purposes and activities that a public
library can serve, but it does identify the most fundamental and common. These
are
33
staff and if the fund allows, two (2) support personnel that includes one (1) clerk
and one (1) utility worker.
to be the principal means whereby the record of man's thought and ideas,
and the expression of his creative imagination, are made freely available
to all
to refresh the human spirit by the provision of books and other media for
relaxation and pleasure
to assist students
to provide technical, scientific, and sociological information
Librarian I - SG 10
Librarian II - SG 14
Librarian III - SG 18
Librarian IV - SG 22
Librarian V - SG 24
With the development of new public library standards, the tendency towards
qualitative measure became noticeable. Traditionally, standards are measured and
expressed in numerical terms such as number of staff, books, etc. Modern
standards start with the proposition that the public library system should
themselves determine what is appropriate in their particular circumstances. A good
example of a traditional form of library standards is the Standards for public
libraries issued by IFLA in 1973. Modern library standards include Staffing for
Public Libraries, A Planning Process for Public Libraries, and Output Measure for
Public Libraries.
The Standards for Public Libraries was issued in 1988 and had its revisions in
2001. The revised edition was submitted to the PRC Board for Librarians for
review, evaluation, integration, and implementation in its project - Standards for
Philippine Libraries.
20.2 Personnel and Compensation
Public libraries must be managed by professionally trained, competent, and
licensed librarians. They must be supported by competent support services staffs.
Sufficient number of personnel must be hired to attain quality service.
The library budget shall be adjusted annually to make it relevant with the
time.
Majority of provincial and city librarians are licensed librarians. Each public library
is headed by a chief librarian with a salary grade depending on the class of the
province, city, or municipality. Most provincial and city librarians are given a salary
grade of 22 although a few in the ranks of Librarian I have a salary grade of 10.
The size of staff in a public library depends on the population served and the size
of the collection. For every increase of 50,000 people, a corresponding addition of
one professional and one support staff is suggested. Regional, congressional
district, provincial and city libraries must have at least four (4) professional
librarians and three (3) members of the support services staff, (excluding those
holding non-classified positions like utility workers, etc.). Public libraries of first
class municipalities must employ two (2) professional librarians and adequate
support/non-professional staff as needed; while lower class municipalities
including barangay reading centers, there should be at least one (1) full time library
20.4 Collection
Collection development in public libraries, which is mainly selection and acquisition
of books and other library materials, is rested on the librarian with the assistance of
professional staff. The clientele can also recommend materials that can be
considered. The collection must reflect the library's objectives and the needs of the
34
community served. The collection must include books, ephemeral materials, nonprint material in various formats like electronic databases and computer software
application, audiovisual materials and the like, and non-book materials like
periodicals, maps, pamphlets, etc. It is also their responsibility to have collection of
materials on local history.
library to keep abreast with the time. Layout of equipment and furniture must
permit smooth mobility of users, library personnel, and the materials.
20.6 Library Services
Library services must be provided with the highest degree of efficiency and
integrity, keeping in mind that the public library is a service agency of the
government. The library must reflect and answer the information needs of the
community. Library hours must be for the maximum benefit of the community it
serves.
The size of the library collection is directly influenced by the allocation from The
National Library and annual appropriations from the local government units. Every
year, The National Library allocates books and other forms of library materials to
operational public libraries. To be entitled with the allocation, the local government
unit has to signify through formal communication its intention to register its public
library. A Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) to be executed by the above
mentioned offices serves as the binding document which defines their
responsibilities and/or obligations. Regardless of population, a minimum of 3,000
volumes of books is deemed as initial collection for public libraries in the regions,
provinces, cities, and first class municipalities. For public libraries in lower class
municipalities, an initial collection of 2,000 volumes is recommended while 500 in
barangay reading centers. In any public library, a provision of at least 10% increase
in the collection must be regarded. Aside from books and other library materials
allocated by The National Library, collections in public libraries also come from
their local government units.
The library's collection must be classified and cataloged and must be organized
according to internationally accepted standards for easy access and retrieval.
Open shelves system must be promoted to give users free access to library
materials. The library should provide materials for the wholesome development of
the community regardless of age, creed, religion, and cultural affiliations. Materials
on local history and culture must be maintained, preserved, and conserved. Public
libraries may consider the following services to promote the library to the general
public:
Activities like storytelling and book talks for children, book discussions, exhibits,
poetry reading and interpretation, plays, demonstrations, shows, and many others
can also be organized in public libraries.
The size of any public library building must consider the following:
community population
size of staff
services to be offered
Public libraries must provide adequate space for reading areas, stack areas, work
rooms, multimedia rooms, storage rooms, staff lounges, toilets for the library staff
and the public, and for other facilities. A minimum seating capacity of 48-60 people
at any one time is recommended for regional, congressional district, provincial,
city, and first class municipality libraries; at least 36-48 for lower class
municipalities; and 12-24 for barangay reading centers. Functional equipment and
furniture must be adequate to generate an environment conducive for pleasant and
effective use of materials and services, and help in the efficient operation of the
20.8 Networks
35
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The library may as well initiate the organization of groups or volunteers to handle
fund raising to financially support the library and handle activities in line with library
programs and services.
8.
The nucleus of The National Library is the Museo Biblioteca de Filipinas which was
established in 1887 with Don Pedro Paterno as the first director. It has a measly
collection of books. Paterno was responsible in publishing the first library
periodical in the Philippines, Boletin del Museo Biblioteca de Filipinas.
36
The Philippine islands. The Philippine Library was later named The National Library.
It was organized to unify all activities of government libraries.
concerns held in the Philippines were co-sponsored by The National Library and
the Philippine Library Association.
When Dr. Robertson resigned in 1915, his successors in the position were either
Filipino scholars or trained librarians. Dr. Trinidad H. Pardo de Tavera was the
director when the Philippine Library Association was organized in October 1923,
and eventually became the president of the association. Since then, The National
Library already had fifteen (15) directors, among of them were Teodoro M. Kalaw,
Epifanio de los Santos, Luis Montilla, and Eulogio B. Rodriguez, the first
professionally trained library director. The present director as the 16th, Mrs.
Prudenciana Cruz.
After transferring from one location to another, The National library found its
permanent home at T. M. Kalaw Street in Manila. The National Library building was
constructed out of public contributions during the centennial celebration of Dr.
Jose P. Rizal's birth in 1961. The National library has eleven (11) divisions at
present. These are:
Filipiniana
Government Publications
Reference
Bibliographic Services
Public libraries
Administrative
Support Services
The National Library and the Philippine Library Association worked out for the
issuance of Proclamation No. 109 designating November 24-30 each year as
National Book Week. This was signed by President Manuel L. Quezon on
November 19, 1936.
22.1 PHILIN
The Philippine Library Information Network (PHILIN is the fill implementation of the
Integrated Library Computerization project of The National Library. The Information
Technology Center of The National Library handles all activities related to library
automation. Online Public Access Catalog (OPAC) is currently installed at the
Filipiniana Division, hopefully will also be available in the Reference Division and
Asia and Oceania Division soon. The National Library deems the necessity of
issuing bar-coded readers identification cards.
In 1991, with the support of the National Commission for Culture and the Arts, The
National Library was able to work for the passage of Proclamation No. 837 signed
by President Corazon C. Aquino declaring November 1991 and every November
thereafter as Library and Information Sciences Month. Various international and
regional conferences, as well as other activities related to educational and cultural
On May 27, 1998, The National Library launched its project for the public library
system in the country, the Public Libraries' Information Center (PUBLIN), a part of
PHILIN. The project aims to facilitate a way to having access to all types of library
materials nationwide through the public library system. It aims to establish
networking and resource sharing among public libraries.
The library has an aggregate collection of more than one million volumes excluding
non-book materials, rare books, and manuscripts.
37
The National Library also distributed computer units and upgraded computer
systems among 65 public libraries. The computers were installed with TINLIB.
Another software used by The National Library and other public libraries in the
computerization of programs and activities is the Libraries Solution. The respective
local government units of the recipient public libraries were required to sign a
Memorandum of Agreement between them and The National Library, where
responsibilities of both parties were stipulated. The computers and software
programs were distributed and upgraded on March 15, 2001, along with the
launching of the website of The National Library and the inauguration of the
Internet Room in The National Library.
The National Library continuously acquires books and other library materials for the
collection development of the reading areas of the central library and for allocation
to the public library system. In addition, it also houses books and materials
appraised with permanent cultural and historical value. These include De Moluccis
Insulis, known as the first book printed book about the Philippines. The Filipiniana
Division keeps an extant copy about Magellan's expedition which was written in
Spain in 1522 and was published in France the following year. The 30-paged copy
measured 7.5 by 15 cm. Also kept in The National Library is a facsimile of Doctrina
Christiana, the first book printed in the Philippines. Original copies of the work are
kept in the Library of Congress in the United States and in few libraries in Spain.
The project is a portal to a union database of the holdings of the five institutions,
containing over one million bibliographic records. Selected Filipiniana materials are
available in full text (about 22,000 pages) were also uploaded in the database to
serve researchers and other users. The project also serves an on-line database of
over 29,000 titles of serials and periodicals. The project was officially launched on
April 19, 2005. Access points or kiosks were put up in public libraries, zonal
research centers, regional government offices, and research institutes of
participating agencies all over the country. Users can access through the link. The
Data Center of this project is at The National Library, while the mirror site is at the
University of the Philippines Main Library.
The National Library launched the Library for the Blind Division which aims to cater
to special clientele who are blind or visually handicapped. The collections
contained in this division are Braille materials, large print materials, and talking
books (audio books). With support from Resources for the Blind Foundation, a
complete set of computers equipped with necessary software and accessories for
visually-impaired and blind individuals, like synthesizer and machine for enlarging
fine printed materials.
38
The aspect of planning in collection development is not simply to cater for the
immediate needs of the community, but to build a coherent and reliable collection
over some time to meet the objectives of library service. Using information
resources produced within and outside the organization, collection development
makes certain the information needs of people using the collection are met in a
timely and economic manner.
Collection development also identifies the strengths and weaknesses of the
library's holdings in terms of patron needs and community resources and
attempting to correct existing weaknesses. The following is a summary of the
general principles of collection development.
1. Collection development should be geared primarily to identified needs
rather than abstract standards of quality.
2. To be effective, collection development must be responsive to the total
community needs, not confined to those of current or active users.
3. Collection development should be carried out with complete knowledge
and participation of cooperative programs at the local, regional, national,
and international levels.
4. Collection development should consider all formats of information
resources in the collection.
5. Collection development was, is, and will always be a subjective, biased
work. The intervention of the selector's personal values into the process
can never be avoided.
6. Collection development is not something that one learns entirely in the
classroom or from reading. Only through practice and the encounter of
mistakes will a person become proficient of developing a collection.
There are certain rules that govern collection development in relation to the size of
a library's service community.
39
why the patron community does or does not use a particular product or
service
40
perpetual licensing
limited availability of published foreign titles from local book stores and
dealers
preservation
The selector must really get to know well of the community the library serves. He
must keep an eye on the following factors.
popular TV shows
3.
How suitable is the subject, style, and reading level of the material for the
community?
School library media centers - They, like academic libraries, are intended
to serve as curriculum support. School media center libraries have an
41
2. Currency
2. Construction quality
For books and periodicals, does the material have good print quality? Is
the paper of appropriate quality?
3. Scope
3. Potential use
4. Interest
Does the source have the potential for being heavily used in the library?
5. Organization
Can the user easily find the information needed in the book? Are there
appropriate access points, indexes, and cross references?
How will the material strengthen the library collection? Will it fill a gap,
complement something that is already present, or provide an alternative
opinion to what is already covered?
6. Format
What is the quality of the binding and the paper (acid free is preferred)?
5. Bibliographic considerations
Is the type of publication and the format appropriate for your library?
7. Special features
Does the book include important illustrations or other features that would
make it valuable?
8. Cost
6. Cost
Almost all libraries have limited budgets and have to make very careful
decisions about how to allocate their funds during the selection process.
One approach to the selection process is to rank the materials desired for
selection. More expensive materials that are ranked highly must still be
purchased, but then the library would be unable to purchase as many
items. These decisions can be difficult to make, but prioritizing patron
needs is always a good way to start.
9. Accuracy
Would experts in the subject agree that the item is a good source?
10. Impartiality
It the book does not have a balanced treatment, does you book collection
in the subject address differing viewpoints?
42
included in the genre are annuals (examples are reports and yearbooks), memoirs,
proceedings, etc.
4. Format issues
5. Indexing
Will back issues be needed? If so, how much will be expended for binding
or transferring to microforms?
7. Demand
Is the title readily available through interlibrary loan of from a library which
you have a resource sharing agreement?
24.6 Selection Criteria for Multimedia Materials
Multimedia materials come in several; formats. They include
audio recordings (single track and multiple tracks; CDs and audio books)
computer programs
microforms
Just like any other information resource material, several selection criteria also
apply for serials.
1. Purpose, scope, and audience - This can be determined by examining the table
of contents, the range of writers, authors, and editors, as well as the vocabulary
used in the article.
the amount in the budget allocated for audiovisual materials (the cost per
audiovisual item is greater than for print materials)
3. Local interest
43
Will the item circulate, or will the item be available only for in-house use?
Will the library be a member of resource sharing networks? If so, will the
material become part of the shared materials pool?
The most popular audio materials in libraries are spoken books on tape (talking
books), which may also be available in CDs. Language learning cassette tapes are
of importance if the community includes many bilingual or multi-lingual people to
facilitate language learning of foreign languages and other languages of local
interest.
2. Content factors
Will you collect complete works or abridged versions? Does abridging the
work affect the story?
3. Technical factors
Are the visuals in proper focus, the compositions effective, and the shots
appropriate?
How may the format be used - can it be viewed by small or large groups
or by both?
4. Format factors
Is the format the best one for the stated purposes of the producer?
Is the format the least expensive of those that are appropriate for the
content?
Will the carrier medium stand up to the amount and type of use that library
patrons would give it?
If damage occurs, can it be repaired, or must one buy a replacement
copy, or does it require maintenance?
What equipment is needed to access the material?
44
How accurately does the video depict real life events? What message
does the video intend to convey?
Did the movie flap at the box office?
How does your library's video collection complement the selection of
commercial video store present in the area?
Does the electronic resource offer any special features that are not
available in the print version? For example, most electronic resources
offer multiple access points to the data that are not possible with print
resources, and some electronic sources can provide full text contents.
scale
type of projection
information represented
2. Access
How will these resources be accessed and what will be the implication for
other library services? For example, it is common for libraries that acquire
a CD-ROM version of a particular index to experience an increase in
number of interlibrary loan for periodical titles they do not have.
How many users will the electronic resource accommodate at one tome?
45
Internet and World Wide Web resources have been the subjects of debates in the
library world today. The basic issue is how to incorporate a vast, constantly
changing, unstructured, and unregulated conglomeration of information into our
understanding of library services.
How can the content of the electronic database be accessed? What type
of search options does the resource provide? The user interface and
search strategies vary widely from one product to another.
3. Technical support
How much training will library personnel need to feel comfortable using
the product and how much time will it take to train users?
How detailed are the instructions that come with the product? Are there
online help screens?
Will library employees and users be retrained to use the latest version of a
product?
Authority
o is the page signed?
o Are the credentials of the author given? If so, are they sufficient
to convince you that the author is a reliable source of information
on this subject?
Publishing body
o Is the author of the page affiliated with the organization that
published the page?
o Is the organization a recognized source of reliable information?
o Verifiability/accuracy
o Are there any obvious inaccuracies and/or grammar or spelling
errors?
o Is it possible to verify non-published information by contacting
the source?
o Can the information be verified in other published, reliable
sources?
Currency
o Is there a publication date? If so, is the information too old to be
useful?
o Can it be determined when and how often the page is revised?
Balance
o Is bias hidden by not identifying the author, organization, or
publishing body?
o Does the page present an authoritative position, whether
conventionally accepted, controversial, or politically influenced?
Appropriateness of format
o Would the material be better if presented in a different format?
Audience
o What is the intended audience for the web site?
Purpose
o Is the web site intended to be educational, informational, or
entertaining?
o Is the material successful in serving its purpose?
o How does it compare with other internet and print resources
covering the same information?
4. Cost
What kind of charges can the library expect for initial connections or from
telecommunications providers?
What are the expected printing costs? Will patrons be charged for printing
to help compensate for these expenses?
5. Legal considerations
46
2. Access
Searching
o If appropriate, does the site provide a mechanism for searching
the content of the site? How ell does it work?
Organization
o How clear or confusing is the site? Is it well organized?
o Is the information needed easily reached by minimum navigation
between pages or links?
Download time
o How long does it take to load the site?
o Is it worth the wait?
Stability
o Does the URL change frequently? If changes are made, is the
new address made easily available?
Links
o Are appropriate, working links provided?
o Are the links annotated?
3. Design
Construction
o Is the page easily navigated, or are you forced to scroll through
pages of text?
o Are there sections which are "under construction" or otherwise
not working?
Instructions
o Are essential instructions available and easily understood?
Graphics
o Do graphic elements add to the page or distract from its
contents?
o Are the graphics relevant and/or useful?
Building Library Collection (6th ed., 1985 by Mary D. Carter, et. al.
Library Journal
Booklist
Choice
finish (silver halide, diazo, or vesicular) which affects price and durability
Book reviews are also available from the internet. Some of the web sites that
contain book reviews include:
Bookwire at
47
b. "Best of" books and recommended lists - These materials are intended for noncurrent reviews. They can be used as checklists to see to it that no good book has
been missed. If the selectors know that the library community's reading choices
are influenced by recommendations, they may want to consider recommended lists
in the book selection process. Examples of web sites that contain such lists are
Literary Lists at
Deutsche Nationalbibliographie
c. Subject lists
2. Comprehensive resources include such listings as all of the books published in
the United States, in a bookstore inventory, by a particular publisher, and so on.
They can be useful for verifying the bibliographic and purchasing information for a
book, for identifying new book publications, for facilitating the purchasing and
ordering process, and for keeping up with publishing trends. Included in the
category are:
Bookwire at
In aid the librarian in selecting audio materials, there are printed publications that
contain reviews of audio materials which may help. Some of these titles include
Publisher's Weekly
AudioFile
Library Journal
Audiobook Review
Parent's Choice
Amazon.com at , the largest online bookstore in the world. It is a fullservice online bookstore providing lists of book sellers, award-winners,
and excerpts from review sources.
Barnes and Noble at , which offers over one million books that can be
searched for and purchased over the internet.
Choice
Library Journal
Video Librarian
Video Review
c. Directories of in-print and out-of-print books - These are resources for finding
bibliographic and purchasing information of books that are available for purchase,
are about to be published, or are no longer being printed. Examples of titles
included in this category are
Forthcoming Books
Weekly Records
Books in Print
48
Maps, globes, photographs, illustrations, and some kinds of games fall under the
graphic materials genre. Reviews of graphic materials can be found in professional
sources such as the Cartography and Geographic Information Systems (formerly
American Cartographer).
Another group of sources of information useful in the selection of serials are serials
lists. Here are some titles.
Cartographic Journal at
US Geological Association at
Microform Review
Chapter 26 - Publishing
UMI at
Chadwyck-Healey at
Norman Ross at
Library Journal
If the main concern is the addition of established serial titles (instead of new ones)
to the serials collection, Magazines for Libraries by William Katz is a nice tool. It
selectively lists and annotates approximately 7,000 'best' magazines for libraries. It
can be used to build periodicals subscriptions in a particular subject area. This is
published in an interval of several years, so it is not a useful tool for new periodicals
or for everyday collection development.
Directories of periodicals and newspapers are standard reference sources useful in
finding subscription information. They provide brief descriptions of periodicals and
newspapers. These sources aim at being comprehensive rather than selective and
are published on an annual basis. Popular titles of these sources are
49
produce specialty titles. They have three major markets - bookstores, libraries, and
wholesalers. Examples: HarperCollins, Alfred A. Knopf, Doubleday, Macmillan
11. Reprint publishers focus their efforts on reprinting titles no longer in print.
Libraries and scholars are their sales targets. Many of the titles they reprint are no
longer in the public domain; that is, no longer covered by copyrights.
12. Small presses print a limited quantity of titles. They are thought as literary
presses by some. These presses are usually operated by one person doing
sidelines in publishing.
3. Textbooks publishers target the primary and secondary schools. They develop a
line of textbooks for several grades. They are in one of the highest-risk areas in
publishing. Examples: Ginn or Scott, Foresman & Company
1. ISBN
ISBN is a unique 10-digit standard number assigned to identify a specific edition of
a book or other monographic publication issued by a given publisher, under a
system recommended for international use by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1969. In the ISBN system, media such as audiorecordings,
videorecordings, microfiche, and computer software are considered monographic
publications, but serials, music sound recordings, and printed music are excluded
because other identification systems have been developed to cover them. The
ISBN is usually printed on the verso of the title page and on the back of the dust
jacket of a book published in hardcover, or at the foot of the back cover in
paperback editions. In AACR2, the ISBN is entered in the standard number and
terms of availability area of the bibliographic description.
The ISBN is divided into four parts separated by a space or hyphen: a group
number identifier one to five digits in length identifying the national, language,
geographic, or other area in which the edition is published; a publisher prefix one
to seven digits in length uniquely identifying the publisher; a title number one to six
digits in length identifying the title, volume, or edition of the work; and a check digit
that allows any transcription errors in the preceding sequence to be detected by a
computer. For example, in the ISBN 0-8389-0847-0, the 0 at the beginning
identifies the United States as the country of publication, the second element
9. Paperback publishers produce two types of work - quality trade paperbacks and
mass-market paperbacks. Usually, they are a division of trade publishers that issue
paperbound versions of books previously issued in hardbound editions. Their
distribution price is usually lower and is based on the concept of mass sales.
50
(8389) identifies the American Library Association as the publisher, the third
element (0847) identifies the 2003 edition of the book Metadata Fundamentals for
All Librarians by Priscilla Caplan, and the 0 at the end is the check digit. When a
calculated check digit is the number 10, the letter X is used, but in the other parts
of the ISBN only the arabic numerals 0-9 are used.
The 10-digit ISBN system has a theoretical numbering capacity of 1 billion. Over
the past 35 years, numbers have been assigned in over 150 countries and the rate
of depletion has accelerated with the proliferation of new publishing formats. To
increase numbering capacity, ISO has announced a transition to a 13-digit ISBN, to
be implemented worldwide on January 1, 2007. The 13-digit number will be
identical to the Bookland EAN barcoded version of the current 10-digit ISBN, which
has an added 3-digit prefix and a recalculated check digit. In the United States,
allocation of publisher prefixes and assignment of ISBNs is managed by R. R.
Bowker. ISBN codes for publishers are listed in the Publishers' International ISBN
Directory available from Bowker.
2. ISSN
ISSN is a unique eight-digit standard number assigned by the International Serials
Data System (ISDS) to identify a specific serial title. For example, ISSN 0363-0277,
identifies the publication Library Journal. In 2001, the scope of the ISSN was
extended to cover continuing resources in general. The ISSN is usually given in the
masthead of each issue or on the copyright page of each volume or part of a
series. When a continuing resource undergoes a title change, a new ISSN is
assigned. The ISSN International Centre located in Paris, France, maintains a Web
site at: .
3. ISMN
wholesalers or jobbers
publishers
This is an alphanumeric code assigned to identify printed music available for sale,
hire, or free of charge. Used in music publishing, the music trade, and libraries, the
ISMN uniquely identifies a title issued by a given publisher in a particular edition.
The ISMN is not used for sound recordings (audiotapes, CDs, etc.),
videorecordings, or books about music. Music publications issued in series can
have both an International Standard Serial Number and an ISMN, the ISSN
identifying the ongoing serial and the ISMN an individual title in the series. When
both are assigned, the two numbers are printed clearly on the copyright page.
Economy and efficiency are the two basic considerations in selecting dealers and
suppliers. These two broad categories are further subdivided as follows.
quality of service
speed of fulfillment
Composed of the letter M followed by nine digits, the ISMN is divided into four
parts (two of which are of variable length) separated by the hyphen. In the example
M-2306-7118-7, the letter M distinguishes the code from standard numbers used
to identify other types of material, the second part (2306) is a unique publisher
51
Some dealers and vendors may have any of the following added services which the
librarian may also consider.
payment processing
27.4 Understanding Invoices
An invoice is a written record sent to the library by the publisher or vendor about
library materials provided and the amount charged for them. This is sent to the
library as a request for payment. It may also stand for the shipment of goods that is
recorded on an invoice
BO - back order
OC - order cancelled
OP - out of print
OS - out of stock
XR - non-refundable
2. Standing order is an order sent to the library by the supplier for library materials
for purchase as it is published unless otherwise notified. This is typical for materials
published in series.
3. Approval plan is a formal arrangement in which a publisher or wholesaler agrees
to select and supply publications exactly as issued which fit a library's preestablished collection development profile. Specified in advance, the library
materials are subject to return privileges. This method involves the creation of
approval profiles usually specifying subject areas, levels of specialization or
reading difficulty, series, formats, price ranges, languages, and other
considerations. There are times dealers provide plans in advance through
notification slips instead of sending the actual physical items.
4. Blanket order is an agreement in which a publisher or dealer supplies to a library
or library system one copy of each publication as issued, on the basis of a profile
established in advance by the purchaser. This method is mainly used in large
academic and public libraries to reduce the amount of time required for selection
and acquisition, and to speed up the process of getting new titles into circulation.
Unlike approval plans, most blanket order plans do not allow returns. The
Greenway plan in the United States is one of the best-known examples.
52
The library may also compromise with other libraries or organizations to exchange
unwanted or duplicate materials in the collection. This may also deal with
exchange of own publications or materials between libraries/institutions.
lack of time (if performed, it takes time from the regular routine)
claims file
invoices
accession record
financial reports
short reports
statements of account
credit memos
How well do members of the collection development staff carry out their
duties?
2. Financial/budgetary needs
suspended editions
duplication of titles
obsolescence of technology
53
4. Extra-organizational needs
circulation studies
54
The most prominent bibliographic files present in libraries are library catalogs.
These contain records of items contained or found in a single library or group of
libraries, in which case it is called the union catalog. Library catalogs may either be
in physical card stacks or books, or can be accessed via computers through CDROMS or the online public access catalog (OPAC). Bibliographic files consist of
bibliographic records. These represent information entities by providing description
of particular items and access points. The set of bibliographic information of a
particular item in the library recorded in the catalogs represents a single
bibliographic record.
To enable a person to find a book of which either the author, the title, or
the subject is known
Shelflist - This represents the library holdings in the way they are
arranged in the shelves. They are same records as those in the
bibliographic files but are filed by call number.
Authority file - These are the result of "authority work," where "official
terms" are adopted and recorded by cataloging agencies for future
references.
55
2.
3.
uniform entries for the Bible. Sir Thomas Bodley did an inverse of Genser's work.
He advocated the classified arrangement of a catalog with an alphabetical index of
authors by surname. Gabriel Naude recommended the compilation of a divided
catalog. He also promoted the use of catalogs as retrieval device and an expansive
shelf arrangement. The French were the pioneer in using catalogs in the library.
As the modern period came, more significant developments in cataloging arrived.
More libraries realized the importance of Library catalogs. Sir Anthony Panizzi
formulated the British Museum Cataloging Rules in 1939 for the British Museum.
Later in the United States (1853), Charles C. Jewett developed a code for the
catalog of the Smithsonian Institution. This code, known as the Jewett's Rules
originated the principle of corporate author and "US" as the author of public
documents. In 1908, American and British libraries started to adapt author and title
entries in their cataloging rules (through AA 1908). In Europe two cataloging
systems became popular - the Prussian Instructions and the Vatican Code. The
Prussian Instructions was originally developed as a standardized system of
cataloging for Prussian libraries. It was adopted by many libraries in Germanic and
Scandinavian countries. The Vatican Code, on the other hand, were developed for
the purpose of compiling a general catalog of printed books in the Vatican Library
after its reorganization in the 1920s. It has been called an "international code with a
definite American bias".
The American Library Association (ALA) issued in 1941 the ALA draft of ALA
Catalog Rules: Author and Title Entries. It was in 1949 when ALA adopted the
Rules for Descriptive Cataloging on the Library of Congress. Later, ALA released
ALA Catalog Rules which was edited by Clara Beetle.
In 1961, the International Conference on Cataloging Principles was held. The major
product of this event was the Paris Principles, a set of statements drew heavily
from Lubetzky's 1960 draft code. This made a major influence in AACR's principles
on entry and headings.
In 1969, the International Meeting of Cataloging Experts took place in Copenhagen,
Denmark. The event gave birth to the International Standard Bibliographic
Description (ISBD), a document that advocated the use of special punctuation
marks to distinguish bibliographic elements. The document was adopted in 1971
by the International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA).
The medieval period was marked with significant developments. Inventories and
lists for librarians' use gained more importance. Union lists for English libraries
came during the 13th century. The use of location codes similar to the call numbers
we use today marked the 14th century. The periods from 15th to 18th centuries
bequeathed further progress in cataloging. Librarians began to use cross
references. Johann Tritheim introduced his concept of bibliography in
chronological order. Konrad Genser, considered as the "father of bibliography"
advocated the compilation of a bibliography by author with a subject index. An
early scheme of classification and call numbers as well as the use of multiple
entries was introduced by Florian Trefler. Andrew Maunsell, an English bookseller,
advocated that entry for personal name be made under surname. He also set up
56
Library Association and the Library Association (UK), and the A.L.A. Cataloging
Rules for Author and Title Entries (1949), with its companion volume Rules for
Descriptive Cataloging in the Library of Congress.
Cooperation between the ALA, the Library Association, and the Canadian Library
Association resumed with the joint publication in 1967 of Anglo-American
Cataloging Rules, which is divided into two parts: rules for creating the
bibliographic description of an item of any type and rules governing the choice and
form of entry of headings (access points) in the catalog. This was based on two
previous works - Seymour Lubetzky's Code for Cataloging Rules, Author and Title
Entry: an Unfinished Draft and the Paris Statement. Lubetzky was the first editor of
AACR 1967, and was succeeded by C. Summer Spalding.
There are several versions of MARC in use in the world, the most predominant
being MARC21, created in 1999 as a result of the harmonization of U.S. and
Canadian MARC formats; UKMARC, used primarily in the United Kingdom; and
UNIMARC, widely used in Europe. The MARC21 family of standards now includes
formats for authority records, holdings records, classification schedules, and
community information, in addition to formats for the bibliographic record.
Widespread use of the MARC standard has helped libraries acquire predictable
and reliable cataloging data, make use of commercially available library automation
systems, share bibliographic resources, avoid duplication of effort, and ensure that
bibliographic data will be compatible when one automation system is replaced by
another.
A second edition (AACR2) was published in 1978. This edition was edited by
Michael Gorman and Paul W. Winkler. This was published under the auspices of
ALA, British Library, Canadian Committee on Cataloging, and the Library
Association (UK).
AACR2 was revised by the same editors in 1988 (AACR2R) to reflect changes in
information formats. The 1998 revision includes changes and corrections
authorized since 1988 by the Joint Steering Committee for Revision of AACR (JSC),
including amendments authorized through 1997. Member organizations in the JSC
are the same as those in the 1978, with the addition of Australian Committee on
Cataloging,
Additional amendments were issued in 1999 and 2001. The current version, AngloAmerican Cataloguing Rules, Second edition, 2002 Revision (AACR2 2002),
includes extensive revisions to chapter 12 on continuing resources (formerly known
as serials). AACR2-e is a hypertext version published by ALA Editions that includes
all amendments through 2001.
The MARC record is divided into fields, each containing one or more related
elements of bibliographic description. A field is identified by a three-digit tag
designating the nature of its content.
57
7XX fields - Added entries other than subject or series 8XX fields - Series added
entries (other authoritative forms)
3.
Parallel title - This is the title proper in another language. This element is
preceded by the equals sign (=).
4.
Other title information - This is a borne by an item other than the title
proper, parallel title, or series title. This is any phrase appearing in
conjunction with the title proper, indicative of the character, contents, etc.
of the item, or the motives for or occasion of its production or publication.
This element is preceded by a space-colon-space (" : "). Example: The
Philippine islands : a history
5.
1.
Title proper - The title proper is the chief name of an item, including any
alternative title but excluding parallel titles and other title information. An
alternative title is the second part of the title proper that is consisted of
two parts, joined by the word or. The title may also appear repeatedly, in
full or abbreviated form, at the head or foot of each page or leaf. This is
known as the running title. Example: Crushed violet, or A servant girl's
tale
2.
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publisher, and date of publication or release. This place of publication and name of
publisher is not recorded for unpublished materials, like naturally occurring objects.
This area of description contains the following elements.
1.
2.
3.
4.
4.
Place of publisher - There are instances in which more than one place of
publication is given in a material. In such cases, the first in the list is the
one recorded. If no place or probable place of publication can be given,
"S. l " (sine loco) is recorded.
Name of publisher - This is preceded by a space-colon-space (" : ").
Usually, the full name of the publishing company is not entirely given (e.g.
McGraw Hill). If the name of the publisher cannot be ascertained, the
abbreviation "s. n." (sine nominee) is applied.
Date of publication, distribution, etc. - This element is preceded by a
comma-space (", "). No space before the comma is required. The
commonly given date relating to the publication of the item is the
copyright date. This is transcribed as "c" immediately followed by the
given date (e.g. c1998). If both publication and copyright dates are given,
both are transcribed if the interval between them is substantially long. In
such case, the publication date is transcribed first before the copyright
date, each separated by a comma (e.g. 1996, c1998).
59
book (e.g. xiv, 508 p. : ill. ; 22 cm.) is shorter than that of a non-print item (e.g. 3
filmstrips : col. ; 35 mm. + 3 sound cassettes + 3 guides). Physical description is
synonymous with collation.
The notes area, usually following the physical description in a bibliographic record,
gives important details about the item (found in the chief source of information) that
have no place in the other areas of bibliographic description, or other details to be
indicated as prescribed in standard formats for description such as AACR. It
usually relays the contents of the work, its relationship to other works, and any
other characteristics not included in the preceding areas of bibliographic
description. Each note is given a separate paragraph
Usually, this area starts a new paragraph in the bibliographic description, instead
of being preceded by a full stop-space-long dash-space.
The following constitutes the physical description area for book materials.
1. Extent of item - This indicates the number of physical units or parts (e.g. 3
x 3), or pagination (e.g. 150 p.).
2. Other physical detail - This gives information about illustrative matter in
the materials (transcribed as "ill." or "col. ill/" for colored illustrative
matter). This element is preceded by a space-colon-space (" ; ").
3. Dimension - This is the height of the book given in centimeters rounded
off to the next whole centimeter if not an exact value (e.g. 24.3 cm. is
transcribed as 24 cm.). This element is preceded by a space semicolonspace (" ; ").
4. Accompanying material - This is a material issued with and intended to be
used with the item. Accompanying materials are usually in a different
medium such as electronic formats. This element is preceded by a spaceplus sign-space (" + ").
The notes area may be formal (derived from the item itself), or informal (supplied by
the cataloger. The notes must be as brief as possible and easily understood. Notes
vary from one type of material to another. The may contain information on any of
the following.
frequency
system requirements
language
adaptation
credits
physical details
accompanying material
audience
other formats
summary
contents
library's holdings
"with" notes
60
The personal author is the person chiefly responsible for the creation of the
intellectual or artistic content of a material. These include
writers of books
composers of music
compilers of bibliographies
cartographers
1.
2.
business firms
churches
international agencies
exhibitions
performing groups
The heading is the name of a person, corporate body, or geographic location; the
title proper of a work; or an authorized content descriptor (subject heading), placed
at the head of a catalog entry or listed in an index, to provide an access point.
The entry word is the word under which a record in a catalog, index, or
bibliography is filed and searched, usually the first word of the heading, initial
articles excluded. In retrieving information from an online catalog or bibliographic
database, the order of terms typed as input may determine the success or failure
of a search by author, title, subject heading, or descriptor, but in a keywords
search, word order should not affect results if Boolean logic is correctly used.
Synonymous with filing word.
Basically, the activity of choosing access points has two aspects:
determining the proper term for the heading whether it is personal name,
corporate name, or geographic heading
The following are chosen sections from AACR in name authority control for
corporate bodies.
General rule (Rule 21.1A2) - Enter a work by one or more persons under
the heading for the personal author, the principal personal author, or the
probable personal author. In some cases of shared and mixed personal
authorship, the work is entered under the heading for the person named
first.
Works for single personal authorship ((Rule 21.4A) - Enter a work,
collection of works, or selection from a work or works by one personal
author (or any reprint, reissue, etc. of such a work) under the heading for
that person whether named in the item being cataloged or not.
1. General rule (Rule 21.1B2) - Enter a work emanating from one or more corporate
bodies under the heading for the appropriate corporate body, if it falls in one or
more of the following categories.
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2. Works emanating from a single corporate body (Rule 21.4B) - Enter a work,
collection of works, or selection from a work or works by one corporate body (or
any reprint, reissue, etc. of such a work) under the heading for the body if the work
or collection falls into the categories mentioned.
31.4 Entry Under Title
Rule 21.1C of the AACR states that a work must be entered under the title when
the work has more than three authors and none of them is the principal
author, and no corporate body is responsible (this rule appears in AACR2
R1988 and absent in AACR2 R1998 and AACR2 R2002)
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For revisions of texts: Enter an edition of a work that has been revised, enlarged,
updated, etc. under the heading of the original author if:
the original author is named in the title proper and no other person is
named in a statement of responsibility or other title information.
Headings are terms placed at the head of a catalog entry or listed in an index, to
provide an access point. They can be name of a person, corporate body, or
geographic location; the title proper of a work; or an authorized content descriptor
(subject heading).
The following is a differentiation among types of headings and the corresponding
AACR provisions for each.
Enter a work under the heading for the reviser, etc. or under title, as appropriate, if
the wording of the chief source of information of the item being cataloged indicates
that the person or body responsible for the original is no longer considered
responsible for the work. Make a name-title added entry under the heading for the
original author. Also, make a title added entry if the title begins with the name of
the original author and the main entry is under the name of the reviser, etc.
For texts published with commentary (text by one author and a commentary,
interpretation, or exegesis): If the chief source of information of the item being
cataloged presents the item as a commentary, enter it as such and make an added
entry under the heading appropriate for the text, unless the chief source of
information presents the item as an edition of the original work.
For translations: Enter a translation under the heading appropriate to the original
and an added entry under the heading of the translator.
For items published with biographical/critical material: If a work or works by a
writer accompanied by (or interwoven with) biographical or critical material by
another person is presented in the chief source of information of the item being
cataloged as a biographical or critical work, enter it as such with an added entry
appropriate to the work or works included.
2. Mixed responsibility in new works (Rule 21.24) - For collaborations between an
artist and a writer: Enter a work that is a work of collaboration between an artist
and a writer under the one who is named first under the chief source of information
of the item being cataloged unless the other's name is given greater prominence
by the wording or layout, and make an added entry under the heading for the other
one.
2. Geographic names
General rule (Rule 23.2) - Use the English form of the name of a place if
there is one in general use (determine this form gazetteers and other
reference sources published in English-speaking countries). Use the form
in the official language in the country if there is no English form in general
use.
For reports of interviews ort exchanges: If a work is essentially the work of the
person(s) interviewed or of the participants in an exchange (other than reporter),
enter under the principal participant, participant named first in the chief source of
information of the item being cataloged, or title, and make an added entry under
the heading for the reporter if he or she is named prominently in the item.
General rule (Rule 24.1) - Enter the corporate body directly under the
name by which it is commonly identified, except when under the name of
63
you have two or more publications of the same work in your library and
those publications have different titles
the publication that you are cataloging has a title that is unlikely to be
looked for by the users of the catalog
64
established forms is a subject authority record. Subject authority records also cite
the authorities consulted in determining the choice and form of the heading, and
indicate the cross references made to and from the heading. Individual authority
records for established name headings or subject headings and subdivisions are
contained in authority files.
2. Literary warrant - This is the bottom up approach in building a controlledvocabulary subject access system, that looking what is written and selecting terms
and inter-connectors based on what is found in the literature. A catalog that
employs this principle reflects the nature and size of the collection it was designed
to serve.
3. Uniform heading - Each subject should be represented in the catalog under only
one name and under one form of that name. The purpose of this principle is to
avoid scattering of terms. The subject cataloger has to make choice among the
following instances.
Synonymous terms
Example: Oral medication
Drugs by mouth
Medicine by mouth
Per oral medication
65
Variant spellings
Example: Aesthetics
Esthetics
On the other hand, in post-coordinate systems, terms for the main subject and its
aspects are simply listed separately and the searchers combine the terms at the
point of retrieval.
o
o
2. Alphabetical specific catalog - Entries in catalogs of this kind follow the principle
of specific and direct entry. The entries are arranged alphabetically without regard
to their subject relationships or hierarchical status. This type is also known as
alphabetical subject catalog.
4. Unique heading - Each heading should represent only one subject and this
concerns the presence of homographs.
5. Specific entry and co-extensivity - The principle of specific entry means that the
item is entered under its subject heading0, not under the heading of the class
which includes the subject.
4. Divided catalog - In a divided catalog, entries are divided into separate files
according to some criteria (i.e. author entries form one distinct file and subject
entries as another file).
5. Online catalog - This catalog is based on MARC records accessible in an
interactive mode. Arrangement of subject entries is of no concern to users, since
they cannot actually see how they are arranged in the computer memory. These
catalogs offer improved subject access through more flexible means like keyword
searching, selective search combination through Boolean operators, and automatic
switching from lead-in terms to controlled terms.
66
1. The List of Subject Headings for Use in Dictionary Catalogs (1895) - This was
used by the American Library Association and is based on Cutter's principles. It
went through three editions - 1895, 1898, and 1911.
person is the center figure. (e.g. Aristotle, Columbus, Christopher) Personal names
are treated differently, depending on some considerations.
Headings for individually named houses of dukes, counts, and earls are
established in the form of
o [Name], [Title of rank in English] e.g. Derby, Earls of; Leinster,
Dukes of
5. Sears List of Subject Headings (6th ed.) - This is the evolution of the List of
Subject Headings for Small Libraries. This is very much less comprehensive
compared to LCSH, and is also popular in many libraries at present.
6. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) - MeSH is the system designed and used by
the National Library of Medicine for assigning subject headings to books and
journal articles in the medical sciences.
Chapter 33 - Working With Subject Headings
33.1 Types of Main Subject Headings
Main subject headings are differentiated into several types.
1. Topical heading - A topical heading represents the subject content of a work.
2. Form headings - This kind of heading indicates the form of substance contained
in the material being described - whether it is bibliographic, artistic, or literary.
Examples: Almanacs
Yearbooks
Short stories
3. Name headings
a. Personal names - Personal names are used as subject headings for biographies,
eulogies, festschriften, criticisms, bibliographies, and literary works in which the
67
c. Geographic names - There are two basic types of geographic names jurisdictional and non-jurisdictional geographic names.
If the island does not lie near its controlling jurisdiction, but a part of an
island group, the name of the island group is used as the qualifier.
o e.g. Palma (Wales and England)
Qualifiers are not used for isolated islands or isolated groups of islands
that are not associated with a mainland country, or with islands that
comprise more than one autonomous jurisdiction.
o e.g. Islands of the Pacific
o Midway Islands
Natural features (lakes, hills, etc.) located within cities are qualified by the
name of the larger jurisdiction rather by the name of the city, except in
cases of conflict.
o e.g. West Lake (China)
For entries located in two jurisdictions, the name of both jurisdictions are
added in alphabetical order unless the entry is located principally in one of
the jurisdictions, which will then be the one listed first...
o e.g. Everest, Mount (China and Nepal);
o Black Creek (New Mexico and Arizona)
68
69
Examples: - Abstract
- Cost effectiveness
Free-floating subdivisions under specific types of headings are only applicable to,
and only authorized for use under specific categories of main headings such as
classes of persons, names of places, ethnic groups, names of corporate bodies,
etc.
1. See (or Use) Reference - This is a reference from the term or the name not used
as a heading to one that is used.
2. See also reference (including BT, RT, and NT) - These references connect
related in some way, either hierarchically or otherwise.
Example: Poetry
RT Literature
NT Classical poetry
Lyric poetry
5. Free floating subdivisions - These subdivisions may be used under any existing
appropriate subject heading for the first time without establishing the usage
editorially. To illustrate, assuming that you are looking at the heading "Periodicals",
one is given the following instruction.
Example: Atlases
SA subdivision Maps under names of countries, cities, etc. and
under topics.
70
Rule of three - If a broad heading exists but includes more than two or
three topics in question, assign two or three headings, not the broader
heading.
o Example: Infants, children, and adolescents / Laura E. Berk
[Subject] Child development
Infants - Development
Adolescence
Rule of four - This means that specific headings are preferred when the
work being cataloged deals with four topics, each of which forms only a
portion small of the general topic.
o Example: The first golden age of Viennese symphony : Haydn,
Mozart, Beethoven, and Schubert / by Peter Brown
[Subjects] Symphony - 18th century
Symphony - 19th century
Haydn, Joseph, 1732-1809, Symphonies
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 1756-1791, Symphonies
Beethoven, Ludwig van, 1770-1827, Symphonies
Schubert, Franz Peter, 1797-1828, Symphonies
Symphonies - Analysis and appreciation
1. Specificity - Assign the most specific subject heading which represents exactly
the contents of the item.
2. Works on a single topic - If the item contains a subtopic that falls outside the
scope of the expected range, allocate headings for the main topic and an
additional heading for the subtopic provided the latter covers at least 20% of the
work to warrant another heading.
34.2 Subject Headings for Special Materials - Electronic Resources and Related
Materials
There are certain guidelines in dealing with subject contents of electronic
resources.
4. Duplicate entries - These are made when two elements of a heading are of equal
importance and it is desirable to provide access for both.
5. Multi-topical work
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Works carrying computer software carry the subdivision - Software or Juvenile software.
o Examples: Adobe GoLive [electronic resource] : Web workgroup
server CD
[Subject] Web sites - Authoring programs - Software
o Texas geography, history, and culture [electronic resource]
[Subjects] Texas - Geography - Juvenile software
Texas - History - Juvenile software
Texas - Civilization - Juvenile software
For works about internet or web resources, the topical subdivisionComputer network resource is used.
o Example: European history highway : a guide to internet
resources
[Subjects] Europe - History - Research
History - Computer network resources
Internet
In topical juvenile materials, appropriate form subdivisions such as Juvenile literature, - Juvenile films, -Juvenile software, Juvenile sound
recordings, etc. are added as the last element of the subject headings
assigned.
o Example: Hounds and Fabian / written and illustrated by Peter
McCarty
[Subjects] Dogs - Juvenile literature
Cats - Juvenile literature
Pets - Juvenile literature
For juvenile belles-lettres (literature: or writings that are valued for their
elegance and aesthetic qualities rather than for any human interest or
moral or instructive content), headings of the type Children's play and
Children's poetry or Children's poetry, [Language/nationality], etc. are
assigned for drama, fiction, poetry, .or other literary works written for
children in addition to other required form and topical headings for
literature.
If juvenile literary form headings are not available for particular genres,
regular literary form headings without juvenile subdivisions are used.
o Examples: The fish is me : bath time rhymes / selected by Neil
Philip ; illustrated by Claire Henley
[Subjects] Baths - Children's poetry
Children's poetry, American
You must be joking : lots of cool jokes / compiled and illustrated
by Paul Brewer ; with an introduction by Kathleen Krull
[Subjects] Wit and humor - Juvenile
Babe Ruth and the ice cream mess / by Dan Gutman ; illustrated
by Claire Garvin
[Subjects] Ruth, Babe, 1895-1948 - Childhood and youth Juvenile fiction
Baseball players - fiction
72
When the required term referring to a special class of persons is not found
in subject authority lists (LCSH in particular), the subject heading consists
of the name of the relevant subject or discipline with the subdivision Biography.
o Example: Art Biography (for all kinds of people associated with
the art including artists, dealers, collectors, museums, personnel,
etc.)
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Item Part
Remarks
Write down the kernel title by retaining the substantive or kernel terms
which denote each of the substantive ideas and dropping the auxiliary
words and connectives such as articles prepositions, and conjunctions.
The kernel title for the above example will be
o Manage, Barangay finances, Philippines
Using standard terms lists or controlled vocabulary lists, verify the terms
and make the necessary modifications.
o Subject headings:
Local finances - Philippines - Management
Finance, Public - Philippines - Handbook, manuals, etc.
74
Translation takes place at the stage when standard terms contained in the
controlled vocabulary are used to represent the subject heading of an
item.
arrange items in a logical order on library shelves, helping the user identify
and locate a work through a call number and group all works of a kind
together;
serves as a direct retrieval function (in the case of some online catalogs)
by helping in the identification and retrieval of a group of related, as well
as specific known items.
Educational institutions
Persons taught
Subjects taught
A notation that designates the class to which a given item belongs is the class
number. The call number is a set of letters, numerals, or other symbols (in
combination or alone)used by a library to identify a specific copy of an item in the
library collection. It may consist of a class number, book number, date, volume
number, copy number, etc. The book number distinguishes a specific item from
other items within the same class number. A part of the book number, the work
mark, consists of a letter appended to the author (or biographee) designation to
show the first letter of the title (or first letter of the name of the biographer).
75
4.
Phase relations may also reflect one subject being used as a tool or as a
method of applying another subject. In such case, classify under the
subject, not the tool.
o Example: Chemical calculations: an introduction to the use of
mathematics in chemistry
Classify under chemistry, not mathematics.
4. Broad classification - This system means that a work is placed in a broad class
by use of notation that has been logically abridged. For example, a work on French
cooking is classed closely by the Dewey Decimal Classification System at
641.5944 (641.59 corresponds to Cooking by place, and from Table 2, 44 is
assigned to France), or broadly at 641.5 (under Cooking).
35.4 Notation
Notation is a device consisting of numerals, letters, and/or symbols used to
represent the main and subordinate divisions of a classification scheme.
There are several types of notation. If classified according to the kind of symbols
used, they may either be pure notation or mixed notation.
Pure notation - a notational system that uses one kind of symbol only (i.e.
purely alphabetic or numeric)
2. Classify the multi-topical material under the first subject that is being dealt with
in case when the dominant subject cannot be ascertained. This applies for works
treating two or more subjects separately, or in comparison without any indication
of preponderance.
3. Class under the broader subject of a work if it deals with two or three subjects
that are subdivisions of a broader subject and together they constitute the major
portion of the subject.
Never classify from the index or on given numbers in subject authority lists
alone. Always go through the main schedules in the classification tools.
76
published both in printed and electronic formats. The latter is published and
distributed by Online Computer Library Center, (OCLC) Inc.
77
2.
3.
4.
Former heading notes - These are given only when a heading has
been altered to such a degree that the new heading bears little or no
resemblance to the old.
5.
Variant name notes - These are used for synonyms and near
synonyms.
6.
Class-here notes - These notes list major topics in a class which may
be broader or narrower than the heading, , overlap it, or define in
another way of looking at essentially the same material.
7.
8.
o
o
Cross reference notes - These are of two types. See reference lead
from a stated or implied comprehensive number for a concept to the
component (subordinate parts of the concept.
10. Discontinued notes - Such notes indicate that all or part of the
contents of a number have been moved to a more general number in
the same hierarchy, or have been dropped entirely.
In many schedules, the single letter stands for the class as a whole, as
well as for its subclass (e.g. class N for Fine Arts; subclass N for Visual
arts: General).
The use of the second and third elements were allowed to accommodate
expansion. The divisions are represented by Arabic integers from 1 to
9999 with possible decimal extensions, and/or with further indicated by
Cutter numbers.
o Example: Z [One capital letter]
8587 [Integer from 1 to 9999]
.8 [Decimal extension]
.A46 [Book number]
1991
The following table lists the main classes in the LCCS, as indicated below
by capital letters.
o A -- General Works
o B -- Philosophy. Psychology. Religion
o C -- Auxiliary Sciences Of History
o D -- World History And History Of Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia,
New Zealand, Etc.
o E -- History Of The Americas
o F -- History Of The Americas
o G -- Geography. Anthropology. Recreation
o H -- Social Sciences
o J -- Political Science
o K -- Law
11. Relocation notes - These state that all or part of the contents have
been moved in a different number.
78
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
L -- Education
M -- Music And Books On Music
N -- Fine Arts
P -- Language And Literature
Q -- Science
R -- Medicine
S -- Agriculture
T -- Technology
U -- Military Science
V -- Naval Science
Z -- Bibliography. Library Science. Information Resources
(General)
Notes - Similarly, LCCS includes various forms of notes, which are added
instructions or information for the effective use of the classification
scheme.
1. Scope notes - These notes explain the type of works to be
classified at a particular subject. They may refer the classifier
elsewhere in the schedule or in another schedule.
3.
Confer notes (Cf.) - These notes indicate that related topics are
classified elsewhere in the schedules.
5.
Example: NK 3650.5
A-Z
By region or country, A-Z
Apply table at NK 3649.35 A-Z
4.
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numbers are often further expanded decimally to represent more specific areas,
sometimes followed by a capital letter indicating a particular city.
The second line usually represents the author's name by a capital letter plus one or
more numbers arranged decimally. This may be followed by the first letter or letters
of the title in lower-case, and/or sometimes the letters a,b,c indicating other
printings of the same title. When appropriate, the second line may begin with a
'form' number-e.g., 1 stands for history and criticism of a subject, 2 for a
bibliography, 5 for a dictionary, 6 for an atlas or maps, 7 for a periodical, 8 for a
society or university publication, 9 for a collection of works by different authors.
On the third line a capital Y indicates a work about the author or book represented
by the first two lines, and a capital E (for English-other letters are used for other
languages) indicates a translation into English. If both criticism and translation
apply to a single title, the number expands into four lines.
These synthetic notations provided more flexibility than any classification of its time
(except UDC, which had the same auxiliary tables for synthesis it has now).
3. Colon Classification - This classification system was developed by S. R.
Ranganathan, although Ranganathan was not the inventor of facet analysis. He is
credited as the first to "systematize and formalize the theory". It is said that his
idea of a faceted classification scheme is inspired by a Lego-type toy set. Seeing
that the salesperson can build different toys just by combining the same pieces in
a different way, he builds his classification scheme by this analogy.
The Colon Classification, just as other classification schemes, starts with a number
of main classes (42), which represent the fields of knowledge. Each class is then
analyzed and broken down into its basic elements, grouped together by common
attributes, called facets. Upon examining all the facets, Ranganthan notices that
there are five main groups into which the facets fall, and he calls these the
fundamental categories, represented by the mnemonic PMEST in an order of
decreasing concreteness.
Personality
can be understood as the primary facet.
the most prominent attribute
Matter
This idea carried out in the classification by three kinds of notational synthesis:
1. Intra-class synthesis - synthesis from two sections of the same main class
achieved by + and omission of the main class letter.
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Energy
Space
Time
-
physical material
action
location
time period
There are also facets that are common to all the classes. These are called common
isolates. Examples include form and language. The same facet can be used more
than once.
Notations, such as numbers and letters, are used to represent the facets, while
punctuation marks are used to indicate the nature and type of the following facets.
The classifier's job, therefore, is to combine the available terms that are
appropriate in describing the information package in hand.
Let us consider the construction of a notation using the Ranganathan's Colon
Classification. Suppose we have a book that is about "research in the cure of
tuberculosis of lungs by x-ray conducted in India in 1950" (Glassel, 1998). The call
number will be as follows:
L,45;421:6;253:f.44'N5
The notations represent
[Medicine,Lungs;Tuberculosis:Treatment;X-ray:Research.India'1950]
It is amazing how the notation covers all the significant aspects of the subject of
the item. Such a classification scheme is considered to be "hospitable" to all sorts
of complex topics. It is therefore a "dynamic" scheme.
81
Cartographic materials
o maps
o globe
Manuscripts
o typescript
o hand writing
Music
o piano score
o vocal score
Sound recordings
o cassette tape
o phonodisc
o CD
o MP3
Graphic Materials
o chart
o picture
o slide
o filmstrip
o transparency
o flash cards
Electronic Resources
o computer data
o computer program
Microforms
o microfiche
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o microfilm
Continuing Resources
o journal
o magazine
o newsletter
o annual report
Multimedia
item. More details about the general form of the item are recorded in the physical
description and note areas.
The general material designation is an optional element of bibliographic
description. The cataloger may or may not indicate the GMD in the bibliographic
records. As to whether the GMD will or will not be indicated in the bibliographic
record, careful consideration must be given to the implications of each of these
alternatives. In GMDs, generic terms are used to avoid the proliferation which could
develop if more specific designation is used. The AACR2R 2002 provides complete
listings of GMD that can be used in describing general form of various library
materials. GMDs for British libraries are distinct from GMDs for libraries in the
United States, Australia, and Canada.
As new types of media are acquired, the library will soon run out of
distinctive colors.
On the other hand, the specific material designation (SMD) of the material gives the
specific form of the particular item being described. This element appears in the
physical description area, particularly in the extent of the item element.
The following is a listing of the most common GMDs and SMDs used for various
forms of library materials taken from the list of British GMDs.
Chapter 40 - Cataloging Policies for Non-book Materials
40.1 Description and Headings
The most authoritative internationally recognized code of rules for descriptive
cataloging is the Anglo American Cataloging Rules (AACR2R 2002). The following
is a summary of some points derived from AACR2R in cataloging non-book
materials.
Media codes, despite of the use of sign, resulted the need of patrons for
help in understanding the media code.
Media codes do not clearly identify the medium as the more accurate
general material designation.
A media code may play a role in identifying the type of material for instances where
catalogs display long titles of some items causing the display of the general
material designation to be lost in the brief entry. However, the call number should
be formatted in a way that the media code is not part of the call number and may
be omitted.
39.3 General Material Designation and Specific Material Designation
The general material designation (GMD) is the element of bibliographic description
listed in square brackets following the title proper. It is given early in the record to
inform the user succinctly and immediately about the general form of the particular
83
Added entries - The purpose of added entries is to enable the user to find
a particular item by some name or title other than the selected as the main
entry heading. Added entries also add group materials in useful ways, e.g.
by director. The number and kind of added entries required depend on the
catalog use in each library or media center. The following policy should be
considered when establishing a policy for added entries.
o An added entry policy should be applied consistently to book
and non-book materials.
o The policy should be keeping with the chosen level of
description, e.g. more added entries in third level description
than in first level description.
o Only names, titles, and series listed in the catalog are traced.
Added entries may be made for any one of all of these if the
cataloger believes that a patron may search for an item under a
particular heading.
84
4.
2.
The same rules as per book formats apply for punctuations in description.
3.
For motion pictures and video recordings, those persons or bodies credited in the
chief source of information with participation in the production of such works such
as the director, producer, or film animator who are considered to be of major
interest to the work and the cataloging agency are recorded in the statement of
responsibility area. These are used to be given in the notes area.
85
2. Edition area - The same rule in recording the edition area used in cataloging
book formats apply in cataloging non-book materials. The edition is indicated by
ordinal number and/or description in the edition area of the bibliographic
description, Edition is abbreviated as "ed". If the item does not have an edition
statement but is known to include important changes from previous editions, a
brief statement in the language and script of the title proper is provided by the
cataloger in square brackets.
An optional addition which may be made in this area is the recording of the
statement of function of the publisher, distributor, producer, or production
company. This may be necessary for some non-book materials where the producer
or the production company and the distributor are different entities and their
respective functions need to be specified.
3. Materials (or type of publication)specific details area - The material (or type of
publication) specific details area is reserved for elements of bibliographic
description specific to certain types of non-book materials. This area adopts
different names, depending on the type of material being cataloged.
Electronic resources - This area becomes the file characteristics area for
electronic resources. This is composed of two elements of bibliographic
information.
o designation [computer file(s), computer program(s), or computer
file(s) and program(s)]
o number of records (for data, transcribe the number of files,
records, and/or bytes; for programs, transcribe the number of
files, statements, and/or bytes)
Continuing resources (serials) - For these materials, this area becomes the
numeric and/or alphabetic, chronological, or other designation area. This
has two elements:
o numeric and/or alphabetic designation
o chronological designation
Where the publication or the production date differs from the date of distribution,
the latter may be added if it is considered to be significant by the cataloging
agency. If the publisher and distributor are different, the dates must be given after
the names to which they apply.
4. Publication, Distribution, etc. area - This is formerly known as the imprint. This
area records all information about the place, name, and date related to publication,
distribution, releasing, and issuance activities. Also included in this area are
information relating to the manufacture of the item.
86
If the material has a playing time like in motion pictures audio recordings,
and videorecordings, the duration or running time is given enclosed in
parentheses.
o Example: 1 film reel (24 mins.)
Other physical details - The extent or duration is not covered here. This
element varies with form or type of material of the item. Thus for instance
inclusion in the entry depends on the nature of the item described and the purpose
of the entry concerned. Some items may need several notes while other may only
need one or two. When appropriate, several types of notes may be combined into
one note.
Some important notes which ought to be given for non-book materials are:
variations in title
parallel title and other title information (if not listed in the title and
statement of responsibility area)
intended audience
other formats
brief objective summary of the contents of the item (unless another area
gives enough information)
peculiarities of the particular copy the library or media center holds (e.g.
incomplete holdings, restrictions on use, other formats of the same item
available in the library or media center)
"with" notes (for items that consists of separately titled parts and has no
collective title)
parallel title
statement of responsibility
subseries and its parallel titles, other title information,. and statement of
responsibility
ISSN of subseries
numbering of subseries
If an item belongs to more than one series titles rather than a series and a
subseries, each series is enclosed within its own parentheses. Series statements
may be omitted. However, series statements to be traced and those which add
substantially to an understanding of the catalog record should be listed.
The provision of such notes will preclude the unnecessary handling of the material
and assist the reader in his choice of materials through the catalog.
7. Notes area - Notes give useful descriptive information that cannot be fitted into
other areas of bibliographic description. Notes that may be contained in this area
vary for different kinds of materials. Notes may be considered optional in that their
87
8. Standard numbers and terms of availability area - This area gives the
international standard numbers (e.g. ISSN and ISMN) of the item being described,
if they are available. Standard numbers are transcribes exactly as the way they
appear in the materials, as to the correct abbreviations and hyphenation of the
numbers. If two standard numbers appear on the item, list the one that applies to
the item being cataloged. In a multipart item, list the one that applies to the whole
item. In serials, the key title of the serial follows the ISSN. This is separated by
space-equals sign-space. The key title is not listed if no ISSN is found. If there are
two standard numbers, a brief qualification (enclosed in parentheses) follows each
number.
The terms of availability, an optional element, gives the terms on which the item is
available. It is preceded by a space-colon-space. Such terms may be the unit price
of the item (if the item is for sale), or a brief statement of other terms (if the item is
not for sale). Special terms of availability are also qualified.
The following are schematic diagrams that can be used for describing usual nonbook materials.
88
bibliographies
library catalogs
indexes
abstracts
2. Ready reference - These reference materials are used most often in answering
ready reference questions (a reference question that can be answered by the
reference librarian in just a few moments by providing a fact or piece of information
found in a single source). These include the following.
encyclopedias
dictionaries
thesauri
general factbooks
handbooks
manuals
concordances
directories
government publications
technical reports
standards
specifications
dissertations
theses
89
41.2 Bibliographies
Strictly speaking, a bibliography is a systematic list or enumeration of written works
by a specific author or on a given subject, or that share one or more common
characteristics (language, form, period, place of publication, etc.). When a
bibliography is about a person, the subject is the bibliographee. A bibliography
may be comprehensive or selective. Long bibliographies may be published serially
or in book form. The person responsible for compiling a bibliography is the
bibliographer.
Works of fiction are rarely indexed. The publisher of a periodical may provide an
index to each volume at the end of the last issue of the publication year. For best
results, indexing should be done by a professional indexer.
Index also refers to an open-end finding guide to the literature of an academic field
or discipline (e.g. Philosopher's Index), to works of a specific literary form (e.g.
Biography Index) or published in a specific format (e.g. Reader's Guide to
Periodical Literature), or to the analyzed contents of a serial publication (e.g. New
York Times Index). Indexes of this kind are usually issued in monthly or quarterly
paperback supplements, cumulated annually. Citations are usually listed by author
and subject in separate sections, or in a single alphabetical sequence under a
system of authorized headings collectively known as controlled vocabulary,
developed over time by the indexing service.
To enable a person to find any work, whether issued in print or in nonprint format, when one of the following is known:
o The author
o The title
o The subject
90
The oldest complete encyclopedia extant is the Historia Naturalis (Natural History,
c. ad 79) of Pliny the Elder. It is an encyclopedia of natural science. Another
encyclopedic work held in great esteem for many centuries is the Etymologiarum,
seu Originum Libri XX (Twenty Books of Etymologies, or Origins), compiled in 623
by the Spanish ecclesiastic and scholar Isidore of Seville. The modern
encyclopedia began with the 21-volume Encyclopdie ou Dictionnaire raisonn des
Sciences, des Arts, et des Mtiers, compiled and edited by Denis Diderot and Jean
d'Alembert, an expression of the rationalism of the 18th-century Enlightenment
(Cornell University Library). In electronic publishing, encyclopedias were one of the
first formats to include multimedia and interactive elements (e.g. Microsoft Encarta
Encyclopedia).
Grolier, Inc.
Adult encyclopedias
o The New Encyclopedia Britanica (familiarly known as Britannica
3, which consisted of three parts - Propaedia, which outlines the
"circle of modern knowledge"; Micropaedia with contains ready
reference entries; and Macropaedia, which contains longer
articles offering "knowledge in depth")
o The Encyclopedia Americana
91
usually shorter than those contained in an encyclopedia on the same subject, but
the word "dictionary" is often used in the titles of works that should more
appropriately be called encyclopedias (e.g.: Dictionary of the Middle Ages in 13
volumes). In a more general sense, the term "dictionary" is also applied to any
alphabetically arranged compendium of special aspects of a language such as
abbreviations, slang, or etymology, or in which the special terms of a subject are
defined.
Unabridged dictionaries
o Webster's 3rd New International Dictionary
o The Random House Dictionary
Abridged dictionaries
o The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary
o The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language
o Webster's 9th New Collegiate Dictionary
o Webster's New World Dictionary of the English Language
o The Random House College Dictionary
Etymological/diachronic dictionaries
o The Oxford English Dictionary (20 vols.)
Slang dictionaries
o Dictionary of American Slang
o Thesaurus of Slang
o New American Dictionary of American Slang
Subject dictionaries
o Harrod's Librarian's Glossary of Terms
o Dictionary of Library and Information Science
Foreign language dictionaries
o Casell's series
o Dictionary of Foreign Phrases and Abbreviations
o Dictionaries published by Larrousse
92
Encyclopedic dictionaries
o Grand Dictionnaire Universel (17 vols., 1865-1890)
o Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia (revised ed., 12 vols., 1911)
Thesauri
o Roget's International Thesaurus
o Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases
o Webster's Collegiate Thesaurus
o Webster's New Dictionary of Synonyms
Etiquette
o Emily Post's Etiquette
o Miss Manner's Guide for the Turn of the Millennium (by Judith
Martin)
Literature
o Magill's Masterplots (by Frank Magill)
93
41.9 Concordances
A concordance is an alphabetically arranged index of the principal words or
selected words in a text, or in the works of an author, giving the precise location of
each word in the text, with a brief indication of its context. A glossarial
concordance includes a brief definition of each term. Concordances are usually
devoted to very well known works, such as the Bible, or to the works of major
writers (e.g. Chaucer, Shakespeare, etc.). The first Bible concordance was
completed in 1230 A. D. under the guidance of Hugo de Saint-Cher while he was
Prior of the Dominican Order in France. It was an index to passages in which a
word could be found, indicated by book and chapter. A best example of a bible
concordance is Alexander Cruden's Complete Concordance to the Old and New
Testament, which was first published in 1737.
The following enumerations are other directory titles specific to certain subjects.
Education
o American Universities and Colleges
o Comparative Guide to American Colleges
o Lovejoy's College Guide
o World of Learning
41.10 Directories
A directory is a list of people, companies, institutions, organizations, etc., in
alphabetical or classified order, providing contact information (e.g. names,
addresses, phone/fax numbers, etc.) and other pertinent details (e.g. affiliations,
conferences, publications, membership, etc.) in brief format. Directories are often
published serially. Like any other reference source, directories can also take the
electronic formats.
The literary form was pioneered by the Roman historians Plutarch, Tacitus, and
Suetonius English literary biography began with James Boswell's Life of Samuel
Johnson, published in 1791. Modern biographers tend to be objective in approach,
but classical and medieval biographers often wrote to confirm a thesis or illustrate
a moral principle.
Biographical information sources may either be in a directory or in a dictionary
format. Biographical directories are presented in a data-type format (just like in a
bio-data). Biographical dictionaries present their literature in essay form.
Biographical dictionaries may be general, subject-specific, or limited to persons of
a specific nationality, race, field or profession, or period or gender.
Government directories
Institutional directories
Professional directories
There are also directory of directories, which provide listings and descriptions of
various directories. Some popular titles of directories of directories include
Directories in Print
94
(spherical map of the sky) takes the Earth as its imaginary centre in
showing the positions of the stars.
A globe is a spherical map of the earth or the sky. The terrestrial globe
(spherical map of the earth) is the only true cartographic representation of
the Earth and possesses several advantages over flat maps: distances,
directions, and areas are shown without distortion. A celestial globe
Thematic atlases
o The Times Atlas of World History
o William Shepherd's Historical Atlas
o Rand McNally World Atlas of History
Maps and atlases can be thematic; meaning, they focus on a particular aspect of
geographic interest. Such interest may be historical, economic, political, and
related matters which may be shown graphically in a map.
41.13 Serials
Serials are publications in any medium (print, electronic, micro-format, etc.) issued
under the same title in a succession of discrete parts, bearing numerical or
chronological designations, and appearing at regular or irregular intervals with no
predetermined conclusion. In AACR2 2002, serials are classified as a type of
continuing resource.
The serials genre includes specific types of publications. They are the following.
95
value and publications classified for reasons of national security," are to be made
publicly available to depository libraries by the Superintendent of Documents. The
term is also used in a broader sense to include documents published by local,
state, territorial, and foreign governments.
The following are some titles of retrieval tools for government publications.
LEXIS/NEXIS
NTIS
41.15 Company and Trade Literature
This genre of reference source materials includes the following specific materials.
96
According to the ALA Reference Service Guidelines, there are six points of view to
which the duties of a reference librarian is measured. These are:
services
resources
access
personnel
evaluation
ethics
Wanted: definition
The query message that a user can throw are of four (4) types.
97
Directional queries - These queries are rooted from the question "where".
They aim for information about an exact location, or maybe, about how to
get onto a particular location.
Ready reference queries - These are reference queries that can be
answered by a reference librarian in one or two minutes by providing a
fact or piece of information found in a single source.
Specific search queries - These are in the form of questions that are
formed by "what, when, where, why, and how". The answers to such
queries are very specific and can be given outright without further
inquiries.
Research queries - Upon further inquiry, what at first appeared to be a
simple query may turn out to be an opening gambit in a more extensive
search, once the nature of the information need is fully understood. These
queries are now in the form of research queries.
A very helpful means of locating the desired answer to reference queries is through
computer-aided search. Through the computer systems, a user can choose any
from three (3) computer resources to find the particular information they want online information systems (online databases), reference sources in CD-ROMs, and
the internet (through various search engines and online directories).
Either in the point of view of the reference librarian or the library user, there is a
conscious approach to decision-making in order to achieve certain specified
objectives, known as the search strategy. There are two (2) possible approaches to
this. Either
the reference librarian will be the one to exert all efforts to help the user
achieve his/her objective.
In ether way, the query can be treated in any of these two approaches in order to
achieve the desired endpoint.
general to specific
Rothstein enumerated three different varieties of reference service.
Guidance - This service advises and assists the user in the identification
and selection of appropriate materials about a particular topic rather than
teaching specific skills.
42.2 Computer-Aided Search
98
Interlibrary loan (ILL) and document delivery service (DDS) - There are
certain instances when the library does not have enough resources to
address the information needs of its users. If library is a member of a
group of libraries sharing resources, the library may borrow some
materials from any of the other libraries within the group which has the
material needed. When this material is handed to the reference librarian,
the information needed by the user is delivered through any of the
different channels of document delivery service (fax, e-mail, postal
service, etc.)
42.5 Guidance
The following are varied types of services that aim to advise and assist users in the
identification and selection of appropriate materials about a particular topic or
subject,
99
Term paper counseling - This can be done in high school and academic
libraries by providing all sorts of assistance to students in accomplishing
their academic papers like term papers. This is also known as research
consultation.
The following are the general categories of Filipiniana reference and information
sources.
almanacs
yearbooks
handbooks
manuals
geographical information sources (maps, gazetteers, etc.)
directories
biographical information sources
indexes
electronic resources (CD-ROM and other electronic formats)
networks and online resources (consortia and online databases)
100
The Philippine Islands, 1493-1803 ... (translated from the originals, edited
and annotated by Emma H. Blair and James Alexander Robertson, with
historical introduction and additional notes by Edward Gaylord Bourn.
Cleveland, Ohio: A.H. Clark, 1903-1909. 55 v.)
o This multi-volume work encapsulates the following topics, which
date back 1493.
political,
economic,
commercial,
and
religious
conditions of early Philippine islands from their earliest
European relations up to the early 19th century.
The Philippine Encyclopedia of Eloquence: a Complete Collection of the
Masterpieces and Notable Addresses of the Foremost Living Orators of
the Philippines (Andres R Casamura, publisher and editor; Venancio S.
Duque, associate editor. Manila: The Philippine Encyclopedia, [1936]. 431
p.)
o This contains the oratorical pieces and addresses of notable
Filipinos who lived at the time of its publication.
Encyclopedia of the Philippines (Zoilo Galang, ed. 3rd ed. Manila: Exequiel
Floro [Printed by McCullough Printing, 1950-1958]. 20 v.
o This is actually a collection of materials written by various
authors on different subjects arranged by subject. It lacks a
comprehensive index but has a simplified index which
reproduces the table of contents and list of illustrations of every
volume. The volumes contain topics on the following subject.
Volume 9 - Education
Volume 10 - Religion
Volume 10 - Index
The Philippine Encyclopedia of Social Work (editor: Leonora De Guzman.
Manila: Philippine Association of Social Workers, 1977. 692 p.)
o The encyclopedia attempts to present a clear picture of the
purpose and function of social work profession. It is divided into
five parts.
101
102
Volume 3 - Architecture
Volume 5 - Dance
Volume 6 - Music
Volume 7 - Theater
Volume 8 - Film
Volume 9 - Literature
Volume 10 - Index
A Practical Cyclopedia of Philippine Ornamental Plants (Domingo Madulid.
Makati: Bookmark, Inc., 1995. 388 p.)
o This contains 1,000 species and varieties of endemic,
indigenous, and exotic ornamental plants found in the
Philippines. Plants are arranged in alphabetical order according
to family. Each plant entry gives the following information.
distribution
horticulture value
method of preparation.
o This work provides a glossary and an index.
Booklet of Knowledge (Cristina Canonigo. Rev. ed. [s. l.]: Palinsad General
Mdse., 1996. 200 p.)
o This booklet contains varied subjects, interesting facts, and
some of the world's records for reference, additional learning,
self-acquisition of knowledge, and general information.
Specifically, it presents world's facts, records, events, etc.; the
pecuniary units of world currencies,; basic knowledge about
diamonds and typewriters, codes, astrology, boxing tips,
selected words for scrabble, Christmas songs, the Philippine
National Anthem, Philippine presidents, and commonly used
abbreviations.
Ticzon Herbal Medicine Encyclopedia (Romeo R. Ticzon, edited by
Carolina Elayda. Antipolo, Rizal: Romeo R. Ticzon, publisher, c1996. 205
p.)
This work is divided into three parts.
o Part 1 - Introduction of objectives of the encyclopedia, which
claims to be the in Philippine herbology
o Part 2 - Compilation of excerpts from the author's "Philippine
Herbal Medicine" (with version in Filipino) which includes
sketches of Philippine indigenous plants
o Part 3 - Comprehensive research on the use of specific herbal
plants with their scientific names and sketches
Kasaysayan: the Story of the Filipino People ([Mandaluyong City]: Asia
Publishing Co. Ltd., c1998. 10 v.)
o This work is claimed as "a comprehensive, readable, and reliable
history of the Filipino people", because each volume is written by
one or more of the country's most authoritative experts in the
field. There is an index and a list of all sources at the end of each
volume. The 10th volume is a general glossary. The following are
the titles of each volume with their respective authors.
103
Language dictionaries
o Vocabulario de la Lengua Tagala, el Romance Castellana
Nuestro Primero (Pedro de San Buenaventura. Primer y segunda
parte ... con lecencia impresso en la noble Villa de Pila, pro
Tomas Pinpin y Domingo Luag., Tagalos, 1618. 2 v. in 3.)
o Vocabulario de la Lengua Pampanga en Romance (Diego
Bergono. ea ed..Manila: Impr. de Ramirez y Girandier, 1860. 343
p.)
o Vocabulario de la Lengua Tagala (compuesto por varios
religiosos doctor y graves, y coordinado por el p. Juan de
Noceda y el p. Pedro de Sanlucar. Ultimamente amuentado y
corregido por varios regiosos de la orden de Augustinos
calzados. Reimpreso en Manila: Impr. de Ramirez y Girandier,
1860. 642 p.)
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
104
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Subject dictionaries
o Philippine Labor Dictionary (Romeo V. Isidro. Manila: National
Book Store, 1966. 113 p.)
o A Dictionary of International Law and Diplomacy (Melquiades L.
Gamboa. Quezon City: Central Law Books Pub., 1973. 351 p.)
o Dictionary on Jose Rizal's Thoughts, Teachings, Principles
(arranged and edited by Diosdado G. Capino. Quezon City:
Philippine Education Co., c1979. 383 p.)
o Dictionary of Business and Economic Terms (Bernardo M.
Villegas [and] Ramon Quesada. Manila: Sinagtala Pub., c1988.
204 p.)
o Tagalog Slang Dictionary (compiled by R. David Zorc and Rachel
San Miguel. Manila: De La Salle University, 1993. 164 p.)
o Plant World of the Philippines: an Illustrated Dictionary of Visayan
Plant names With Their Scientific, Tagalog, and English
Equivalents Franz Seidenschwarz. Cebu City: University of San
Carlos, 1994. 368 p.)
o A Dictionary of Tagalog Slang and Expressions (Rosario P.
Pacheco. Quezon City: Rex Book Store, c1996.)
o INNERTAP-PNN Thesaurus on Energy (editors and compilers,
Evangeline J. Adventurado, Jose Edmund P. Fajardo. Quezon
City: PNOC-EDC Energy Research and Development Center,
1998. 55 p.)
Almanacs
o Dimasalang Kalendaryong Tagalog (Dati'y La Sonrisa) (Honorario
Lopez. [Maynila]: 1898-.)
o Almanac for Manileos (Nick Joaquin. Manila: Mr. & Mr. Pub.,
c1979. 332 p.)
o Student's Philippine Almanac (Children's Communication Center.
Makati, Metro Manila: Filway Marketing, c1979 576 p.)
o RR's Philippine Almanac: Book of Facts (Juan Luis Z. Luna, Jr.,
ed. 1990 ed. Manila: Aurora Pub., c1990.)
o Philippine Banking Almanac (1993 ed. Makati: DRTI Consultancy
Phils. Inc. (in cooperation with the Businessmen), c1993.)
105
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
106
maps on climate
maps on soil
maps on slope
surface hydrology
fisheries
population density
vegetation
land classification
Ins and Outs of Metro Manila (Edmundo R. Abigan, Jr. Manila: Manila
Philippine Guide, Inc., 1997-1998. 235 p.)
o This work presents sectional maps and street directory of the 13
cities and 34 towns of Metro Manila.
Environment and Natural Resources Atlas of the Philippines (produced by
the Environmental Center of the Philippines Foundation in cooperation
43.6 Directories
The following directory titles cover a wide range of subject areas about the
Philippines.
107
108
109
110
111
43.9 Indexes
These Filipiniana indexes cover a broad range of disciplines, from medicine and
law to arts and letters.
112
113
114
Aside from the modern book, there are also other derivatives of the book extant
which are physically quite different. Included here are the following.
115
is a short printed work of a few leaves merely stitched together, and not
otherwise bound.
in those materials was written in hieroglyphics (writing system of ancient Egypt that
uses symbols or pictures to denote objects, concepts, or sounds). An alphabet
which consisted of 24 consonants was used. Scrolls were tagged with the title and
the author's name. Professional scribes reproduced works either by copying a text
or by setting it down from dictation. Athens, Alexandria, and Rome were great
centers of book production and exported books throughout the ancient world. In
these societies, the royal type of library is less famous The famous libraries then
were the libraries of Gizeh and Thebes. Famous writings in scrolls are Prisse
Papyrus, Harris Papyrus, and Inscriptions. Phoenicains at around 2756 B.C. also
developed their own alphabet that is made up of 22 consonants.
During the period of antiquity, books were owned chiefly by temples, rulers, and a
few rich people. Most education at that time and for centuries thereafter, was by
oral repetition and memorization. Papyrus did not last long since the material was
brittle; in damp climates it disintegrated in less than 100 years. Thus, a great part of
the literature and records of the ancient world has been irretrievably lost.
Some of the book rolls produced during the ancient world were made from
parchment and vellum (especially prepared animal skins - parchment was from
sheep skin and velum was from calf skin). These materials did not have such
drawbacks. Other peoples of the ancient Middle East where papyrus did not grow
had used scrolls made of tanned leather or untanned parchment for centuries. The
production of parchment was improved by King Eumenes II of Pergamun in the
2nd century B.C. By the 4th century A.D., parchment had almost entirely
supplanted papyrus as a medium for writing.
Normally, the law entitles certain libraries to receive one or more copies of every
book or other publication printed or published within the country for free. This is
known as legal deposit or copyright deposit. The library entitled by the law to
receive such items is the copyright library.
44.2 Books in the Ancient Period
During the pre-historic era, man uses pictographs and landmarks in conveying
idea. Communication is more concentrated in oral than written form.
The 4th century also marked the culmination of a gradual process in which the
inconvenient scroll was replaced by the rectangular codex (Latin, "book"), the
direct ancestor of the modern book. The codex, as first used by the Greeks and
Romans for business accounts or school work, was a small, ringed notebook
consisting of two or more wooden tablets covered with wax, which could be
marked with a stylus, smoothed over, and reused many times. Additional leaves of
parchment were sometimes inserted between the tablets. In time the codex came
to consist of many sheets of papyrus or, later, parchment, bound in a way
somewhat similar to how present books are bound. The codex made it easier for
readers to find their place or to refer ahead or back, particularly useful in the
observance of the Christian liturgy.
It was during the period of early antiquity (3600-626 B.C.) when the forerunners of
books were used - the clay tablets and clay cylinders, which contained information
written in cuneiform (any of several writing systems of the ancient Near East, for
example Sumerian or Linear B, in which wedge-shaped impressions were made in
soft clay). These were used by the Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and other
peoples of ancient Mesopotamia. These people used a writing instrument known
as stylus. Libraries were also born, but they are limited to the following types:
temple, government, private, and royal (e.g. libraries of Teloh, Borisppa, and
Nineveh). The famous Code of Hamurabi is an example of writing produced during
this period.
At around 3000 B.C., Egyptians, on the other hand, used materials that were much
more closely related to the modern book - the scrolls (book rolls). These were also
used by ancient Greeks, and Romans. They consisted of sheets of papyrus, a
paper-like material made from the pounded pith of reeds growing in the Nile River
delta, formed into a continuous strip and rolled around a stick. The text contained
116
laboriously written out with a quill pen by monastic scribes working in the scriptoria
(Latin, "writing rooms") of monasteries.
In the 11th century the Chinese also invented printing from movable type, which
could be reassembled in different orders for numerous works. They made little use
of it, however, for the great number of characters required in Chinese writing made
movable type impracticable.
At first, scribes used a variety of local styles in capital letters only, a custom carried
over from classical scrolls. As a result of the revival of learning initiated by
Charlemagne in the 8th century, scribes shifted to capital and minuscule (small)
letters, which eventually inspired the typographers of the Renaissance. After the
12th century, however, bookscript deteriorated into the black letter style, which
consisted of narrow, heavily drawn, angular letters crowded close together in thin
columns that were difficult to read.
Many medieval books were brilliantly illuminated in gold and colors to indicate the
start of a new section of text, to illustrate the text, or to decorate the borders.
Medieval books had wooden covers, often strengthened with metal bosses and
fastened with clasps. Many covers were bound in leather, sometimes richly
adorned with gold and silver work, enamels, and gems. Such beautifully produced
books were works of art, which, by the late Middle Ages, were usually created by
professional scribes, artists, and jewelers. Books were few and costly; they were
commissioned by the very small percentage of the population that could afford
them and that knew how to read.
The first major book printed in movable type was the Gutenberg Bible (1456).
These innovations simplified book production and made it economically feasible
and relatively easy. At the same time, public literacy increased greatly, in part as a
result of Renaissance scholarship and exploration, and in part as a result of the
Protestant Reformation tenet that every believer should be able to read the Bible.
Consequently, in the 16th century both the number of works and the number of
copies of them increased enormously, further stimulating the public demand for
books.
The printing of books from wood blocks, a technique probably learned from
contact with the East, began in the late Middle Ages. Block books were usually
religious works with heavy illustration and scanty text.
Italian Renaissance printers of the 16th century set traditions that have persisted in
book publishing since that time. Among them were the use of light pasteboard
covers, often bound in leather, regularized layouts, and clear Roman and Italic
typefaces. Woodcuts and engravings were used for illustrations. Another tradition
was the designation of book sizes as folio, quarto, octavo, duodecimo, 16mo,
24mo, and 32mo. These designations signify the numbers of leaves (each side
counting as a page) formed by folding a large sheet of book paper. Thus, a sheet
folded once forms two leaves (four pages), and a book made of sheets so folded is
called a folio. A sheet folded twice forms four leaves (eight pages) and a book
made of sheets so folded is a quarto. Modern European publishers continue to use
these terms.
Renaissance books also established the convention of the title page and the
preface, or introduction. Gradually the table of contents, list of illustrations,
explanatory notes, bibliography, and index were added.
In 6th century A.D., printing from carved wood blocks was invented in China. The
first book known to have been printed from wood blocks was a Chinese edition of
the Diamond Sutra, a Buddhist text, dating from 868. The Tripitaka, (another
Buddhist scripture), which ran to more than 130,000 pages, was printed in 972.
Printing from reusable blocks was a much more efficient method of reproducing a
work than copying by hand, but each block took a long time to carve and could be
used only for that one work.
117
have made possible the production in the 20th century of vast numbers of books at
a relatively low price. The subject matter of books has become literally universal.
The three (3) major types of descriptive bibliographies is further subdivided into
more specific types, as shown in the succeeding discussions.
1. Systematic enumerative bibliographies
providing means for verifying author's name, complete title of the work,
place of publication, name of publisher, date of publication, edition,
number of pages, price, etc.
indicating the scope of the work and the manner in which the subject is
treated, if annotated
completeness
118
119
Library Journal (New York: R.R. Bowker, 1876 ff.) - This semi-monthly
publication is a yearly review of reference titles, usually written by
librarians and teachers.
Reference Books Bulletin, In Booklist (Chicago: ALA, 1905 ff.) - This semimonthly publication provides current, accurate, and in-depth reviews of
general reference works.
Wilson Library Bulletin (New York: H.W. Wilson, 1970 ff.) - This publication
is issued monthly. It devotes one section to "Current Reference Books".
Since only one author is responsible for the reviews, only about 20 to 30
are reviewed each month.
Reference and Research Book News (Portland, OR: Book News, 1985 ff.)
- This monthly publication provides full bibliographic information and a
short (about 50 to 70 words) annotation.
120
Current bibliographies
o Cumulative Book Index (New York: Wilson, 1898 ff.) - This is
issued monthly except on August. It is an author-title-subject
international list of books published in the English language. It
provides information on author's full name, complete title,
edition, series, number of pages, publisher, date of publication,
price Library of Congress call number, and ISBN. It can be
accessed online through Wilsonline. It also has a CD-ROM
version entitled Wilson-Disc.
o American Book Publishing Record (New York: R.R. Bowker, 1961
ff.) - This monthly publication provides complete cataloging
records for books as they are published. It excludes government
publications, subscription books, pamphlets, and dissertations.
Entries are arranged according to DDC with author and title
indexes.
Retrospective bibliographies
o American Bibliography (by Charles Evans - New York: Evans,
1903-1934) - This 14-volumework lists books, pamphlets, and
periodicals published in the US from 1639 to 1806. The titles are
listed in chronological order by date of publication. Included are
indexes to authors, printers, and publishers.
o Early American Imprints (produced by Readers Microprint) - This
is a microform set of the full-texts of the non-serial titles in
Evan's work.
o American Bibliography: A Preliminary Checklist - This covers
publications dating from 1801 to 1819.
o Bibliotheca Americana (by Joseph Sabin) - This lists books
relating to the US from its European discovery (October 12, 1942)
dating to 1868. It provides complete bibliographic description
and locations of copies as well as references to reviews.
o A Short Title Catalogue of Books Printed in England, Scotland,
and Ireland, and of English Books Printed Abroad (by A.W.
Pollard and G.R. Redgrave - 2nd ed. London: Bibliographical
Society, 1976-1991) - This is a three-volume work whose first
and second volumes include about 37,000 titles arranged
alphabetically by author. The third volume provides a
121
Alliance Plus (from Follett Software) - Listed below are some titles of
printed guides to bibliographic databases.
Online Computer Library Center (OCLC) - This was formerly known as the
Ohio College Library Center (1967). OCLC is the largest bibliographic
utility. Its network and services link 36,000 libraries in the US and 74
countries and territories.
A-G Canada Ltd. - Bibliographic utilities are significant for the following
reasons.
o rapid location of a material or article
o acquisition of materials through either direct or indirect file use
o circulation control and remote catalog access
o shared cataloging
o online access to LC Name Authority File
o answering bibliographic verification and location queries
122
13. Co-authored works follow edited works, but the author's name must be
repeated in them.
The following illustrates some sample bibliographical citations.
[One author]
Anderson, W.D. Music and Musicians in Ancient Greece. 2nd ed.
Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994.
Hakemi, A. Shahdad: Archaeological Excavations of a Bronze
Age Center in Iran. Translated by S.M.S. Sajjadi. New Delhi:
Instituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, 1997.
Books
o
[Edited work]
Langdon, S., ed. From Pasture to Polis. Columbia, MO:
University of Missouri Press, 1995.
123
[No author]
The Lottery. London: J. Watts, [1732].
Journal article
o Weinert, Regina. "The Role of Formulaic Language in Second
Language Acquisition: A Review." Applied Linguistics. 16 (1995):
180-205.
Magazine article
o Jackson, Richard. "Running Down the Up-Escalator: Regional
Inequality in Papua New Guinea." Australian Geographer. 14
(May 1979): 175-84.
Newspaper article
o Manegold, Catherine S. "Becoming a Land of the Smoke-Free,
Ban by Ban." New York Times. 22 Mar. 1994, late ed. A1.
Unpublished materials
o Hoff, M.C. "The Roman Agora at Athens." Ph.D. diss.,
BostonUniversity, 1988.
Barradas, Josephine Cecilia L. "The Organization of Philippine
Vocal and Instrumental Scores in Selected Academic Music
Libraries in Metro Manila: A Survey." MLS graduate thesis,
University of the Philippines, Diliman, 2000.
Government documents
o United Nations, Center on Transnational Cooperations. Foreign
Direct Investment, the Service Sector, and International Banking.
(New York: United Nations, 1987) 4-6.
Electronic sources
o Oxford English Dictionary Computer File: On Compact Disc. 2nd
ed. CD-ROM. Oxford: University Press, 1992. Schneiderman,
R.A. (1997). Libraries can make sense of the Net. San Antonio
Business Journal, (11)31, pp. 58+. Retrieved January 1999 from
EBSCO Database (Masterfile) on the World Wide Web: American
Psychological Association. (1995, September 15).
o
124
UNIT 14 - INDEXING
An index (from the Latin word indicare, which means "to point out) is a systematic
guide to items contained in, or concepts derived from a collection. These items or
derived concepts are represented by entries in a known or stated searchable order,
such as alphabetical, chronological, or numerical. Alphabetically or otherwise
ordered arrangement of entries, different from the order of the document or
collection indexed, an index is designed to enable users to locate information in a
document or specific documents in a collection.
Index heading - This is a term chosen to represent in the index the item or
concept derived from the material being indexed.
Locator - This element leads the user directly to the part of the document
or collection containing the information to which the index heading refers.
125
indexed and the resulting records are stored and displayed, so that selected
records (and/or the documentary units they represent) can be retrieved.
usually difficult to use for some users primarily because they do not know
how they are constructed. To identify the right position of an item in the
classified list, a secondary file which is an alphabetical list is needed. For
entries which follow the sequence of notational symbols, one cannot enter
to the item directly as one can with alphabetical-sequenced listing. A
conversion table must be consulted first in order to translate natural
language words into their notational equivalents. Entries in classified
indexes may appear under highly specific class numbers derived from a
general or specific-purpose classification scheme. Otherwise, they may
be grouped under relatively broad subject categories and subcategories.
Classified index - The classified index has its contents arranged on the
basis of relation among concepts represented by headings (e.g. hierarchy,
inclusion, chronology, and other association). Classified indexes are often
based on existing classification schemes(e.g. DDC). Such indexes are
useful for generic searches when retrieval is aiming for classes of
documents. Since the hierarchy is clearly presented, the user is
immediately made aware of terms closely related to a concept. They bring
similar things together. Looking at the other side, classified indexes are
126
o
o
o
o
o
Book Index
Compiled only once and within a
relatively short time and usually
performed by a person.
Deals with a more or less well-defined
central topic.
Indexing terms are almost always
derived from the text.
Specificity is largely governed by the
text itself.
Newspaper index - This index uses the same principles and objectives
with the previous index types, except for some problems occurring to
them.
o A newspaper article may contain names, places, or even
subjects that may not occur again (problem in vocabulary
control).
o Multiple editions that some newspapers tend to have may cause
some stories to be added, dropped, or shifted to other pages.
Dogs
The following table summarizes the major distinctions between the book
and periodical indexes.
127
Periodical Index
A continuous process and more often
performed by a term of indexers and
lasting for an extended period.
Deals with a great variety of topics.
Index to plays
o Example: Play Index (NY: H.W. Wilson, 1953 ff.) - Unlike Short
Story Index, this index is published irregularly. It provides author,
title, and subject index entries to individually published plays and
play collections. An author entry contains the full name of the
author, title of the play, a brief description note, the number of
acts and scenes, the size of the cast, and the number of sets
required. It contains a cast analysis that helps a librarian locate
plays for a number of players required.
Index to Poems
o Example: The Columbia Granger's Index to Poetry. 9th ed. (NY:
Columbia University Press, 1990. 2048 p. Also available in CDROM) - This publication indexed close to 400 poetry anthologies.
It provides four (4) indexes: by first line, author, subject, and title.
It serves as a guide in locating a poem in a particular anthology.
It is also valuable in locating elusive quotations either by first line
or by subject. The index provides access to over 40,000 poems.
o The Columbia Granger's Guide to Poetry Anthologies (NY:
Columbia University Press, 1991) - This publication provides an
annotated, descriptive, and critical appraisal of all the
anthologies indexed in the 9th edition of The Columbia Granger's
Index to Poetry, with attention given to the audience for the
particular works. The annotations were prepared by William and
Linda Katz.
Index to Essays
o Example: Essay and General Literature Index (NY: Columbia
University Press, 1990 ff.) - This index consists of analytical
subject entries to the contents of approximately 300 collected
works on every subject from art to medicine. It is useful in
Microform indexes
128
Depth indexing aims to extract all the main concepts dealt with in
a document, recognizing many subthemes and subtopics. This
has been traditionally practiced for the subject analysis of parts
of items (e.g. journals, articles, chapters in books, etc.).
Summarization identifies only a dominant, over-all subject of the
item, recognizing only concepts embodied in the main theme.
This is usually observed in library cataloging subject analysis.
Coextensive entry - It should be noted that this concept is not exactly the
same as the concept of specificity. Coextensive entry means that the
subject heading will cover all, but not more than, the concepts covered in
the document.
o Example: For a document that deals both with musicians and
dancers, should be Musicians and dancers.
o However, if a controlled vocabulary is used, there is no specific
entry that can be assigned. Instead, several entries are provided
(Musicians and Dancers for instance in the above example). An
example of an indexing system that attempts to make subject
headings coextensive with the concepts covered in the
document analyzed is The Preserved Context Indexing System
(PRECIS).
Consistency - This refers to the extent to which agreement exists on the
terms to be used to index some documents. It requires that items on the
same subject be conceptually analyzed and translated in the same way.
There are two types of consistency level.
o Inter-indexer consistency refers to the agreement between or
among indexers working as a team.
o Intra-indexer consistency refers to the extent to which one
indexer is consistent to himself/herself.
first term for the major subject of the document, but consistency
decreases as they choose more terms.
Size of vocabulary - As the size of vocabulary grows, consistency
drops. That is, the more choices indexers have, the less likely
that they will choose the same term for describing a concept.
129
Controlled vocabulary offers advantages for the indexer and the user of
the index.
130
131
set off on the left hand margin of the page or sometimes, they are used as
though they were subject headings. A keyword used as an entry point in a
KWOC index is not usually repeated in the title but is replaced by an
asterisk (*) or some other symbols.
which is placed first. The principle of context states that a term should be adjoined
by those other terms which serve most to narrow its scope or to qualify it. On the
other hand, the basic principle of the dependency principle is that the more
dependent of two linked terms should normally be cited after the less dependent.
Below are some examples how KWIC and KWOC indexes are constructed.
Examples:
Document titles - Blue-Eyed Cats in Texas
The Cat and the Fiddle
Dogs and Cats and Their Diseases
The Cat and the Economy
where:
2 = transaction action
P = object of action
O = location
I = key system (object of transitive action)
From the above example, the operators show the role that a term plays in relation
to other terms and thus can be regarded as role indicators or role operators. Below
is an example of a PRECIS index.
132
2.
Input string:
@MEASURES? OF <INFORMATION CONTENT? OF
<DOCUMENT SURROGATES>>? FROM <INFORMATION
THEORY>
Sample index strings that may be produced
SOCUMENT SURROGATES. INFORMATION CONTENT.
MEASURES FROM INFORMATION THEORY
INFORATION CONTENT OF DOCUMENT SURROGATES.
MEASURES FROM INFORMATION THEORY
INFORMATION THEORY. MEASURES FROM INFORMATION
CONTENT OF DOCUMENT SURROGATES
4.
The index string generator of POPSI is basically KWOC-like except that additional
qualifying terms are inserted after the lead term, and generic terms are dropped in
the subheading.
Example: Based from the above example, some of the index strings that may be
generated will be
ANIMAL, STUDY, STIMULATION
PHARMACOLOGY, ANTIBIOTICS; STIMULATION HEART: STUDY - RABBIT
ANTIBIOTIC, PHARMACOLOGY
PHARMACOLOGY, ANTIBIOTICS; STIMULATION HEART: STUDY RABBIT
3.
Examples:
HENDIADYS
English literature
Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Use of HENDIADYS. Source in Vigil. Linguistic
approach.
LINGUISTIC APPROACH
English literature. Tragedy. 1500-1599
Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Use of Hendiadys. Source in Vigil. LINGUISTIC
APPROACH.
Permuted indexes are created by systematically rotating information-conveying
words in the title as subject entry points in the index.
Through permuted indexing, indexing can be done easily at minimum cost. It does
not need the expertise of a professional indexer because it is entirely done by a
computer. However, it has some drawbacks. Some documents may not be
accurately reflected accurately in this type of index since titles sometimes do not
exactly reflect the subject content of the work. The limited number of terms
restricts complete subject indication. Most title indexes are unappealing to the eye
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and are difficult to scan. The lack of vocabulary control can increase the retrieval of
irrelevant documents. Due to this, permuted indexes usually employ stop lists
(words that are not suitable as subject indicators).
usefulness
When indexing particular documents, especially books, these are the only parts
that should be considered for the process.
body of the text that is directly relevant to the subject matter, scope, and
audience of the book
introduction
chapter headings
footnotes and endnotes (if they present material not found in the text
itself)
personal names
illustrative matter, e.g. charts, maps graphs, drawings, etc. (if they are
printed several pages away from the page containing the textual
discussion)
Example:
Topic : Victorian period English poetry
Hierarchy:
8 Literature
2 English
1 Poetry
8 Victorian period
These three basic steps are operational through the following detailed specific
steps in indexing.
134
Content analysis - There are some factors that mat affect this activity.
o Environmental situations - If there is labor shortage or other
critical time factors, this process may be hurried. The various
physical environmental factors such as noise and other factors
that determine the conduciveness of a workplace may also affect
the process.
o Policy decisions - Guidelines imposed by agencies are generally
concerned with the selection of certain content indicators and
the rejection of others. For example, indexers of scientific
literature may be told to concentrate on methodology,
measurement, equipment used, and the results, ignoring
historical materials.
o Decision of the indexer - This determines which aspects of the
subjects must be emphasized and which aspects are
deemphasized.
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Title - Despite the fact that some titles are vague and
are not related at all to the subjects of the document,
they are still considered as basic indexing units and
serve as the first sop in determining subject content.
Extent to which the indexer considers that overspecificity might adversely affect the performance of the
indexing system - For example, an indexer might decide
that very specific models of equipment may be
represented by more general terms such as the name of
dictionaries
and
encyclopedias
recognized
by
authorities in their fields
classification schemes
Word-by-word
We Five, 101
Weather underground, 143
weatherproofing, 212
Weaver, James Baird, 47
weaverbird, 119
weft knitting, 68
Letter-by-letter
weatherproofing, 212
Weather Underground, 143
weaverbird, 119
Weaver, James Baird, 47
We Five, 10
weft knitting, 68
Read the text several times, page by page, to be able to analyze the
contents and determine the indexable topics.
Select the topics to be indexed, taking into consideration their
significance to the central theme of the book.
Name the topics that were chosen to be indexed.
o Mark up page proofs all at once before any cards are prepared or
entries encoded.
o For each chosen heading, supply a modification, a word or a
phrase that narrows the application of the meaning.
o If a text discussion extends more than one page, beginning and
ending references have to be given.
o Type the entries either on cards or in a word processor in a
computer.
o Proofread each typed entry and check the content and locator
against the proof.
o After completing and checking all the entries, read quickly
through the pages again to determine if anything indexable has
been omitted.
Arrange the entries in alphabetical order.
o All entries are arranged in alphabetical groups by initial letter.
o Entries within each letter group are arranged alphabetically,
following either word-by-word or letter-by-letter mode.
136
Type or encode the index using a word processor. After typing, proofread
the typescript against the cards. Check the alphabetical order of all
entries and conduct a final review.
Every article that has permanent value should be indexed under all topics
and issues dealt with.
Editorials should be indexed under their topics as any other article but
differentiated from others by the addition of "(Ed.)" or "(E)". The titles of
editorials may be indexed under a collective heading "Editorials".
Book reviews are indexed by the title of the book, followed by the name of
the author, the locator, and the designation (R), unless all book reviews
are listed under the class heading "Book Reviews" or in a separate index.
o Example: Guide to reference books, 10th ed. (Sheehy) 68 (R)
The name of the reviewer should be included in the author name index.
o Example: Dixon, Geoffrey 68 (R), 92-96, 123
49.5 Indexing Schemes for Fiction and Other Imaginative Works
Indexing fiction and other imaginative works has an entirely different discipline
among others. The following is a scheme used for indexing such materials.
137
Know the author's intention in writing the text. It may fall under any of the
following.
o emotional experience
o cognition and information
Define the accessibility of the material. The following elements will count
on this.
o readability
o physical characteristics
o literary form
o
2.
Choose the most recent, or the most commonly used form of corporate
name as the main heading and add See cross references from other
forms.
o Example: John Moores University See Liverpool John Moores
University
Liverpool John Moores University
Choose the most commonly known, or the most commonly used form of
personal name as the heading and add See cross reference from other
forms.
o Example: Clemens, Samuel Langhorne See Twain, Mark
3.
Where surnames are in common use, the entry should be the surname,
followed by any given name or initials. When surnames are not used, the
name that customarily comes first should properly be used as the entry
word.
o Example: Inuran Khan
4.
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5.
Subject errors
o Are there errors in choosing subject descriptors?
o Are there any errors related to omissions?
o Are some particular entries too broad or too narrow for the
concept they intend to reflect?
Internal guidance
There are two highlighted aspects that should be looked at in evaluating the quality
of an index.
Recall ratio - This is the ratio of relevant documents retrieved to the total
number of relevant documents potentially available in the file. Recall
depends on the level of Exhaustivity allowed by the indexing policy.
139
Relevance ratio - This refers to the ratio of relevant documents to the total
number of documents retrieved. Relevance or position depends on the
terminology of the text being indexed and the specificity of the indexing
language used.
MACREX (Daly City, CA: Wise Bytes) - This software was designed to
assist the indexer working from printed proofs, text on disk, the author's
manuscript, or an already completed book. This software performs
routinary tasks such as sorting, printing, repagination, etc.
WINDEX (for DOS) (Waltham, MA: Susan Holbert Indexing Services) - This
software is capable of alphabetizing, placing of punctuation marks,
combining of identical entries, and formatting instantaneously and
correctly. It alphabetizes entries either letter-by-letter or word-by-word.
The indexer can specify what characters to ignore when alphabetizing.
He/she may also specify what words to ignore in alphabetizing subentries.
HTML Indexer (by David M. Brown - Portland, OR: Brown, Inc.) - This
program serves as a tool for creating and maintaining real indexes for
websites, intranets, and documents in HTML, Help, JavaHelp, etc.
The following are the ISO documentations that concern the practice of indexing.
140
British Standards Institution (BSI) - This is the National Standards Body of the
UK. Through engagement and collaboration with its stakeholders, it develops
standards and applies innovative standardization solutions to meet the needs
of business and society. Some of the standards developed by BSI that are
related to library and information science are the following.
141
UNIT 15 - ABSTRACTING
Aside from the abstract, there are other types of document surrogates which are
often found relatively similar to abstracts. These are the following.
Journals - These are the main sources of publications for most of the
primary literature.
142
Reviews - These may be book reviews, movie or film reviews, and so on.
Abstracts must possess three basic qualities in order to serve their purpose
effectively.
3.
Critical abstract - This abstract does not only describe the document content
but also evaluates the work and its presentation. It indicates the depth and
extent of the work. The abstractor expresses views on the quality of work of
the author and compares/contrasts it with other works.
4.
Informative abstract
Clarity - This quality ensures that abstracts should be free from all sorts of
ambiguities. As much as possible, an abstract is written in a language and
style clearly understood by the user.
143
Indicative-informative abstract
DIAGNOSING INTERDEPARTMENTAL CONFLICT
Resolution on interdepartmental conflicts that decrease productivity may
require structural reorganization to reduce authority-prestige ambiguity
and internal social instability, and/or may require inter-group training to
reduce and counseling to reduce point-of-view conflicts. A thorough study
is needed of the goals and environment of the organization as a whole.
Experience (cited at numerous case histories) has demonstrated that three
conditions must be established to reduce these interdepartmental
conflicts. Each group must have internal social stability, including
common interests and promotion opportunities. Groups in close contact
must share external values through common training and point of view.
Authority, as indicated by work flow and control, must follow prestige lines
to be legitimate.
Other sources of error which were not addressed include : the difference
in the properties of excised lung and intact lung due to blood in the
vessels, surrounding tissue, negative pressure, etc.; the effect of strain
rate in the modulus of lung tissue, which is a viscoelastic material; the
difference between the true regional AV and the measured AV; and the
differences between the mechanical properties of dog and human lung
tissue.
Despite its limitations, the paper presents a step forward in the
understanding of mechanical properties of the lung, and, thus, lung
diseases. Therefore, it should be of benefit to researchers interested in
respiratory mechanics and physiology.
Critical abstract
1989. Pao, Y.C., Dept. of Eng. Mech.., Univ. of Nebr., Lincoln, Shy, D.S.,
et. al., On relationship between bulk modulus and relative volume of lung
during inhalation-deflation maneuvers, p. 136-142, Journal of Biochemical
Engineering, Transactions of the ASME v 104, n 2 (May 1982)
The paper presents an equation relating the bulk modulus of the lung to
the relative volume during inflation and deflation. The average bulk
modulus of the lung was obtained by injecting a 6-mm.-i.d. cannula in the
main lobar bronchus. "Regional lobe" volume changes were measured by
roentgen-videographically determined placement of 25 metal markers
implanted in the excised lower lobes of three dogs. Whole lobe volumes
at various transpulmonary pressures were measured by water
144
authors do not necessarily write the best abstracts since they lack training and
experience in abstracting as well as knowledge of abstracting rules.
2.
3.
Annotation
A model was developed for charring and melting a composite4 material with glassy
ablation combined with char-layer-molten-glass reaction.
51.3 By Form
There are five (5) possible forms of abstracts.
1. Statistical or tabular abstract - This abstract is a summary of the data
presented in tabular form. This is used in certain specialized subjects, such as
economics, sociology and other social sciences, and in applied sciences like
engineering, where data is frequently emphasized exclusively in statistical and
tabular form.
This was designed with the intention that abstracting service could
process it to conform to its own unique requirements with a minimum of
effort. Any one of the abstracts could be used, intact or edited as the case
may be. Its purpose is to eliminate duplication and waste of intellectual
effort involved in the independent abstracting of the same documents by
several abstracting services. The following is an example.
3.
BACKGROUND: Structured abstracts - which, like the present one, contain several
subheadings - have replaced traditional abstracts in most medical journals.
145
Evaluation studies have shown that such abstracts provide more information, are
of a higher quality, facilitate peer review, and are generally welcomed.
AIM: The aim of the studies reported here was to investigate a possible advantage
for structured abstracts - namely: whether or not they are easier to search.
Users of the abstract - Determine who the users are, their informationseeking behavior, and their needs with regard to the currency, accuracy,
and reliability of the abstract, their point of view, and their terminology
preferences.
146
italicized or underlined
o transcribing the volume and/or issue number
o transcribing inclusive pages of article
o transcribing date of publication
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) - ISO 214-1976 Documentation: Abstracts for Publication and Documentation. 1976.
2.
3.
4.
In the presentation of data for scientific abstracts, the main findings must be
highlighted. Furthermore, collateral and additional information may be added.
Collateral information includes findings or information incidental to the main
purpose of the study, including modification of methods, new instruments, new
compounds, and newly discovered documents or data sources. Additional
information includes tables, illustrations, and references. These may be included in
an abbreviated form within parentheses at the end of the abstract.
147
Body - The body contains data from the original document and indicates
or describes the content of the original.
Signature - This indicates the abstractor's name (either the full name or
initials may be given) and his affiliation. This usually comes at the end of
the abstract.
o
o
o
o
o
Citation formats do not strictly adhere to a single standard. There are several
varieties of standards which can be adapted. Below are some examples of
citations based from ISO 690-1975 (Documentation: Bibliographic References Essential and Supplementary Elements).
Title of invention
Number of other patent documents to which the patent
document is legally related
Full name of country of the grantee if appropriate and known
Surname(s) and forename(s) or initial(s) of the inventor
Language of the patent document
Monographs/books
o Name(s) of author(s), with forename(s)
o Title of publication (distinguished by italicizing or underlining)
o Edition number
o Place of publication
o Publisher
o Year of publication
o Pagination (total number of pages)
o Price
There is a direct correlation between the length of an original document and its
abstract. Generally, the following number of words for each type of abstract will
apply.
148
20th century
o Biological Abstracts. Philadelphia: BIOSIS, 1926o Bulletin Signelatique. Paris, 1940o Chemical Abstracts. Columbus, Ohio: American Chemical
Society, 1907o Dissertation Abstracts International. Ann-Arbor, Mich.: University
Microfilms International, 1938o Electroanalytic Abstracts. 1963o Excerpts Medica. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica, 1948o Fertilizer Abstracts. Muscle Shoals, Ala.: Tennessee Valley
Authority, National Fertilizer Development Center, Technical
Library, 1968o Historical Abstracts. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Clio Press, 1955o Journal of Current Laser Abstracts. 1967o Library and Information Science Abstracts. London: The Library
Association. 1969o Mathematical Reviews. Providence, R.I.: American Mathematical
Society, 194?o Nucleic Acid Abstracts. 1971o Psychological Abstracts. Wash., D.C.: American Psychological
Association, 1927o Referativnyi Zhurnal. Moscow, 1954o Sociological Abstracts
149
The abacus is one of the earliest machines invented over 2000 years ago by Asian
merchants to speed up calculation. It is a simple hand device for recording
numbers or performing simple calculations.
Calculating machines were first introduced in the 17th century. In 1642, the first
calculating machine that can perform addition and subtraction, a precursor of the
digital computer, was devised by the French scientist, mathematician, and
philosopher Blaise Pascal. This device employed a series of ten-toothed wheels,
each tooth representing a digit from 0 to 9. The wheels were connected so that
numbers could be added to each other by advancing the wheels by a correct
number of teeth. In the 1670s the German philosopher and mathematician
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz improved on this machine by devising one that could also
multiply.
It was in 1820 when the next generation of calculating devices was invented, the
artithometer, by Charles Xavier Thomas of France. It combined the features of the
Leibnitz calculator with newer engineering techniques. The first mechanical
calculator produced in the US was developed in 1972 by Frank S. Baldwin.
Improving the Leibnitz design, it made a much smaller and lighter calculator. The
first commercial calculator that was both a calculating and a listing machine was
developed in 1886 by William Seward Burroughs, an American bank clerk.
During the 1880s the American statistician Herman Hollerith who worked in the US
Bureau of Census, conceived the idea of using perforated cards (punch cards
similar to Jacquard's boards) for processing data. Employing a system that passed
punched cards over electrical contacts, he devised the Hollerith's punched-cards
tabulating machine, which he used to speed up the compilation of statistical
information for the 1890 United States census. Hollerith went on to establish the
Tabulating Machine Company to manufacture and market his invention, which IN
1911 merged with other organizations to form the Computing-TabulatingRecording Company.
150
In 1944, Howard Aiken completed the MARK I computer (also known as the
Automatic Sequence controlled Calculator), the first electromechanical computer. It
can solve mathematical problems 1,000 times faster than existing machines.
The first electronic computer to be made operational was the Electronic Numerical
Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC). It was built in 1946 for the US Army to perform
quickly and accurately the complex calculations that gunners needed to aim their
artillery weapons. ENIAC contained 18,000 vacuum tubes and had a speed of
several hundred multiplications per minute, but originally its program was wired
into the processor and had to be manually altered.
Also in the 19th century, the British mathematician and inventor Charles Babbage
(referred to as the Father of the modern computer) worked out the principles of the
modern digital computer. He conceived a number of machines, such as the
Difference Engine and Analytical engine, the forerunners of the modern computer,
that were designed to handle complicated mathematical problems. One of
Babbage's designs, the Analytical Engine, had many features of a modern
computer. It had an input stream in the form of a deck of punched cards, a "store"
for saving data, a "mill" for arithmetic operations, and a printer that made a
permanent record. Babbage failed to put this idea into practice, though it may well
have been technically possible at that date.
The scientists of the Cambridge University in England designed the world's first
electronic computer that stored its program of instructions, the Electronic Delay
Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC). This gave more flexibility in the use of the
computer. Two years after (1951), machines were built with program storage,
based on the ideas of the Hungarian-American mathematician John von Neumann
of Pennsylvania University. The instructions, like the data, were stored within a
"memory", freeing the computer from the speed limitations of the paper-tape
reader during execution and permitting problems to be solved without rewiring the
computer. This concept gave birth to the Electronic Discreet Variable Automatic
Computer (EDVAC).
Many historians consider Babbage and his associate, the mathematician Augusta
Ada Byron, Countess of Lovelace and daughter of the poet, Lord Byron, the true
pioneers of the modern digital computer. The latter provided complete details as to
exactly how the analytical engine was to work. Because she described some of the
key elements in computer programming, she was referred to as the "world's first
computer programmer".
In the United States, a prototype electronic machine had been built as early as
1939, by John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry, at Iowa State College. This prototype
and later research were completed quietly for the development of the AtanasoffBerry Computer (ABC). This is considered as the first electronic computing
machine. It could only perform addition and subtraction, and never became
operational because of the involvement of the inventors in US military efforts in
World War II.
In 1953, IBM produced the first of its computers, the IBM 701-a machine designed
to be mass-produced and easily installed in a customer's building. The success of
the 701 led IBM to manufacture many other machines for commercial data
processing. The IBM 650 computer is probably the reason why IBM enjoys such a
healthy share of today's computer market. The sales of IBM 650 were a particularly
151
good indicator of how rapidly the business world accepted electronic data
processing. Initial sales forecasts were extremely low because the machine was
thought to be too expensive, but over 1,800 were eventually made and sold.
could move up to the next model without worrying about converting its data. This
made all previous computers obsolete.
In 1964, Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code (BASIC). a high-level
programming language, was developed by John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz at
Dartmouth College. BASIC gained its enormous popularity mostly because it can
be learned and used quickly. The language has changed over the years, from a
teaching language into a versatile and powerful language of both business and
scientific applications.
The invention of the integrated circuit (IC) by Jack S. Kilbey of Texas Instruments in
1958 is considered as a great invention which changed how the world functions. It
is the heart of all electronic equipment today.
Between 1959 and 1961, (COBOL) was invented by Grace Murray Hopper. It is a
verbose, English-like programming language. Its establishment as a required
language by the United States Department of Defense, its emphasis on data
structures, and its English-like syntax led to its widespread acceptance and usage,
especially in business applications. It is a champion of standardized programming
languages that are hardware independent. COBOL is run in many types of
computers by a compiler that is also designed by Hopper.
In 1969, two Bell Telephone Labs software engineers, Dennis Ritchie and Ken
Thompson, developed a multi-user computer system named Multics (Multiplexed
Information and Computing Service). They eventually implemented a rudimentary
operating system they named Unics, as a pun of Multics. Somehow, the name
became UNIX. The most notable feature of this operating system is its portability:
the operating system can run in all types of computers, is machine-independent,
and supports multi-user processing, multitasking, and networking. UNIX is used in
high-end workstations and servers. This is written in C language, which was also
developed by Ritchie and Thompson.
In the 1950's and 1960's, only the largest companies could afford the six to seven
digit tags of mainframe computers. Digital Equipment Corporation introduced the
PDP-8, which is generally considered as the first successful transistor-based
microcomputer. It was an instant hit and there were tremendous demands from
business and scientific organizations.
Bill Gates and Paul Allen revolutionized the computer industry. They developed the
BASIC programming language for the first commercially-available microcomputer,
the MITS Altair. After successful completion of the project, the two formed
Microsoft Corporation in 1975. Microsoft is now the largest and most influential
software company in the world. Microsoft was given an anonymous boost when its
operating system software, MS-DOS was selected for use by the IBM PC. Gates,
now the wealthiest person in the world, provides the company's vision of new
product ideas and technologies.
One important entrepreneurial venture during the early years is the Apple II
personal computer, which was introduced in 1977. This event has forever changed
how society perceives computers: that computing is made available to individuals
and very small companies.
152
IBM tossed its hat into the personal computer ring with its release of the IBM
personal computer in 1981. By the end of 1982, 835,000 units had been sold.
When software vendors began to orient their products to the IBM PC, many
companies began offering IBM PC-compatibles or clones. Today, the IBM PC and
its clones have become a powerful standard in the microcomputer industry.
foundation for most Internet communications and services. The World Wide Web
was actually created in 1991 by Tim Berners-Lee, an engineer in Geneva,
Switzerland.
53.8 Fifth Generation of Computers
The fifth generation of computers is characterized by the very large-scale
integrated (VLSI) circuit (microchip), with many thousands of interconnected
transistors etched into a single silicon substrate. It is also characterized by network
computers of all sizes, the Internet, Intranets, and Extranets.
The year 1996 marked the 50th year of computer history. The US Postal service
issued stamps that commemorated the 50th anniversary of ENIAC, the first fullscale computer and the 50 years of computer technology that followed. It was
during this year when the handheld computer was introduced and signaled to the
world that you can place a tremendous computing power at the palm of your hand.
Nowadays, millions of people rely on handhelds for a variety of personal
information management applications, including e-mail.
It was in 1985 when Microsoft adopted the GUI in its Windows operating system
for IBM PC compatible computers. Windows did not enjoy widespread acceptance
until 1990, with the release of Windows 3.0. It gave a huge boost to the software
industry because larger, more complex programs could not be run on IBM-PC
compatibles. Subsequent releases made the PC even easier to use, fueling the PC
explosion in the 1990s.
In the year 1999, the world was threatened by the Y2K problem, known as the
millennium bug. It may have been one of the biggest challenges ever to confront
the businesses of the world. For most of the 20th century, information systems had
only two digits to represent the year (e.g. 99 for 1999). But what would happen
when the 20th century ended and a new one begins is that non-compliant
computers would interpret the date 01-01-00 for January 1, 2000 as being January
1, 1900. Y2K heightened management's awareness of how critical information
technology is to the operation of any organization.
In 1993, the IBM-PC compatible PCs started out using Intel microprocessor chips,
then a succession of even more powerful chips. But not until the Intel Pentium and
its successors did PCs do much with multimedia (the integration of motion, video,
animation, graphics, sound, and so on). The emergence of the high-powered Intel
Pentium processors and their ability to handle multimedia applications changed the
way people view and use PCs.
It was also in this year when millions of people began to tune into the Internet for
news. The World Wide Web (WWW), one of several internet-based applications,
came of age as Web traffic grew 341.634%. The web is unique that it enabled Web
pages to be linked across the Internet. A number of Internet browsers were
introduced (e.g. Mosaic and Netscape Navigator which were developed by Marc
Andreesen, and Internet Explorer by Microsoft Corporation). These browsers
enabled users to navigate the World Wide Web with ease. Today, WWW is the
153
data/information
o Data - streams of raw facts
o Information - processed data
peripheral devices
Modern digital computers are all conceptually similar, regardless of size.
Nevertheless, they can be divided into several categories on the basis of cost and
performance.
useful to perform complicated tasks at once. They are ideal for office
work.;
Supercomputers - This is a highly sophisticated and powerful computer
that can perform very complex operations in extreme speed.
Thin client - This computer functions only when connected to a server.
input devices
output devices
communication devices
In order for information to flow through a computer system and be in a form
suitable for processing, all symbols, pictures, or words must be reduced to a string
154
of binary digits. A binary digit is called a bit. It represents the smallest unit of data
in a computer system. It can only have one of two states (e.g. true or false, on or
off), represent ed by 0 or 1. A byte is a string of eight (8) bits, used to store one
number or character in a computer system.
155
Light pen - This is a pointing device in which the user holds a wand, which
is attached to the computer, up to the screen and selects items or
chooses commands on the screen (the equivalent of a mouse click) either
by pressing a clip on the side of the light pen or by pressing the light pen
against the surface of the screen. The light pen doesn't require a special
screen or screen coating, as does a touch screen, but its disadvantage is
that holding the pen up for an extended length of time is tiring to the user.
The CPU may be a single chip or a series of chips that perform arithmetic and
logical calculations and that time and control the operations of the other elements
of the system. Contemporary CPUs use semiconductor chips called
microprocessors, common in personal computers, which integrate all the memory,
logic, and control circuits for an entire CPU onto a single chip. The development of
the microprocessor was made possible through miniaturization and integration
techniques.
Word length - This refers to the number of bits that the computer can
process at one time (e.g. a 64-bit chip can process 64 bits, or 8 bytes in a
single cycle). The larger the word length, the greater the computer's
speed.
Card reader - This is a device that can acquire and process information
stored in electronic cards like ATM cards, ID cards, special privilege
cards, credit and debit cards, and so on. It commonly found in
commercial establishments where transaction cards are swiped to obtain
necessary information about the customer or client.
Voice recognition system - It may be any device and software which
together, take spoken words and translate them into digital signals for the
computer. A typical device used in speech recognition is a microphone.
Speech recognition is the ability of a computer to understand the spoken
word for the purpose of receiving commands and data input from the
speaker. This method is also fairly reliable provided the speaker's speech
patterns are consistent. Speech recognition also allows full speech-to-text
conversion.
Data bus width - This acts as a superhighway between the CPU, primary
storage, and other devices, which determines how much data can be
moved at one time. the 8088 chip having 16-bit word length but only an 8bit data bus width can process data in 16-bit chunks but could only be
moved 8 bits at a time).
Most CPU chips and microprocessors are composed of four functional sections:
Arithmetic/logic unit - This gives the chip its calculating ability and permits
arithmetical and logical operations.
Storage devices - can also be used to input data into the processing unit.
An example is the transfer of data from an external storage device to the
computer, such as an external disk drive, digital camera with stored
images, or any other external storage device.
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Registers - These are temporary storage areas that hold data, keep track
of instructions, and hold the location and results of these operations.
RAM (Random Access Memory) - These are chips that are mounted
directly on the computer's main circuit board, or in chips mounted on
peripheral cards that plug into the computer's main circuit board. They are
called so because the computer can directly access any randomly chosen
location in the same amount of time. These RAM chips consist of millions
of switches that are sensitive to changes in electric current. So-called
static RAM chips hold their data as long as current flows through the
circuit, whereas dynamic RAM (DRAM) chips need high or low voltages
applied at regular intervals-every two milliseconds or so-if they are not to
lose their information. RAM is used for short-term storage of data or
program instructions. It is volatile - meaning its contents will be lost when
the computer's electric supply is turned off.
They store all or part of the software program that is being executed.
They store the operating system programs that manage the operation of
he computer.
Aside from the computer's CPU, another computer hardware that can be
considered under this category is the motherboard (or the main board). This is the
main circuit board containing the primary components of a computer system. This
board contains the microprocessor, main memory, support circuitry, and bus
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Secondary storage stores data and instructions when they are not used in
processing. Relatively, they are long-term, non-volatile storage of data outside the
CPU or primary storage. Secondary storage is also known as external storage
because it does not use the computer memory to store data. External storage
devices, which may actually be located within the computer housing, are external
to the main circuit board. These devices store data as charges on a magnetically
sensitive medium such as a magnetic tape or, more commonly, on a disk coated
with a fine layer of metallic particles.
CD-R and CD-RW - In simple definition, these are blank CDROM that are ready for data storage. A CD-R is similar to a
WORM which cannot be erased or re-recorded. A CD-RW is
capable of being erased and re-recorded.
DVD - This is short for digital versatile disc. The group of DVD
disc formats includes various forms of data recording for
computer purposes, including discs that contain pre-recorded
data (DVD-ROM) and discs that can be rewritten many times
(DVD-RAM). These are several times the capacity of CD-ROMs.
The simple single-layer version of the DVD holds between 3.7
and 4.38 GB (with double-layer versions holding 15.9 GB),
compared to the 650 MB of CD-ROMs. These higher capacity
discs are used particularly for computer games and in multimedia
applications.
ZIP disk - A ZIP disk is much like a floppy disk but has a greater
capacity.
The most common output device can deliver either the soft copy or the hard copy
of the data. Devices that render soft copy are the following:
Video display unit (VDU) - This is commonly known as the monitor, which
displays characters and graphics on a television-like screen. It usually has
a cathode ray tube like an ordinary television set, but small, portable
computers use liquid crystal displays (LCDs) or electroluminescent
screens.
Optical disks - These disks use the same laser techniques that are used to
create audio compact discs (CDs). Under this genre are:
o CD-ROM - This is an acronym for compact disc read-only
memory, a form of storage characterized by high capacity
(roughly 600 MB) and the use of laser optics rather than
magnetic means for reading data.
o
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Audio output devices - These are responsible for the sound that the user
hears from the computer. These include the sound card and the speakers.
The sound card is a computer circuit board that allows the computer to
receive sound in digital form and reproduce it through speakers.
There are only two output devices known to reindeer hard copy of data.
Printers - These are computer peripherals that put text or a computergenerated image on paper or on another medium, such as a transparency.
Printers can be categorized in several different ways. The most common
distinction is impact and non-impact.
o Impact printers - physically strike the paper and are exemplified
by pin dot-matrix printers and daisy-wheel printers.
o
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service provider's premises are equipped with banks of modems so that many
users can gain access. If each pair of modems transmits data to each other
simultaneously, the modems are operating in full duplex mode; if only one modem
can transmit at a time, the modems are operating in half-duplex mode.
retail outlets
shareware (similar to freeware but usually carries a small fee for those
who like the program)
vapourware (a software that either does not reach the market or appears
much later than promised.
Some modems have become specialized in terms of function. For instance, one of
the cards available for a PC is a facsimile transmission (fax) modem that allows the
PC to talk directly to fax machines and to send and receive fax messages. Highspeed modems have been developed that work at speeds of 2 megabits per
second. These are used as components in leading-edge communications services.
Telecommunication, which is communications over a distance using technology to
overcome that distance, has the following system components.
language software, which provides programmers with the tools they need
to write programs.
160
Windows 95 (1995)
161
COBOL
FORTRAN
BASIC
PASCAL
C and C++
PERL interpreter
JAVA compiler
Fourth generation languages are language programs
that can be employed directly by end users or lessskilled programmers to develop computer applications
more rapidly than conventional programming languages.
They are characterized by the following.
White space - The area where the work is done is commonly white (unless
the user changes the default color).
Cursor - This indicates where particularly in the document are the current
and next operations applied.
Panning - The user can scroll through the document to the left or to the
right.
Desktop - This is usually the entire screen area that is available for GUI.
Clipart - These are artwork designed for import usually to text documents
or charts.
Application
software
packages
(e.g.
Peoplesoft, HRMS, SAP R/3)
Word processing software - These are programs that are used to enter,
store, manipulate, and print text (or sometimes text with images) to
produce documents.
o Examples: MS Word
Office Writer
Star Office Writer
Utility software - These are programs that are used to support, enhance,
and expand existing programs in a computer system. Typical utility
software programs include
o screen savers
o data recovery and back-up utilities
o virus-detection programs
o data compression and disk defragmenter tools
o device drivers
o spooling programs
o internet security programs
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Electronic spreadsheets - These are programs that are used for file
containing data and formulas in tabular format. They are capable of easily
recalculating numerical data.
o Examples: MS Excel
SPSS
Calc
Examples: MS FrontPage
Adobe GoLive
Music notation software - These are chiefly intended for the production of
printed music. Some music notation software applications are integrated
with features that function like media authoring software.
o Examples: Finale
Voyetra MusicWrite
Cakewalk Score Writer
Media players - These are intended to playback media files like music files
(e.g. audio tracks, mp3 files, MIDI sequences, wav files, etc.), and video
files (MPEG files, avi files, etc.). They are also used to access the media
content of optical discs (e.g. VCD, DVD, audio CD) or other storage
devices that contain media.
o Examples: Windows Media Player
Cyberlink Power DVD
Creative Media Center
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JAVA - This is a programming language that can deliver only the software
functionality needed for a particular task. such as a small applet
downloaded from a network. JAVA can rin on any computer or operating
system.
Since their first, experimental appearance in the 1950s, databases have become so
important in industrial societies that they can be found in almost every field of
information. Government, military, and industrial databases are often highly
restricted, and professional databases are usually of limited interest. A wide range
of commercial, governmental, and non-profit databases are available to the general
public and may be used by anyone who owns or has access to the equipment that
they require.
The organization of data in databases involves some terminologies.
file - a group of records of the same type, or rewcords that are somehow
related
a data dictionary
A typical database consists of several database objects. The following objects are
the usual components of a database. Other database management programs may
use a different name for some of the objects.
Table - A table is the basic unit for storing a collection of data. A table's
definition consists of a list of fields, each of which stores a discrete piece
of information for a single record.
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As you determine the purpose of your database, a list of information you want from
the database will begin to emerge. From that, you can determine what facts you
need to store in the database and what subject each fact belongs to. These facts
correspond to the fields (columns) in your database, and the subjects that those
facts belong to correspond to the tables.
Queries - Queries enable the user to extract a subset of data from a single
table, from a group of related tables, or from other queries, using criteria
you define. By saving a query as a database object, the query can be run
at any time, using the current contents of the database. They may
sometimes look exactly like a table; the crucial difference is that each row
of the query's results may consist of fields drawn from several tables. A
query may also contain calculated fields, which display results based on
the contents of other fields.
Forms - Forms enable users to enter, view, and edit information, generally
one record at a time. They can closely resemble paper forms such as
invoices and time sheets; or they are organized for data entry with data
validation rules. A form may also include a sub form that displays
information from a related table.
Reports - Reports enables the user to present data from one or more
tables or queries in a readable style and a professional format, generally
for printed output. A report may include detailed lists of specific data, with
each row consisting of a single record, or it may provide a statistical
summary of a large quantity of information. A report design can include
grouping and sorting options.
Determine the fields you need in the database. - Each field is a fact about a
particular subject. For example, you might need to store the following facts
about customers: company name, address, city, state, and phone number.
You need to create a separate field for each of these facts.
3.
Determine the relationships between tables. - Now that you've divided your
information into tables and identified primary key fields, you need a way to tell
the database how to bring related information back together again in
meaningful ways. To do this, you define relationships between tables.
4.
Refine the design. - After designing the tables, fields, and relationships
needed, it's time to study the design and detect any flaws that might remain. It
is easier to change the database design at this point than it will be after you
have filled the tables with data.
5.
Test the design. - Enter enough sample data in your tables so as to test the
design. To test the relationships in the database, see if you can create queries
to get the answers you want. Create rough drafts of forms and reports and see
if they show the data expected. Look for unnecessary duplications of data and
eliminate them.
6.
Enter data and create other database objects. - If table structures meet the
design principles described and is determined to serve its purpose effectively,
then it's time to go ahead and add all existing data to the tables. Other
database objects can already be created at this point, such as queries, forms,
reports, macros, modules, and other available objects.
Brainstorm about the questions you and they would like the database to
answer.
Sketch out the reports you'd like the database to produce. Gather the
forms you currently use to record your data.
2.
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By structure
o Relational DBMS - This is a type of a logical database model that
represents all data in the database as simple two-dimensional
tables called relations. The tables appear similar to flat files but
the information in one file can be easily extracted and combined.
o
Data mining - This is the analysis of large pools of data to find patterns
and rules that can be used to guide decision making and predict future
behavior.
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mail message entitled "I Love You". In 2002 a new type of virus appeared
that allowed unauthorized users to access private information (such as
credit card details). This virus, known as "Bugbear", was carried via e-mail
and affected many users.
Health issues - Ergonomics (or human factor engineering), the science and
technology emphasizing the safety, comfort, and ease of use of humanoperated machines such as computers,. Its goal is to produce systems
that are user-friendly, safe, comfortable, and easy to use. Institutions
which make use of computers in their daily activities should consider
using ergonomically correct furniture (e.g. chairs and tables) and devices
(e.g. mouse, keyboard, etc.).
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Input technology trends - Input devices are becoming more natural and
easy to use. Even programming languages are becoming to be structured
like human language, making them easier and faster to learn.
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At that time, networked computers were in telephone companies and used circuit
switching. ARPA developed a better way of sending messages through packet
switching. A new experimental WAN (Wide area Network) was born, which was
called ARPANET. Larry Roberts is the principal architect of ARPAET. Initially, only
four nodes, connected by AT%T 50 kbps lines, comprised ARPANET. The four
nodes are based at the following sites:
In 1971, ARPANET grew and had a total of 15 nodes. ARPANET became a network
of about 60,000 medium-to-large-scale computers. ARPANET was established to
function as a vehicle for enabling universities and research organizations to
exchange information freely. ARPANET, although part of the Department of
Defense, is not a classified government or military network. ARPANET operated on
UNIX which uses TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), a
network protocol which became a standard for interconnecting to the ARPANET.
TCP/IP was developed by Vinton Cerf, who is considered as the Father of Internet.
In 1972, Ray Tomlinson invented the e-mail (electronic mail). Tomlinson also
introduced the "at sign" (@). Studies showed that in 1973, 75% of the traffic in the
ARPANET. In 1976, Queen Elizabeth II used the ARPANET to send an e-mail. It
was also during this when ARPANET began sending packets (small pieces of a
message for transmission through a computer network) via satellite.
From the late 1970s up to early 1980s, many networks independent of ARPANET
were built. Some of these include:
ARPANET was eventually split into two - ARPANET (for research) and
MILNET (for military use). The use of computer networks was expanded.
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In 1991, Tim Berners-Lee and Robert Calliau created the World Wide Web (WWW)
at the European Laboratory of Particle Physics (CERN), an international research
centre straddling the French-Swiss border west of Geneva. It is a system of
hyperlinked documents created in HTML.
UseNet - a worldwide system that uses the Internet and other networks to
distribute articles of news or information
By early 2000, access was available in over 200 countries and encompassed
around 100 million users. The Internet and its technology continue to have a
profound effect in promoting the sharing of information, making possible rapid
transactions among businesses, and supporting global collaboration among
individuals and organizations.
In 1999, 205 countries and territories in the world had at least one connection to
the Internet. The development of the World Wide Web is fuelling the rapid
introduction of new business tools and activities that may by then have led to
annual business transactions on the Internet worth hundreds of billions of pounds.
The potential of web-based commerce is immense. Techniques that allow safe
transactions over the Net (for payment and funds transfers), the construction of
faster, more secure networks and the development of efficient search techniques
make the Internet an ideal trading medium.
In addition to these extra features, the core of the Internet-the network hardware
that connects everyone together-is undergoing an overhaul that will enable it to
cope with ever-increasing traffic loads. The "Internet 2" project has been under
way for several years now and is building faster links and bigger switches that will
power the Internet for years to come.
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Internet worm and computer viruses - A virus that propagates itself across
computer networks, usually via e-mail, is sometimes referred to as a
worm, especially if it is composed of many separate segments distributed
across the network. In 1988, Robert Morris, a Computer Science graduate
of the Cornell University, wrote an experimental, self-replicating, selfpropagating program, which was called worm. This was distributed to
over 6,000 of 60,000 computers hooked in the Internet at that time. Morris
was sentenced of three years of probation, 400 hours of community work,
and a fine of US$10,050. A known virus is the Trojan Horse, though
technically not a virus, is a program disguised as something useful, which
when run does damage to the computer system while appearing to do
something else. Another is the Melissa virus, a virus that invades
computers via e-mail and IRC (Internet relay Chat). It is a distinct program
which can run unaided.
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Wireless communication
o Infrared rays (IR) - This is used in the familiar television remote
control. Infra-red signals only work over a short distance. Even
so, it can be used to carry significant amounts of information and
has been adopted as the basis for the "wireless" office.
DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) - This is a high-speed telephone line that can
supply television, video, Internet access, and video telephoning, often
over standard copper wire. It has recently been introduced and is capable
of operating at up to 2 Mbps. In its most common format
Wi-Fi and WiMax - Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity) is a technology that uses radio
waves to connect notebook computers and personal digital assistants
(PDAs) to the Internet without cables, at least within 200 meters to a
wireless access point. Its higher version, called WiMax can reach as far as
several kilometers.
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connection but, in practice, most transfer information at a rate of around 512 kbps
when downloading, and 128 kbps when uploading.
59.3 Modem
A modem is a device that converts between analogue and digital signals. Digital
signals, which are used by computers, are made up of separate units represented
by a series of 1s and 0s (bits). Analogue signals vary continuously; an example of
an analogue signal is a sound wave. The modem works by, and derives its name
from, a process of modulating (the digital signal is used to vary an analogue carrier
signal) and demodulating (the variations in the analogue carrier signal are
translated into digital signals).
There are a number of options for providing broadband. All involve some sort of
link between an end user and a switch connected to a wide area network (WAN).
The simplest option is to install a dedicated link between the two and
install suitable transmission equipment at each end. This allows very highspeed operation but is usually expensive.
Modems are most frequently used to enable computers to communicate with each
other across telephone lines. For instance, a modem can be used with a personal
computer (PC) to connect to the Internet via an ISP. The service provider's
premises are equipped with banks of modems so that many users can gain
access. If each pair of modems transmit data to each other simultaneously, the
modems are operating in full duplex mode; if only one modem can transmit at a
time, the modems are operating in half-duplex mode.
Modern modems are faster, cheaper, and much more widely available. Speeds of
over 56 kbps can be achieved with commercial modems over normal telephone
lines, and can take the form of cards small enough to fit inside a PC. Modems can
use coaxial cables to carry TV signals and high-speed Internet access.
Cable modems, which are offered by cable providers for Internet access via
existing cable television lines. Although capable of connection speed up to 2
Mbps, cable modems operate over shared media and are therefore liable to slow
down when many users are active.
The real attraction of broadband from a user's point of view is that it provides true
multimedia (for example, voice, data, and video) without the delay that a
narrowband connection incurs.
Modems using ISDN lines or other forms of fast data transmission are capable of
even higher speeds. A standard known as PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory
Card International Association) has evolved to cover internal PC modems. PCMCIA
type 2 specifies a 5 mm card that can be plugged into a PC slot.
Some modems have become specialized in terms of function. For instance, one of
the cards available for a PC is a facsimile transmission (fax) modem that allows the
PC to talk directly to fax machines and to send and receive fax messages. Highspeed modems have been developed that work at speeds of 2 Mbps. These are
used as components in leading-edge communications services and are not as yet
commercially available.
59.4 Broadband
Broadband is a communications channel that can support a wide range of
frequencies or data rates. A broadband connection can transfer information at a
rate of at least 2 Mbps. This is almost 40 times faster than a standard narrowband
56 kbps modem connection. Some broadband services can even offer 10 Mbps
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Then all packets are totally transmitted to their final destination. they are
reassembled. Data packets are continuously being switched from the source to the
destination.
During the transmission process, it is possible that a packet may be lost across the
Internet. This may be caused by a link failure, or because the host is down. If the
destination host has been waiting for a particular packet for a certain time (known
as timeout), the destination host will request the source host to retransmit the
packet. There is no need to retransmit all data packets. Instead, only the missing
packet (which is identified by the sequence number) needs to be retransmitted.
Even if a data packet is received by the destination successfully, transmission error
may also occur. There is a method to detect possible transmission errors. At the
destination, checksum is recalculated based on the received data. The attached
checksum and the newly recalculated checksum are compared. If there is a
mismatch, transmission error has occurred.
Data delivery via Internet is made possible because each connected computer
(called an Internet host) is provided with a unique Internet Protocol (IP) address.
The IP address is separated by dots and is composed of four groups - for example,
198.105.232.1. The range of each group is from 0 to 255. The IP address is divided
into two parts - the network number and the host number.
60.4 DNS
For obvious reasons, the IP address has become known as the "dot address" of a
computer. Although very simple and effective for network operation, dot addresses
are not very user-friendly. For the convenience of users, names were given to each
computer in the Internet. The names are known as DNS (Domain Name System).
Like IP address, DNS is also a method of translating Internet addresses so that
computers connected in the Internet can locate each other. A DNS server
translates a numerical IP address assigned to a computer (such as 123.456.78.90)
into a sequence of words, and vice versa.
The process of transmitting a data packet from a source to the destination via a
series of intermediate stations is called IP routing. IP routing works as follows.
Each data packet is labeled with the IP address of the destination host. Each data
packet can contain 1,500 bytes of data. If the data is huge, it is disintegrated into
small packets, each attached with a sequence number, which determines which
portion of the data is in the packet. The disintegrated packets are rejoined once
they are delivered to their destination.
A DNS name, written in lowercase letters with words separated by full stops, takes
the
form
of
[username]@[hostname].[zone
name]
(for
example:
president@whitehouse.gov). Username is the name or account number used to log
on. The hostname (whitehouse in the example above) is the name of the computer
or Internet provider; it may consist of several parts. Zone name indicates the type
of organization. Common zone names include:
.edu (educational)
.gov (government)
.co (company),
.biz (business
.name (for for individuals to register their name for a Web site or for an email address)
.museum (museum)
60.2 TCP/IP
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a set of international
standards that enables different types of computers and networks on the Internet
to communicate with one another. TCP/IP was originally developed by the United
States Department of Defense for computers using the UNIX operating system, but
it is now used by every computer, regardless of operating system, on the Internet.
TCP/IP is actually a duplex protocol. A protocol is a collection of rules for
formatting, ordering, and error-checking of data sent across a network. TCP
defines how data are transferred across the Internet to their destination. It takes
charge of breaking up the data into packets and then the reassembly when the
packets reach their destination. IP defines how data are divided into packets, and
how they are transmitted, determining the path each packet takes between
computers. In other words, TCP places the messages in an envelope. IP would be
in charge of addressing the envelope and makes sure the package arrives its
proper destination.
TCP/IP was invented by Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn. This has been used as a
standard protocol for the Internet. Its significance was the reason why Cerf,
together with Kahn, is considered as the Father of the Internet.
60.3 Packet Retransmission and Checksums
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Zone names such as .com are called top level domain (TLD) names, Before 2001
there were just three: .com, .net, and .org. Each country was also allocated its own
country code, such as .uk for the United Kingdom and .ph for the Philippines. With
the rapid expansion in Internet use the demand for generic domain names
exceeded initial expectations. Accordingly, in October 2001 the introduction of
seven new TLDs was announced. As of March 2002, all of these domain name
suffixes were operational, with the exception of .pro.
60.5 URL
The URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is method of naming documents or places on
the Internet, used most frequently on the World Wide Web (WWW). A URL is a
string of characters that identifies the type of document, the computer the
document is on, the directories and subdirectories the document is in, and the
name of the document.
Telnet is a protocol that enables a user of one computer on the Internet to log on
remotely to any other computer on the Internet, provided the user has a password
for the distant computer or the distant computer provides publicly available files.
Telnet is also the name of a computer program that uses these rules to make
connections between computers on the Internet. Many computers that provide
large electronic databases, like library catalogues, often allow users of Telnet in to
search the databases. Many resources that were once available only through
Telnet have now become available on the World Wide Web.
For example, the URL of the Web page (a document on the WWW) for the United
Kingdom's "open government" initiative is . The part of the URL before the colon
represents the scheme, or format used to retrieve the document. The following are
schemes that can be found in URLs, together with their meaning.
ftp - means that that document could be accessed through File Transfer
Protocol (FTP)
gopher - indicates that the document is on a Gopher system (a menudriven document delivery system for retrieving information from the
Internet)
telnet - indicates Telnet (an access method in which the user logs on to a
remote computer)
The next part of the URL is called the hostname and represents the computer on
which the document can be found. The .gov.uk extension identifies the computer
as belonging to the United Kingdom government. Some other common extensions
are .com (commercial-also .co.uk in the United Kingdom; .co.fr in France, etc.), .ac
and .edu (academic and education respectively-usually a college or university).
After the computer and host names come the path, or chain of directories, on
which the document is found; in this case, the only directory is services. The last
item to be listed is the document name-in this case, standards.htm.
Practical e-mail systems have only a few, simple components. At the user end is a
piece of software known as an e-mail client. Examples of e-mail clients are:
MS Outlook
Eudora
Pegasus
The client allows the user to create mail messages, to view the contents of the
mailbox, and to read incoming mail.
URLs are case-sensitive, which means that uppercase and lowercase letters are
considered different letters, so a user has to enter a URL with all letters in the
correct case. URLs on the WWW are accessed with browsers, or computer
programs that can connect to the Internet and display Web pages.
At the other end from the client is the e-mail server. This is a computer, typically
one provided by an ISP that is dialed up when messages are sent and received.
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The server has a list of e-mail accounts, each of which has a text file where all of
the messages for that account are stored.
WWW pages are formatted using HTML, and WWW communication among
computers uses the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), or Wireless Access
Protocol (WAP) for mobile phones. This communication is usually through the
Internet via Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) connections, but almost any kind
of connection can be used.
Despite the fact that e-mail only works for text, a variety of file types (for instance,
images, sounds, spreadsheets, and so on) can be attached. An e-mail that
contains these is known to have an attached file. A program called uuencode turns
all attachments into text so that they can be transmitted across a network. When
the message which could be some words plus an attachment rendered into text by
uuencode is received, the client invokes uudecode to restore the original.
The further development of the WWW is guided by the WWW Consortium based at
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Current concerns include the efficiency of
search engines, the security of transactions and privacy of users, as well as
preventing Internet piracy. The main prospect for WWW is its development to form
a basis for electronic business. Many applications have been developed to add
payment, reservation, and other interactive facilities to WWW pages.
Ethernet is a local area network (LAN) system developed by the Xerox corporation
in 1976, originally for linking minicomputers at the Palo Alto Research Center. A
widely implemented network from which computer industry standards for networks
were developed, Ethernet uses a bus configuration and relies on the form of
access known as CSMA/CD to regulate traffic on the main communication line.
Network nodes are connected by coaxial cable (in either of two varieties, known as
thin and thick) or by twisted-pair wiring. Information on an Ethernet network is sent
in variable-length frames containing delivery and control information plus up to
1,500 bytes of data. The original Ethernet standard provides for baseband
transmission at 10 Mbps.
Users generally navigate through information on the WWW with the aid of a
program known as a WWW browser, or client. The browser presents text, images,
sound, or other information objects on the user's computer screen in the form of a
page, which is obtained from a WWW server. The user can navigate through
information by pointing to specially designated text or other objects on the screen.
These objects link the user to other WWW pages on the same server or on any
other accessible WWW server on the network. The WWW links exist across the
global Internet, forming a large-scale, distributed, multimedia knowledge base
through related words, phrases, and images. Smaller-scale implementations are
present on the enterprise internets used by businesses. These implementations,
known as intranets host private data and applications and can be protected from
public access through a device known as a "firewall".
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directories are very easy to use in locating a particular information under a predetermined subject. Popular web directories include:
AOL Anywhere ()
CNET Search.com ()
Excite ()
E-Wild Life ()
Lycos ()
Yahoo! ()
Google ()
Although a metasearch engine may offer these benefits, it also has its
disadvantage. It has a high noise to signal ratio; meaning, a lot of matches will not
be suitable. Examples of metasearch engines are:
Metasearch ()
Metacrawler ()
MetaFind ().
62.3 White Pages and Yellow Pages
White pages are Web services that allow a user to look up for information about
individuals. Just like the white pages of the telephone directory, they can be used
to track down the telephone numbers, e-mail addresses, and other personal data
of particular persons.
AOL Anywhere ()
Google ()
Yahoo! ()
MSN Search ()
AltaVista ()
Lycos ()
HotBot ()
Magellan ()
Not all people wish to be included in white pages. Some think that they are a form
of invasion to their privacy. Some people can abuse white pages. However, they
actually serve a good purpose. It is possible to contact a long-lost person through
white pages, if ever they are entered in this service. Popular white pages are:
Bigfoot ()
Yahoo ()
WhoWhere ()
If a telephone directory has yellow pages, same is true for the Web. Web yellow
pages, just like the yellow pages in the telephone directory contain information
about business. They usually serve as portals to Web sites maintained by
businesses. Otherwise, they provide basic contact information of businesses.
SuperPages ()
e-Tello Pages ()
Some web directories are also feature search engines or vice versa, just like
Google and Yahoo!. Yahoo! is one of the first available search engines. It differs
from most other search sites because the content and listings are manually
compiled and organized by subject into a directory. By the end of 2001, Google
was ranked the most comprehensive search engine available, with 1.5 billion pages
indexed, recording 150 million searches per day
The search results are raned according to their relevance or how well they
match with the query given.
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Boolean query - This consists of keywords and logical operators (AND, OR,
NOT, and NEAR). Boolean queries wok in ways similar to the following
illustrations.
A AND B (A & B) - This will return URLs that contain both A and B.
A NOT B (A ! B) - This will return URLs that contain A but do not contain
B.
In using Web information-search tools, the user must first be familiar with at least
the basic features of each of these tools. Some of these features include the
following.
Header - This is where the logo of the web directory, search engine, or
whatever site which permits information search appears. Frequently, it
also includes some advertisements.
Search form area - This is a box where the user enters the search query. It
is usually attached with a command button that executes the search job.
Directory area - This is the main feature of web directories, which present
hyperlinks of a large number of broad and narrow subjects/categories that
are portals to related sites.
Links - This is usually similar to the information bar, which also present
links to related sites.
2.
63.2 Queries
Basically, a query is a question that seeks information. The query asks the Web
search tool and also in other similar non-Internet-based tools what information is
needed by the searcher.
If there are few or even no exact hits match the query, the query might need to be
generalized. For pattern matching queries, eliminate and change one of the more
specific keywords to a more generic keyword. For Boolean, queries, remove
keywords with AND operator, or even keywords with operator NOT. If there is still
no desired URL match the modified query, try using a directory or a metasearch
engine.
It is convenient to access.
The construction of a valid query or syntax is very important to yield the desired
hit(s) or match(es) (URL(s) that the search engine returns for a specific query). The
meaning of a query (known as search semantics) is another important thing that the
user must consider in constructing queries. A relevancy score (a value that
indicates the quality a the hit/match) is sometimes indicated in the search outputs.
Anybody who whishes to locate any information through Web search tools may
consider using either a pattern matching query or a Boolean query.
1.
If the query returns too many hits, there is a need to specialize the query. For
pattern nmatching queries, add more keywords, or use the "-" for prohibited
keywords. For Boolean queries, use the AND operator with other keywords, or add
NOT to exclude some unwanted keywords. Try capitalizing proper nouns and
names, or use proper capitalization as necessary. A directory yields a more specific
return for this case.
Pattern search query - This is also known as a fuzzy query. Such query can
take any of the following forms.
ungrammatical sentence
incomplete sentence
disjoint phrases
nonsense words
From this type of query, the search engine tries to extract a collection of keywords,
which are then matched to possible hits. This query may use the plus sign (+) for
required keywords and the minus sign (-) for prohibited keywords. The "+" and "-"
are placed before their respective keywords.
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Gatherer - This is also known in any of these names - bot, crawler, robot,
spider, and worm. This is a program that traverses the Web and gathers
information about Web documents. It runs at short and regular intervals. It
returns information that will be indexed by the database.
For a required keyword, add "+" before the keyword. The keyword will be
returned in every match. To eliminate unwanted words from the returns,
add "-" before the keyword.
Beware of the differences in spelling (e.g. American and English spellings).
Use the OR operator for such instances (e.g. color OR colour).
Ignore the use of stop words like the, is, of, etc. These are ignored by the
search engine, unless the search engine features an advanced search
option which can accommodate these stop words. Add more relevant
keywords as long as necessary.
The use of wildcards also helps. An example of a wildcard is the
asterisk(*). For example, the query "funk* " will return funk, funky, and
funkies.
It is a normal occurrence to obtain a dead link. For example, if the URL
refers to a dead link, try or .
Just like the ordinary post, the e-mail also use an address to have the message
delivered to its intended destination, known as the e-mail address It has two
components - the user name and the domain/host name. These are separated by
the at sign ("@"). The user name may take the real name of the user or other
fictitious name he/she wishes to use. The domain name is indicates the server
which handles the user's electronic mailbox (a disk file which stores e-mail
messages). The e-mail address is in the form .
Evaluator - Not all hits returned after generating the search are exactly
relevant to the query. Search engines rank the returns according to their
relevance score. A more relevant hit is given a higher rank and is usually
displayed before other less relevant hits. The calculation of the relevance
score varies with different search engines. This depends on any of the
following.
o the number of ties the word appears
o the query words that appear in the title
o the query words that appear in the META tag (special keywords
embedded in the header of the Web page)
A special kind of e-mail, known as a POP mail is also used nowadays. With POP
mail, the user does not have to know the name or address of the receiver. A POP
mail server installed on a computer automatically runs whenever the computer is
turned on. The POP mail facilitates a graphical interface in accessing the e-mail.
Once an e-mail is received in the computer, it is popped in the computer monitor.
E-mail clients can either be Web-based or non-Web-based (HTTP-based). Webbased e-mail servers deliver e-mails in web pages when the user accesses his/her
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account in the e-mail server' Web site. A particular example is Yahoo! Mail. Many
still view POP and IMAP mail more reliable than HTTP mail.
o
o
One key feature of the e-mail is its ability to include an attached file (or simply
attachments). The protocol responsible for this is the MIME (Multi-purpose Internet
Mail Extension). MIME is a protocol that transmits non-text information across the
Internet. It is a specification that automatically for automatically sending objects
other than text in e-mail messages. MIME is usually associated with multimedia
(e.g. images, audio, and video). Basically, MIME converts non-ASCII data to ASCII
data for transmission. The data is reconverted back to its original form when it
reaches the receiver. Additional hardware and helper software is required for
MIME. Almost all e-mail clients and servers nowadays are MIME compliant.
they are usually fraudulent (they are not really advertisements and are
intended toi pull the wool over the reader's eyes)
the displace the normal e-mail (they actually destroy the usefulness and
effectiveness of the e-mail)
There are two protocols that govern how real e-mail systems work. The first is
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), which is used to determine how to route the
message through the Internet and then send the message. The other is POP3 (Post
Office Protocol), which handles incoming mail, simply appending incoming
messages to a user's file. The POP3 server holds the message until the recipient
retrieves the e-mail in his/her mailbox. There are several problems that arise in the
e-mail.
Bouncing mails - There are some instances when a mail sent is not
successfully sent. Usually, a notification e-mail confirms this occurrence.
There are several possible reasons why this happens.
o The address us badly encoded (either the user name, domain
name, or both).
o The domain name server is down for quite some time.
o Some other malfunctions which may be caused by too large files
to transmit or other reasons may also fail the sending of the
message.
There are several considerations that one has to take in constructing an e-mail
message Internet etiquette (Netiquette) must be observed, not only in composing
e-mail but also in participating in discussion boards and newsgroups. Basically, the
etiquette observed in writing a post mail applies in constructing an e-mail
message.
Use uppercase text with caution. Note that UPPERCASE LETTERS YELL
AT PEOPLE.
Never leave the subject line blank. Indicate a proper subject for the e-mail.
Include your e-mail address in the body, particularly in the signature part.
The address us badly encoded (either the user name, domain name, or
both).
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