Mobutu Sese Seko

1 Biography

Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu Wa Za

Banga[lower-alpha 1] (/mbutu sse sko/; born
Joseph-Desir Mobutu; 14 October 1930 7 September 1997) was the military dictator and President of
the Democratic Republic of the Congo (which Mobutu
renamed Zaire in 1971) from 1965 to 1997. He also
served as Chairperson of the Organisation of African
Unity in 19671968.

1.1 Early years

Mobutu, a member of the Ngbandi ethnic group,[6]
was born in Lisala, Belgian Congo.[7] Mobutus mother,
Marie Madeleine Yemo, was a hotel maid who ed to
Lisala to escape the harem of a local village chief. There
she met and married Albric Gbemani, a cook for a Belgian judge.[8] Shortly after this she gave birth to Mobutu.
The name Mobutu was selected by an uncle. Gbemani
died when Mobutu was eight.[9]

Once in power, Mobutu formed an authoritarian regime,

amassed vast personal wealth, and attempted to purge the
country of all colonial cultural inuence, while enjoying
considerable support from the United States due to his
anti-communist stance.

The wife of the Belgian judge took a liking to Mobutu

and taught him to speak, read and write French uently.
Yemo relied on the help of relatives to support her four
children, and the family moved often. Mobutus earliest studies were in Lopoldville, but his mother eventually sent him to an uncle in Coquilhatville, where he attended the Christian Brothers School, a Catholic mission
boarding school. A physically imposing gure, he dominated school sports. He also excelled in academic subjects and ran the class newspaper. He was also known for
his pranks and impish sense of humor. A classmate recalled that when the Belgian priests, whose rst language
was Dutch, made an error in French, Mobutu would leap
to his feet in class and point out the mistake. In 1949
Mobutu stowed away aboard a boat to Lopoldville and
met a girl. The priests found him several weeks later. At
the end of the school year, in lieu of being sent to prison,
he was ordered to serve seven years in the colonial army,
the Force Publique (FP)--the usual punishment for rebellious students.[10]

During the Congo Crisis, Belgian forces helped Mobutu

in a coup against the nationalist government of Patrice
Lumumba in 1960 to rule the government. Lumumba was
the rst leader in the country to be democratically elected,
but he was subsequently deposed in a coup d'tat organised by Colonel Mobutu and executed by a Katangese
ring squad led by Julien Gat, a Belgian mercenary.[1]
Mobutu then assumed the role of army chief of sta,[2]
before taking power directly in a second coup in 1965.
As part of his program of national authenticity, Mobutu
changed the Congos name to Zaire in 1971 and his own
name to Mobutu Sese Seko in 1972.
Mobutu established a one-party state in which all power
was concentrated in his hands. He also became the
object of a pervasive cult of personality.[2] During
his reign, Mobutu built a highly centralised state and
amassed a large personal fortune through economic exploitation and corruption, leading some to call his rule
a "kleptocracy.[3][4] The nation suered from uncontrolled ination, a large debt, and massive currency devaluations. By 1991, economic deterioration and unrest led
him to agree to share power with opposition leaders, but
he used the army to thwart change until May 1997, when
rebel forces led by Laurent Kabila expelled him from the
country. Already suering from advanced prostate cancer, he died three months later in Morocco.

1.2 Army service

Mobutu found discipline in army life, as well as a father gure in Sergeant Joseph Bobozo. Mobutu kept
up his studies by borrowing European newspapers from
the Belgian ocers and books from wherever he could
nd them, reading them on sentry duty and whenever he
had a spare moment. His favorites were the writings of
French President Charles de Gaulle, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Italian philosopher Niccol
Machiavelli. After passing a course in accounting, he began to dabble professionally in journalism. Still angry after his clashes with the school priests, he did not marry in
a church. His contribution to the wedding festivities was
a crate of beer, all his army salary could aord.[11]

Mobutu became notorious for corruption, nepotism, and

the embezzlement of between US$4 billion and $15
billion during his reign, as well as extravagances such
as Concorde-own shopping trips to Paris.[5] Mobutu
presided over the country for over three decades, a period of widespread human rights violations. He has been
described as the archetypal African dictator.[5]

1 BIOGRAPHY

As a soldier, Mobutu wrote pseudonymously on contemporary politics for a new magazine set up by a Belgian colonial, Actualits Africaines. In 1956, he quit the
army and became a full-time journalist,[12] writing for
the Lopoldville daily L'Avenir.[13] Two years later, he
went to Belgium to cover the 1958 World Exposition and
stayed to receive training in journalism. By this time,
Mobutu had met many of the young Congolese intellectuals who were challenging colonial rule. He became
friendly with Patrice Lumumba and joined Lumumbas
Mouvement National Congolais (MNC). Mobutu eventually became Lumumbas personal aide, though several
contemporaries indicate that Belgian intelligence had recruited Mobutu to be an informer.[14]

Mobutu accused Lumumba of pro-communist sympathies, thereby hoping to gain the support of the United
States, but Lumumba ed to Stanleyville, where he set up
his own government. The USSR again supplied him with
weapons and he was able to defend his position. Later, in
November 1960, he was captured and sent to Katanga.
Mobutu still considered him a threat and ordered him
to be arrested and beaten publicly on 17 January 1961.
He then disappeared from the public view. It was later
discovered he was murdered that same day by the secessionist forces of Moise Tshombe after he was turned over
by Mobutus government at the urging of Belgium. As a
radical nationalist, Lumumba was seen by the U.S. and
its western allies as dangerous to their access to Congos
mineral wealth.[16] Lumumba was executed in the presDuring the 1960 talks in Brussels on Congolese independence, the US embassy held a reception to gain a better ence of Belgian ocers in charge of Tshombes army.
sense of the Congolese delegation. Embassy sta were On 23 January 1961 Kasa-Vubu promoted Mobutu to
each assigned a list of delegation members to meet and major-general; De Witte argues that this was a political
then discuss their impressions. The ambassador noted, move, aimed to strengthen the army, the presidents sole
One name kept coming up. But it wasn't on anyones list support, and Mobutus position within the army.'[17]
because he wasn't an ocial delegation member, he was In 1964, Pierre Mulele led partisans in another rebellion.
Lumumbas secretary. But everyone agreed that this was They quickly occupied two-thirds of The Congo, but the
an extremely intelligent man, very young, perhaps imma- Congolese army, led by Mobutu, was able to reconquer
ture, but a man with great potential.[15]
the entire territory in 1965.

1.3

Congo crisis

1.4 Second coup and consolidation of

power

Main article: Congo Crisis

Following the granting of independence on 30 June 1960,
a coalition government was formed, led by Prime Minister Lumumba and President Joseph Kasa-Vubu. The new
nation quickly lurched into the Congo Crisis as the army
mutinied against the remaining Belgian ocers. Lumumba appointed Mobutu as Chief of Sta of the Arme
Nationale Congolaise, the Congolese National Army, under army chief Victor Lundula. In that capacity, Mobutu
toured the country convincing soldiers to return to their
barracks. Encouraged by a Belgian government intent on
maintaining its access to rich Congolese mines, secessionist violence erupted in the south.
Concerned that the United Nations force sent to help restore order was not helping to crush the secessionists, Lumumba turned to the Soviet Union for assistance, receiving massive military aid and about a thousand Soviet technical advisers in six weeks. The U.S. government saw the
Soviet activity as a maneuver to spread communist inuence in Central Africa. Kasa-Vubu was encouraged by
the U.S. and Belgium to stage a coup, and so dismissed
Lumumba. An outraged Lumumba declared Kasa-Vubu
deposed. Both Lumumba and Kasa-Vubu then ordered
Mobutu to arrest the other. As Army Chief of Sta,
Mobutu came under great pressure from multiple sources.
The embassies of Western nations, which helped pay the
soldiers salaries, as well as Kasa-Vubu and Mobutus subordinates favored getting rid of the Soviet presence.

Prime Minister Moise Tshombe's Congolese National

Convention had won a large majority in the March 1965
elections, but Kasa-Vubu appointed an anti-Tshombe
leader, variste Kimba, as prime minister-designate.
However, Parliament twice refused to conrm him. With
the government in near-paralysis, Mobutu seized power
in a bloodless coup on 25 November. He had turned 35
a month earlier.[18]
Under the auspices of a regime d'exception (the equivalent
of a state of emergency), Mobutu assumed sweeping
almost absolutepowers for ve years.[19] In his rst
speech upon taking power, Mobutu told a large crowd
at Lopoldvilles main stadium that since politicians had
brought the country to ruin in ve years, for ve years,
there will be no more political party activity in the
country.[20] Parliament was reduced to a rubber-stamp,
before being abolished altogether, though it was later revived. The number of provinces was reduced, and their
autonomy curtailed, resulting in a highly centralized state.
Initially, Mobutus government was decidedly apolitical,
even anti-political. The word politician carried negative connotations, and became almost synonymous with
someone who was wicked or corrupt. Even so, 1966
saw the debut of the Corps of Volunteers of the Republic, a vanguard movement designed to mobilize popular support behind Mobutu, who was proclaimed the
nations Second National Hero after Lumumba. Ironically, given the role he played in Lumumbas ouster,

1.5

Authenticity campaign

3
revolt led by white mercenaries in 1967. By 1970, nearly
all potential threats to his authority had been smashed,
and for the most part, law and order was brought to nearly
all parts of the country. That year marked the pinnacle of
Mobutus legitimacy and power. King Baudouin of Belgium, made a highly successful state visit to Kinshasa.
That same year legislative and presidential elections were
held. The MPR was the only party allowed to run, even
though the constitution stated that two parties should have
been allowed. According to ocial gures, an implausible 98.33% of voters voted in favor of the MPR list.
For the presidential election, Mobutu was the only candidate, and voters were oered two ballot choices: green
for hope, and red for chaos: Mobutu won with a vote of
10,131,699 to 157.[21]

A Congolese cotton shirt embellished with a portrait of Mobutu

from the collection of the Tropenmuseum in Amsterdam

As he consolidated power Mobutu set up several military

forces whose sole purpose was to protect him. These included the Special Presidential Division, Civil Guard and
Service for Action and Military Intelligence (SNIP).

Mobutu strove to present himself as a successor to Lumumbas legacy, and one of the key tenets early in his
rule was authentic Congolese nationalism.
1.5
1967 marked the debut of the Popular Movement of the
Revolution (MPR) which until 1990 was the nations only
legal political party. It was ocially dened as the nation politically organizedin essence, the state was a
transmission belt for the party. All citizens automatically
became members of the MPR from birth. Among the
themes advanced by the MPR in its doctrine, the Manifesto of N'Sele, was nationalism, revolution, and authenticity. Revolution was described as a truly national revolution, essentially pragmatic, which called for the repudiation of both capitalism and communism. One of
the MPRs slogans was Neither left nor right, to which
would be added nor even center in later years. The
MPR elected its president every seven years. At the same
time, he was automatically nominated as the sole candidate for a seven-year term as president of the republic;
he was conrmed in oce by a referendum. A single list
of MPR candidates was returned to the legislature every
ve years. In practice, this gave the party president
Mobutuall governing power in the nation.
That same year, all trade unions were consolidated into a
single union, the National Union of Zairian Workers, and
brought under government control. By Mobutus own admission, the union would serve as an instrument of support for government policy, rather than as a force for confrontation. Independent trade unions were illegal until
1991.
Facing many challenges early in his rule, Mobutu was able
to turn most opposition into submission through patronage; those he could not co-opt, he dealt with forcefully.
In 1966 four cabinet members were arrested on charges
of complicity in an attempted coup, tried by a military
tribunal, and publicly executed in an open-air spectacle
witnessed by over 50,000 people. Uprisings by former
Katangan gendarmeries were crushed, as was an aborted

Authenticity campaign

Main article: Authenticit (Zaire)

Embarking on a campaign of pro-Africa cultural aware-

Flag of Zaire

ness, or authenticit, Mobutu began renaming the cities

of the Congo starting on 1 June 1966; Leopoldville became Kinshasa, Elisabethville became Lubumbashi, and
Stanleyville became Kisangani. In October 1971, he renamed the country the Republic of Zaire. He ordered the
people to drop their European names for African ones,
and priests were warned that they would face ve years
imprisonment if they were caught baptizing a Zairean
child with a European name. Western attire and ties were
banned, and men were forced to wear a Mao-style tunic
known as an abacost (shorthand for bas le costume-"down with the suit).[22]
In 1972, Mobutu renamed himself Mobutu Sese Seko
Nkuku Ngbendu Wa Za Banga (The all-powerful warrior who, because of his endurance and inexible will
to win, goes from conquest to conquest, leaving re in
his wake.[23] ), Mobutu Sese Seko for short. It was also

1 BIOGRAPHY

around this time that he assumed his classic image tic was to arrest and sometimes torture dissident memabacost, thick-framed glasses, walking stick and leopard- bers of the government, only to later pardon them and
skin toque.
reward them with high oce. The most famous example of this treatment is Jean Nguza Karl-i-Bond, who was
red as foreign minister in 1977, sentenced to death, and
1.6 One-man rule
tortured. Mobutu then commuted his sentence to life imprisonment, released him after a year, and later appointed
him prime minister. Nguza ed the country in 1981 only
to return in 1985, rst serving as Zaires ambassador to
the U.S. and later as foreign minister.[27]
In 1972 Mobutu tried unsuccessfully to have himself
named president for life.[28] In an order signed by General
Likulia Bolongo raising President Mobutu to the rank of
Marshal, Victor Nendaka Bika, in his capacity as VicePresident of the Bureau of the Central Committee, second authority in the land, addressed a speech lled with
praise for President Mobutu.

Mobutu Sese Seko with the Dutch Prince Bernhard in 1973

Early in his rule, Mobutu consolidated power by publicly executing political rivals, secessionists, coup plotters, and other threats to his rule. To set an example,
many were hanged before large audiences, including former Prime Minister Evariste Kimba, who, with three cabinet members Jrme Anany (Defense Minister), Emmanuel Bamba (Finance Minister), and Alexandre Mahamba (Minister of Mines and Energy) was tried in May
1966, and sent to the gallows on 30 May, before an audience of 50,000 spectators. The men were executed on
charges of being in contact with Colonel Alphonse Bangala and Major Pierre Efomi, for the purpose of planning a coup. Mobutu explained the executions as follows:
One had to strike through a spectacular example, and
create the conditions of regime discipline. When a chief
takes a decision, he decides period.[24]
In 1968 Pierre Mulele, Lumumbas Minister of Education and a rebel leader during the 1964 Simba Rebellion,
was lured out of exile in Brazzaville on the assumption
that he would be amnestied, but was tortured and killed
by Mobutus forces. While Mulele was still alive, his
eyes were gouged out, his genitals were ripped o, and
his limbs were amputated one by one.[25] Mobutu later
moved away from torture and murder, and switched to a
new tactic, buying o political rivals. He used the slogan Keep your friends close, but your enemies closer
still[26] to describe his tactic of co-opting political opponents through bribery. A favorite Mobutu tactic was
to play musical chairs, rotating members of his government, switching the cabinet roster constantly to ensure
that no one would pose a threat to his rule. Another tac-

He initially nationalized foreign-owned rms and forced

European investors out of the country. In many cases he
handed the management of these rms to relatives and
close associates who stole the companies assets. This
precipitated such an economic slump that Mobutu was
forced by 1977 to try to woo foreign investors back.[29]
Katangan rebels based in Angola invaded Zaire in 1977
in retaliation for Mobutus support for anti-MPLA rebels.
France airlifted 1,500 Moroccan paratroopers into the
country and repulsed the rebels, ending Shaba I. The
rebels attacked Zaire again, in greater numbers, in the
Shaba II invasion of 1978. The governments of Belgium
and France deployed troops with logistical support from
the United States and defeated the rebels again.
He was re-elected in single-candidate elections in 1977
and 1984. He spent most of his time increasing his personal fortune, which in 1984 was estimated to amount to
US$5 billion,[30][31] most of it in Swiss banks (however, a
comparatively small $3.4 million has been found after his
ousting[32] ). This was almost equivalent to the countrys
foreign debt at the time, and, by 1989, the government
was forced to default on international loans from Belgium.
He owned a eet of Mercedes-Benz vehicles that he used
to travel between his numerous palaces, while the nations
roads rotted and many of his people starved. Infrastructure virtually collapsed, and many public service workers
went months without being paid. Most of the money was
siphoned o to Mobutu, his family, and top political and
military leaders. Only the Special Presidential Division
on whom his physical safety depended was paid adequately or regularly. A popular saying that the civil servants pretended to work while the state pretended to pay
them expressed this grim reality.
Another feature of Mobutus economic mismanagement,
directly linked to the way he and his friends siphoned o
so much of the countrys wealth, was rampant ination.
The rapid decline in the real value of salaries strongly encouraged a culture of corruption and dishonesty among
public servants of all kinds.

5
Mobutu was known for his opulent lifestyle. He cruised
on the Congo on his yacht Kamanyola. In Gbadolite he
erected a palace, the Versailles of the jungle.[33] For
shopping trips to Paris he would charter a Concorde from
Air France and had the Gbadolite Airport constructed
with a runway long enough to accommodate the Concordes extended take o and landing requirements.[34]
In 1989, Mobutu chartered Concorde aircraft F-BTSD
for a 26 June 5 July trip to give a speech at the United
Nations in New York City, 16 July for French bicentennial celebrations in Paris (where he was a guest of President Franois Mitterrand), on 19 September for a ight
from Paris to Gbadolite, and another nonstop ight from
Gbadolite to Marseille with the youth choir of Zaire.[35]
Mobutus rule earned a reputation as one of the worlds
foremost examples of kleptocracy and nepotism. Close
relatives and fellow members of the Ngbandi tribe were
awarded with high positions in the military and government, and he groomed his eldest son, Nyiwa, to succeed him as President;[36] however, this was thwarted
by Nyiwas death from AIDS in 1994.[37] He led one
of the most enduring dictatorial regimes in Africa and
amassed a personal fortune estimated to be over US$5
billion by selling his nations rich natural resources while
his nations people lived in poverty.[38] As such he is regarded as one of the most corrupt leaders in history and
is a foremost example of kleptocracy.[39] While in ofce, he formed an authoritarian regime responsible for
numerous human rights violations, attempted to purge the
country of all Belgian cultural inuences and maintained
an anti-communist stance to gain positive international
diplomacy.[20][40]

Mobutu; others were referred to only by the positions they

held.[41][42]
Mobutu was able to successfully capitalize on Cold War
tensions and gain signicant support from Western countries like the United States and international organizations
such as the International Monetary Fund.[43]

2 Coalition government
In May 1990, due to the ending of the Cold War and a
change in the international political climate, as well as
economic problems and domestic unrest, Mobutu agreed
to end the ban on other political parties. He appointed
a transitional government that would lead to promised
elections but he retained substantial powers. Following
riots in Kinshasa by unpaid soldiers, Mobutu brought opposition gures into a coalition government but he still
connived to retain control of the security services and
important ministries. Factional divisions led to the creation of two governments in 1993, one pro and one antiMobutu. The anti-Mobutu government was headed by
Laurent Monsengwo and tienne Tshisekedi of the Union
for Democracy and Social Progress. The economic situation was still dreadful, and, in 1994, the two groups joined
as the High Council of Republic Parliament of Transition (HCR-PT). Mobutu appointed Kengo Wa Dondo, an
advocate of austerity and free-market reforms, as prime
minister. Mobutu was becoming increasingly physically
frail and during one of his absences for medical treatment
in Europe, Tutsis captured much of eastern Zaire.

2.1 Overthrow
Mobutu was overthrown in the First Congo War by
Laurent-Dsir Kabila, who was supported by the governments of Rwanda, Burundi and Uganda.
When Mobutus government issued an order in November
1996 forcing Tutsis to leave Zaire on penalty of death, the
ethnic Tutsis in Zaire,[44] known as Banyamulenge, were
the focal point of a rebellion. From eastern Zaire, the
10 Makuta coin depicting Mobutu Sese Seko
rebels and foreign government forces under the leadership
of President Yoweri Museveni of Uganda and Rwandan
He was also the subject of one of the most pervasive per- Minister of Defense Paul Kagame launched an oensive
sonality cults of the 20th century. The evening news on to overthrow Mobutu, joining forces with locals opposed
television was preceded by an image of him descending to him as they marched west toward Kinshasa.
through clouds like a god descending from the heavens.
cancer, Mobutu was in Switzerland for
Portraits of him adorned many public places, and govern- Ailing with
[45]
unable to coordinate the resistance, which
treatment,
ment ocials wore lapels bearing his portrait. He held
crumbled
in
front
of the march.
such titles as Father of the Nation, Messiah, Guide
of the Revolution, Helmsman, Founder, Savior of By mid-1997, Kabilas forces had almost completely
the People, and Supreme Combatant. In the 1996 doc- overrun the country. On 16 May 1997, following a
umentary of the 1974 Foreman-Ali ght in Zaire, dancers failed peace talks held in Pointe-Noire on board the
receiving the ghters can be heard chanting Sese Seko, South African Navy ship SAS Outeniqua with Laurent
Sese Seko. At one point, in early 1975, the media was Kabila and President of South Africa Nelson Mandela
even forbidden from mentioning by name anyone but who chaired the talks, Mobutu ed into exile. Kabilas

3 FOREIGN POLICY

forces, known as the Alliance of Democratic Forces for

the Liberation of Congo-Zaire (ADFL), proclaimed victory the next day. However, Mobutu was lucky to have
held out even for that long. What was left of his army offered almost no resistance, and the only thing slowing the
AFDL advance was the countrys decrepit infrastructure.
In several areas, no paved roads existed; the only means
of transport were irregularly used dirt roads. Zaire was
renamed the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[46]
2.1.1

Burial of Juvnal Habyarimana

Mobutu had the remains of assassinated Rwandan president Juvnal Habyarimana stored in a mausoleum in
Gbadolite. On 12 May 1997, as Kabilas rebels were advancing on Gbadolite, Mobutu had the remains own by
cargo plane from his mausoleum to Kinshasa where they
waited on the tarmac of N'djili Airport for three days.
On 16 May, the day before Mobutu ed Zaire, Habyarimanas remains were burned under the supervision of an
Indian Hindu leader.[47]
2.1.2

Exile and death

Mobutu went into temporary exile in Togo but lived

mostly in Morocco. He died on 7 September 1997, in
Rabat, Morocco, from prostate cancer. He is buried in
Rabat, in the Christian cemetery known as Pax.

Mobutus palace in his hometown of Gbadolite, ransacked after

his deposition, photographed in c.2010

as the third-most corrupt leader since 1984 and the most

corrupt African leader during the same period.[49] Philip
Gourevitch, in We Wish to Inform You That Tomorrow
We Will Be Killed with Our Families (1998), wrote:
Mobutu had really staged a funeral for a
generation of African leadership of which he
the Dinosaur, as he had long been knownwas
the paragon: the client dictator of Cold War
neocolonialism, monomaniacal, perfectly corrupt, and absolutely ruinous to his nation.

In December 2007, the National Assembly of the DemoMobutu also was one of the men who was instrumental in
cratic Republic of the Congo recommended returnbringing the Rumble in the Jungle boxing match between
ing his remains to the Congo and interring them in a
Muhammad Ali and George Foreman to Zaire on 30 Ocmausoleum.[48]
tober 1974. According to the documentary When We
On the same day Mobutu ed into exile, Laurent-Dsir Were Kings, promoter Don King promised each ghter
Kabila became the new president of Congo. Kabila was US$5 million for the ght. Mobutu was the only one who
assassinated in 2001 and succeeded by his son, Joseph was willing to put up that kind of money. Mobutu, wantKabila.
ing to expand his countrys image, put up the nations
money to do so. According to a quote in the lm, Ali
supposedly said: Some countries go to war to get their
2.2 Legacy
names out there, and wars cost a lot more than $10 million.
Mobutu was infamous for looting his country to the tune
of billions of US dollars. According to the most conservative estimates, he stole US$45 billion from his country, 3 Foreign policy
and some sources put the gure as high as US$15 billion.
According to Mobutus son-in-law, Pierre Janssenthe
husband of Mobutus daughter YakiMobutu had no Main article: Foreign policy of Mobutu Sese Seko
concern for the cost of the expensive gifts he gave away
to his cronies. Janssen married Yaki in a lavish ceremony that included three orchestras, a US$65,000 wed3.1 Relations with Belgium
ding cake and a giant reworks display. Yaki wore a
US$70,000 wedding gown and US$3 million worth of Relations between Zaire and Belgium wavered between
jewels. Janssen wrote a book describing Mobutus daily close intimacy and open hostility during the Mobutu
routinewhich included several daily bottles of wine, re- years. Relations soured early in Mobutus rule over distainers own in from overseas and lavish meals.[42]
putes involving the substantial Belgian commercial and
According to Transparency International, Mobutu em- industrial holdings in the country, but relations warmed
bezzled over US$5 billion from his country, ranking him soon afterwards. Mobutu and his family were received

3.4

Relations with the Soviet Union

as personal guests of the Belgian monarch in 1968, and

a convention for scientic and technical cooperation was
signed that same year. During King Baudouin's highly
successful visit to Kinshasa in 1970, a treaty of friendship and cooperation between the two countries was
signed. However, Mobutu tore up the treaty in 1974 in
protest at Belgiums refusal to ban an anti-Mobutu book
written by left-wing lawyer Jules Chom.[50] Mobutus
"Zairianization" policy, which expropriated foreign-held
businesses and transferred their ownership to Zairians,
added to the strain.

3.2

Relations with France

7
time he was originally scheduled to visit the Soviet Union.
Upon returning home, both his politics and rhetoric became markedly more radical; it was around this time
that Mobutu began criticizing Belgium and the United
States (the latter for not doing enough, in Mobutus opinion, to combat white minority rule in southern Africa),
introduced the obligatory civic work program called
salongo, and initiated radicalization (an extension of
1973s Zairianization policy). Mobutu even borrowed
a title the Helmsman from Mao. Incidentally, late
1974-early 1975 was when his personality cult reached
its peak.
China and Zaire shared a common goal in Central Africa,
namely doing everything in their power to halt Soviet
gains in the area. Accordingly, both Zaire and China
covertly funneled aid to the FNLA (and later, UNITA)
in order to prevent the MPLA, who were supported and
augmented by Cuban forces, from coming to power. The
Cubans, who exercised considerable inuence in Africa
in support of leftist and anti-imperialist forces, were heavily sponsored by the Soviet Union during the period.
In addition to inviting Holden Roberto and his guerrillas to Beijing for training, China provided weapons and
money to the rebels. Zaire itself launched an ill-fated,
pre-emptive invasion of Angola in a bid to install a proKinshasa government, but was repulsed by Cuban troops.
The expedition was a asco with far-reaching repercussions, most notably the Shaba I and Shaba II invasions,
both of which China opposed. China sent military aid
to Zaire during both invasions, and accused the Soviet
Union and Cuba (who were alleged to have supported the
Shaban rebels, although this was and remains speculation)
of working to de-stabilize Central Africa.

As the second largest French-speaking country in the

world and the largest one in sub-Saharan Africa[51] Zaire
was of great strategic interest to France.[52] During the
First Republic era, France tended to side with the conservative and federalist forces, as opposed to unitarists
such as Lumumba.[51] Shortly after the Katangan secession was successfully crushed, Zaire (then called the Republic of the Congo), signed a treaty of technical and cultural cooperation with France. During the presidency of
Charles de Gaulle, relations with the two countries gradually grew stronger and closer. In 1971, Finance Minister
Valry Giscard d'Estaing paid a visit to Zaire; later, after becoming President, he would develop a close personal relationship with President Mobutu, and became
one of the regimes closest foreign allies. During the
Shaba invasions, France sided rmly with Mobutu: during the rst Shaba invasion, France airlifted 1,500 Moroccan troops to Zaire, and the rebels were repulsed;[53]
a year later, during the second Shaba invasion, France itself would send French Foreign Legion paratroopers (2nd
Foreign Parachute Regiment) to aid Mobutu (along with 3.4 Relations with the Soviet Union
Belgium).[54][55][56]
Mobutus relationship with the Soviet Union was frosty
and tense. Mobutu, a staunch anticommunist, was
3.3 Relations with the Peoples Republic of not anxious to recognize the Soviets; the USSR had
supported, though mostly in words, Patrice Lumumba,
China
Mobutus democratically elected predecessor, and the
Initially, Zaires relationship with the Peoples Repub- Simba rebels. However, to project a non-aligned image,
lic of China was no better than its relationship with the he did renew ties in 1967; the rst Soviet ambassador arSoviet Union. Memories of Chinese aid to Mulele and rived and presented his credentials in 1968. Mobutu did,
other Maoist rebels in Kwilu province during the ill-fated however, join the United States in condemning the Soviet
Simba Rebellion remained fresh in Mobutus mind. He invasion of Czechoslovakia that year. Mobutu viewed the
also opposed seating the PRC at the United Nations. Soviet presence as advantageous for two reasons: it alHowever, by 1972, he began to see the Chinese in a dif- lowed him to maintain an image of non-alignment, and it
ferent light, as a counterbalance to both the Soviet Union provided a convenient scapegoat for problems at home.
as well as his intimate ties with the United States, Israel, For example, in 1970, he expelled four Soviet diploand South Africa.[57][58] In November 1972, Mobutu ex- mats for carrying out subversive activities, and in 1971,
tended diplomatic recognition to the Chinese (as well as twenty Soviet ocials were declared persona non grata
East Germany and North Korea). The following year, for allegedly instigating student demonstrations at LovaMobutu paid a visit to Beijing, where he met person- nium University.
ally with chairman Mao Zedong and received promises Moscow was the only major world capital Mobutu never
of $100 million in technical aid. In 1974, Mobutu made visited, although he did accept an invitation to do so in
a surprise visit to both China and North Korea, during the 1974. For reasons unknown, he cancelled the visit at the

FAMILY

last minute, and toured the Peoples Republic of China Africa.[62] During the rst Shaba invasion, the United
and North Korea instead.
States played a relatively inconsequential role; its belated
Relations cooled further in 1975, when the two countries intervention consisted of little more than the delivery of
found themselves on opposing sides in the Angolan Civil non-lethal supplies. But during the second Shaba invaWar. This had a dramatic eect on Zairian foreign policy sion, the US played a much more active and decisive role
for the next decade; bereft of his claim to African lead- by providing transportation and logistical support to the
ership (Mobutu was one of the few leaders who refused French and Belgian paratroopers that were deployed to
to recognize the Marxist government of Angola), Mobutu aid Mobutu against the rebels. Carter echoed Mobutus
(unsubstantiated) charges of Soviet and Cuban aid to the
turned increasingly to the U.S. and its allies, adopting prothat no hard evidence existed
American stances on such issues as the Soviet invasion of rebels, until it was apparent
to verify his claims.[63] In 1980, the US House of RepreAfghanistan, and Israel's position in international organisentatives voted to terminate military aid to Zaire, but the
zations.
US Senate reinstated the funds, in response to pressure
from Carter and American business interests in Zaire.[64]

3.5

Relations with the United States

Mobutu Sese Seko and Richard Nixon in Washington, D.C.,

1973.

For the most part, Zaire enjoyed warm relations with

the United States. The United States was the third
largest donor of aid to Zaire (after Belgium and France),
and Mobutu befriended several US presidents, including Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, and George H. W.
Bush. Relations did cool signicantly in 19741975
over Mobutus increasingly radical rhetoric (which included his scathing denunciations of American foreign
policy),[59] and plummeted to an all-time low in the
summer of 1975, when Mobutu accused the Central
Intelligence Agency of plotting his overthrow and arrested eleven senior Zairian generals and several civilians, and condemned (in absentia) a former head of the
Central Bank (Albert N'dele).[59] However, many people viewed these charges with skepticism; in fact, one
of Mobutus staunchest critics, Nzongola-Ntalaja, speculated that Mobutu invented the plot as an excuse to purge
the military of talented ocers who might otherwise pose
a threat to his rule.[60] In spite of these hindrances, the
chilly relationship quickly thawed when both countries
found each other supporting the same side during the
Angolan Civil War.
Because of Mobutus poor human rights record, the
Carter Administration put some distance between itself
and the Kinshasa government;[61] even so, Zaire received
nearly half the foreign aid Carter allocated to sub-Saharan

Mobutu enjoyed a very warm relationship with the

Reagan Administration, through nancial donations.
During Reagans presidency, Mobutu visited the White
House three times, and criticism of Zaires human rights
record by the US was eectively muted. During a state
visit by Mobutu in 1983, Reagan praised the Zairian
strongman as a voice of good sense and goodwill.[65]
Mobutu also had a cordial relationship with Reagans successor, George H. W. Bush; he was the rst African
head of state to visit Bush at the White House.[66] Even
so, Mobutus relationship with the US radically changed
shortly afterward with the end of the Cold War. With
the Soviet Union gone, there was no longer any reason to
support Mobutu as a bulwark against communism. Accordingly, the US and other Western powers began pressuring Mobutu to democratize the regime. Regarding
the change in US attitude to his regime, Mobutu bitterly remarked: I am the latest victim of the cold war,
no longer needed by the US. The lesson is that my support for American policy counts for nothing.[67] In 1993,
Mobutu was denied a visa by the US State Department
after he sought to visit Washington, DC.
Mobutu also had friends in America outside Washington.
Mobutu was befriended by televangelist Pat Robertson,
who promised to try to get the State Department to lift its
ban on the African leader.[68]

4 Family
Mobutu was married twice. His rst wife, MarieAntoinette Mobutu, died of heart failure on 22 October
1977 in Genolier, Switzerland at age 36. On 1 May 1980,
he married his mistress, Bobi Ladawa, on the eve of a
visit by Pope John Paul II, thus legitimizing his relationship in the eyes of the Church. Two of his sons from
his rst marriage died during his lifetime, Nyiwa (d. 16
September 1994) and Konga (d. 1992). Two more died
in the years following his death: Kongulu (d. 24 September 1998), and Manda (d. 27 November 2004).[37] His
elder son from his second marriage, Nzanga Mobutu Ngbangawe, now the head of the family, was a candidate

9
in the 2006 presidential elections and later served in the
government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo as
Minister of State for Agriculture. A daughter, Yakpwa
(nicknamed Yaki), was briey married to a Belgian man
named Pierre Janssen, who later wrote a book[69] which
described Mobutus lifestyle in vivid detail.

[1] "Correspondent:Who Killed Lumumba-Transcript.

BBC. Retrieved 21 May 2010. 00.36.57

Altogether, Mobutu had at least twenty-one children:[70]

With Marie-Antoinette (rst wife): Niwa, Phillip,
Ngombo, Manda, Konga, Ngawali, Yango, Yakpwa,
Kongolu, Ndagbia (9)

[3] Acemoglu, Daron; Robinson, James A. & Verdier,

Thierry (AprilMay 2004). Kleptocracy and Divideand-Rule: A Model of Personal Rule. Journal of
the European Economic Association 2 (23): 162192.
doi:10.1162/154247604323067916.

With Bobi Ladawa (second wife): Nzanga, Giala, Toku,

Ndokula (4)

[4] Pearce, Justin (16 January 2001). DR Congos troubled

history. BBC.

With Kosia Ladawa (mistress, twin sister of his second

wife): Ya-Litho, Tende, Sengboni (3)

[5] Tharoor, Ishaan (20 October 2011). Mobutu Sese Seko.

Top 15 Toppled Dictators (Time Magazine). Retrieved 30
April 2013.

With Mama 41": Senghor, Dongo, Nzanga (3)

[2] Mobutu Sese Seko. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. Columbia University Press. 2012. Retrieved 30
April 2013.

With an unknown woman from Brazzaville: Robert (1)

[6] Chronology for Ngbandi in the Dem. Rep. of

the Congo. United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees. 15 May 2013.

On trips across Zaire he appropriated the droit de cuissage (right to deower) as local chiefs oered him virgins; this practice was considered an honor for the virgins
family.[71]

[7] Akrasih, Shirley (28 February 2012). AFRICA AND

DEMOCRACY Joseph Mobutu, Dictator of the DRC,
and His Life-Saving Support from the US. Davidson College.

[8] Robert Edgerton (2002). The Troubled Heart of Africa:

A History of the Congo. Macmillan. ISBN 9780312304867.

With Mbanguula: A son (1)

Art and literature

Mobutu was the subject of the three-part documentary

Mobutu, King of Zaire by Thierry Michel. Mobutu was
also featured in the feature lm Lumumba, directed by
Raoul Peck, which detailed the pre-coup and coup years
from the perspective of Lumumba. Mobutu featured in
the documentary When We Were Kings, which centred
around the famed Rumble in the Jungle boxing bout between George Foreman and Muhammad Ali for the 1974
Heavyweight championship of the world. The bout took
place in Kinshasa, Zaire during Mobutus rule. Mobutu
also might be considered as the inspiration behind some
of the characters in the works of the poetry of Wole
Soyinka, the novel A Bend in the River by V.S. Naipaul,
and Anthills of the Savannah by Chinua Achebe. William
Close, father of actress Glenn Close, was once a personal physician to Mobutu and wrote a book focusing
on his service in Zaire.Barbara Kingsolver's 1998 historical novel The Poisonwood Bible depicts the events of
the Congo Crisis from a ctional standpoint, featuring the
role of Mobutu in the crisis.

References

[1] The name translates as The warrior who leaves a trail of

re in his path or The warrior who knows no defeat because of his endurance and inexible will and is all powerful, leaving re in his wake as he goes from conquest to
conquest.

[9] Wrong, Michela (2009) In the Footsteps of Mr Kurtz: Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutus Congo. HarperCollins. ISBN 0061863610. pp. 7072
[10] Wrong, pp. 7274
[11] Wrong, pp. 7475
[12] Wrong, p. 75
[13] Crawford Young and Thomas Turner, The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State, p. 175
[14] Wrong, pp. 76
[15] Wrong, p. 67
[16] Schmidt, Elizabeth. Foreign Intervention in Africa. Cambridge UP. pp. 6265.
[17] Ludo de Witte, 'The Assassination of Lumumba,' Verso,
2001, 127.
[18] Lemarchand, Ren. Mobutus Second Coming.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in
the public domain.
[19] Turner, Thomas. The Party-State as a System of Rule.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is
in the public domain.
[20] French, Howard W. (17 May 1997). Anatomy of an Autocracy: Mobutus 32-Year Reign. The New York Times
on the Web. Retrieved 5 July 2012.

10

[21] Callaghy, Thomas M. The State-Society Struggle: Zaire in

Comparative Perspective, p. 164
[22] Shaw 2005, 63.
[23] There are multiple translations of the full name, including
the all-powerful warrior who, because of his endurance
and inexible will to win, will go from conquest to conquest leaving re in his wake, the earthy, the peppery,
all-powerful warrior who, by his endurance and will to
win, goes from contest to contest leaving re in his wake
and the man who ies from victory to victory and leaves
nothing behind him"<http://www.plexoft.com/SBF/N04.
html#Sese> and the all-powerful warrior who goes from
conquest to conquest, leaving re in his wake (Wrong, p.
4)
[24] Young and Turner, p. 57
[25] Wrong, Michela (2002). In The Footsteps of Mr. Kurtz:
Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutus Congo. Perennial. ISBN 0-06-093443-3. p. 90

REFERENCES

[40] Collins, Carole J.L. (1 July 1997). Zaire/Democratic Republic of the Congo. Institute for Policy Studies. Retrieved 5 July 2012.
[41] Young and Turner, p. 169
[42] Edgerton, Robert. The Troubled Heart of Africa: A History of the Congo. St. Martins Press. ISBN 0-312-304862
[43] Department of State Background Notes: Congo (Kinshasa) Foreign Relations. State.gov. Retrieved on 23
April 2014.
[44] Atzili, Boaz (2012) Good Fences, Bad Neighbors: Border
Fixity and International Conict. University Of Chicago
Press. ISBN 0226031365 p. 188
[45] Dipiazza, Francesca Davis (2007) Democratic Republic of
Congo in Pictures. Twenty First Century Books. ISBN
0822585723. p. 35

[26] Inuential Africans: Mobutu Sese Seko, Voice of America, 31 October 2009

[46] Dickovick, J. Tyler (2008). The World Today Series:

Africa 2012. Lanham, Maryland: Stryker-Post Publications. ISBN 1610488814.

[27] As detailed in: Nguza Karl-i-Bond, Jean. Mobutu ou

l'Incarnation du Mal Zairois. Bellew Publishing Co Ltd.
ISBN 0-86036-197-7. See also Jean Nguza Karl-i-Bond.

[47] French, Howard W. (16 May 1997) Ending a Chapter,

Mobutu Cremates Rwanda Ally. New York Times.

[28] Young and Turner, p. 211

[48] RD Congo: Pour le rapatriement des restes de Mobutu,

Panapress, 17 December 2007 (French).

[29] BBC: Timeline: Democratic Republic of Congo. BBC

News (11 March 2014). Retrieved on 23 April 2014.
[30] Fortune, 12 October 1987, p. 189
[31] 60 Minutes, 4 March 1984
[32] Swiss banks nd only $3.4 million in Mobutu assets.
CNN. 3 June 1997.
[33] Robert Block (14 February 1993). Mobutu goes cruising
as his country burns: The cooks son is feeding Zaire to
the crocodiles. Robert Block on an unpopular survivor.
The Independent. Retrieved 28 March 2015.
[34] Shaw 2005, 47, 58.
[35] Concorde supersonique jet / Gallery / Pictures. Concordejet.com (30 September 1989). Retrieved on 23 April
2014.
[36] ''Zaire: A Country Study'', Establishment of a Personalistic Regime. Lcweb2.loc.gov. Retrieved on 23 April
2014.
[37] RDC : La mort prmature de Manda Mobutu met un
point nal l'histoire du Zare at the Wayback Machine
(archived 1 November 2005). Le Faso. 24 December
2004
[38] Mobutu dies in exile in Morocco. CNN World. 7
September 1997. Retrieved 5 July 2012.
[39] Plundering politicians and bribing multinationals undermine international development, says TI (PDF). Transparency International. 25 March 2004. Retrieved 5 July
2012.

[49] But after his death the Swiss Government has claimed
that Mobutus legacy was just evaluated at 5.3 million US
dollars.Suharto, Marcos and Mobutu head corruption table | World news | The Guardian
[50] Young and Turner, p. 172
[51] ''Zaire: A Country Study'', Relations with France.
Lcweb2.loc.gov. Retrieved on 23 April 2014.
[52] Meredith, Martin (2005). The Fate of Africa: From the
Hopes of Freedom to the Heart of Despair. PublicAairs.
ISBN 1-58648-246-7. p. 525
[53] ''Zaire: A Country Study'', Shaba I. Lcweb2.loc.gov (8
March 1977). Retrieved on 23 April 2014.
[54] ''Zaire: A Country Study'', Shaba II. Lcweb2.loc.gov.
Retrieved on 23 April 2014.
[55] Shaba II: The French and Belgian Intervention in Zaire
in 1978 by Lieutenant Colonel Thomas P. Odom
[56] Sauvetage de Kolwezi
[57] Callagy, Thomas M. (1983) South Africa in Southern
Africa: The Intensifying Vortex of Violence. Praeger.
ISBN 0030603064
[58] Leslie, Winsome J. (1993) Zaire in the International
Arena in Zaire: Continuity and Political Change in an Oppressive State. Westview Press. ISBN 0-86531-298-2
[59] Young and Turner, p. 372
[60] Elliot and Dymally, p. 150

7.1

Books

11

[61] ''Zaire: A Country Study'', Relations with the United

States. Lcweb2.loc.gov (30 November 1973). Retrieved
on 23 April 2014.

Elliot, Jerey M., and Mervyn M. Dymally (eds.).

Voices of Zaire: Rhetoric or Reality. Washington Institute Press. ISBN 0-88702-045-3

[62] Lamb, David (1987) The Africans, Vintage, ISBN

0394753089, p. 46

French, Howard W. A Continent for the Taking: The

Tragedy and Hope of Africa. Vintage. ISBN 14000-3027-7

[63] Young and Turner, p. 389

[64] Elliot and Dymally, p. 88
[65] When He Was King: On the trail of Marshal Mobutu
Sese Seko, Zaires former Kleptocrat-in-Chief. Metroactive (24 April 1990). Retrieved on 23 April 2014.
[66] Zaires Mobutu Visits America, by Michael Johns, Heritage Foundation Executive Memorandum #239, June 29,
1989. Heritage.org. Retrieved on 23 April 2014.

Gould, David. Bureaucratic Corruption and Underdevelopment in the Third World: The Case of Zaire.
ASIN B0006E1JR8
Gran, Guy, and Galen Hull (eds.). Zaire: The Political Economy of Underdevelopment. ISBN 0-27590358-3

[67] Zagorin, Adam. (24 June 2001) Leaving Fire in His

Wake. Time. Retrieved on 23 April 2014.

Harden, Blaine. Africa: Dispatches from a Fragile

Continent. Houghton Miin Company. ISBN 0395-59746-3

[68] Mobutu said to have powerful US friends. New York Amsterdam News. 24 May 1997. Archived 17 May 2013 at
the Wayback Machine.

Kelly, Sean. Americas Tyrant: The CIA and Mobutu

of Zaire. American University Press. ISBN 1879383-17-9

[69] Janssen, Pierre (1997). la cour de Mobutu. Michel Lafon. ISBN 2-84098-332-X

Kingsolver, Barbara. The Poisonwood Bible. Harper

Collins. ISBN 0-606-19420-7

[70] Enfants de Mobutu (Mobutus Children). Jeune Afrique.

(September 10, 2007.) Retrieved on May 21, 2016.
[71] David van Reybrouck. Congo: The Epic History of a People. HarperCollins, 2012. p. 384f. ISBN 978-0-06220011-2.

Bibliography

7.1
7.1.1

Books
English

MacGaey, Janet (ed.). The Real Economy of Zaire:

The Contribution of Smuggling and Other Unofcial Activities to National Wealth. Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-81221365-3
Meditz, Sandra W. and Tim Merrill. Zaire: A Country Study. Claitors Law Books and Publishing Division. ISBN 1-57980-162-5 Available here
Mokoli, Mondonga M. State Against Development:
The Experience of Post-1965 Zaire. New York:
Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-28213-7

Ayittey, George B.N. Africa in Chaos: A Comparative History. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-31221787-0

Nzongola-Ntalaja, Georges. The Congo: From

Leopold to Kabila: A Peoples History. Zed Books.
ISBN 1-84277-053-5

Callaghy, Thomas M. Politics and Culture in Zaire.

Center for Political Studies. ASIN B00071MTTW

Sandbrook, Richard (1985). The Politics of Africas

Economic Stagnation. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-31961-7

Callaghy, Thomas M. State-Society Struggle: Zaire

in Comparative Perspective. Columbia University
Press. ISBN 0-231-05720-2
Close, William T. Beyond the Storm: Treating the
Powerless & the Powerful in Mobutus Congo/Zaire.
Meadowlark Springs Production. ISBN 0-97033714-0

Schatzberg, Michael G. The Dialectics of Oppression

in Zaire. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-25320694-4
Schatzberg, Michael G. Mobutu or Chaos? University Press of America. ISBN 0-8191-8130-7

De Witte, Ludo. The Assassination of Lumumba.

Verso. ISBN 1-85984-410-3

Taylor, Jerey. Facing the Congo: A Modern-Day

Journey into the Heart of Darkness. Three Rivers
Press. 0609808265

Edgerton, Robert. The Troubled Heart of Africa: A

History of the Congo. St. Martins Press. ISBN 0312-30486-2

Young, Crawford, and Thomas Turner (1985). The

Rise and Decline of the Zairian State. University of
Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-10110-X

12

Mwakikagile, Godfrey. Nyerere and Africa: End of

an Era, 2006, Chapter Six: Congo in The 1960s:
The Bleeding Heart of Africa. New Africa Press,
South Africa. ISBN 978-0-9802534-1-2; Mwakikagile, Godfrey. Africa is in A Mess: What Went
Wrong and What Should Be Done, 2006. New
Africa Press. ISBN 978-0-9802534-7-4
7.1.2

French

Braeckman, Colette. Le Dinosaure, le Zare de

Mobutu. Fayard. ISBN 2-213-02863-X
Dungia, Emmanuel, Mobutu et l'Argent du Zare, les
rvlations d'un diplomate, ex-agent des Services secrets. L'Harmattan. ISBN 2-7384-1133-9, ISBN
978-2-7384-1133-4.
Chom, Jules. L'ascension de Mobutu: Du sergent
Dsir Joseph au gnral Sese Seko. F. Maspero.
ISBN 2-7071-1075-2
Mobutu Sese Seko. Discours, allocutions et messages, 19651975. ditions J.A. ISBN 2-85258022-5
Monheim, Francis. Mobutu, lhomme seul. Editions
Actuelles. (Unknown ISBN)
Ngbanda Nzambo-ku-Atumba, Honor. Ainsi sonne
le glas! Les Derniers Jours du Marchal Mobutu.
Gideppe. ISBN 2-9512000-2-1
Nguza Karl-i-Bond, Jean. Mobutu ou l'Incarnation
du Mal Zairois. Bellew Publishing Co Ltd. ISBN
0-86036-197-7
7.1.3

Other

Shaw, Karl (2005) [2004]. Power Mad! [lenstv

mocnch] (in Czech). Praha: Metafora. ISBN 807359-002-6.

External links
Speech by Mobutu, vowing to resist the rebel onslaught and remain in power
Obituary
Anatomy of an Autocracy: Mobutus 32-Year Reign
(New York Times biography by Howard W. French)
Mobutus legacy: Show over substance
Hope and retribution in Zaire, Allan Little, From
Our Own Correspondent, BBC News, 24 May 1997.
IMDB.com Lumumba (2000) Film about the rise
of the independent Congo/Zaire.

EXTERNAL LINKS

Zaires Mobutu Visits America, by Michael Johns,

Heritage Foundation Executive Memorandum #239,
June 29, 1989
Pictures of Mobutus Swiss house near Lausanne
during the public auction in 2001 article in English
Book review

13

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1

Text

Mobutu Sese Seko Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko?oldid=727424866 Contributors: AxelBoldt, The Anome,

Jeronimo, PierreAbbat, Deb, William Avery, Montrealais, Michael Hardy, Zanimum, 172, Paul Benjamin Austin, Greenman, Svensson~enwiki, Gerhard, Vzbs34, Andres, Kaihsu, Timwi, TwinsFan48, WhisperToMe, Dragons ight, E23~enwiki, Wetman, Jason M, Adam
Carr, Hajor, Denelson83, Robbot, Pfortuny, Fredrik, Kristof vt, Jmabel, Dittaeva, TimR, Sunray, Moink, Stirling Newberry, DocWatson42,
Wizzy, HangingCurve, Everyking, Moyogo, Curps, Michael Devore, Henry Flower, JohnZ, Pne, Sesel, Pgan002, Martin Wisse, Soman,
Binand, Gazpacho, PZFUN, Rich Farmbrough, Narsil, Francis Schonken, Kooo, Ericamick, Pavel Vozenilek, Trey Stone, Bender235, Flapdragon, GordyB, Kwamikagami, Hayabusa future, Aude, IFaqeer, Bobo192, Dralwik, Dtremenak, Scott Ritchie, Rajah, Darwinek, Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Katefan0, Wtmitchell, BanyanTree, Zantastik, Blaxthos, Buu, Bobrayner, Ghane, Rocastelo, Ekem, NeoChaosX,
Bbatsell, TreveX, GregorB, Toussaint, BD2412, Kbdank71, Wikix, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, MZMcBride, Red Star, Gozar, Yamamoto Ichiro,
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POY~enwiki, Elliskev, Nick-D, Luk, Sardanaphalus, Attilios, SmackBot, David Kernow, Ksargent, Schumit, Person man345, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kahuzi, Niayre, Golwengaud, Eskimbot, Trezatium, Kintetsubualo, Srnec, IstvanWolf, Gilliam, Hmains, Betacommand, Chris the
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McE, Picaroon, Jesse Viviano, Themightyquill, Cydebot, Tiphareth, Konstantin3307, R-41, A Softer Answer, Cdanek, BetacommandBot,
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30, KylieTastic, Aminullah, Equazcion, Jevansen, Andy Marchbanks, Thismightbezach, Funandtrvl, X!, Gothbag, VolkovBot, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Rei-bot, Ann Stouter, John Carter, NhInsideWriter, Robert1947, Ohw0701, Pious7, Dick Shane, EmxBot,
Crimesofthelemon, SieBot, BotMultichill, Vanished user 82345ijgeke4tg, Perspicacite, Monegasque, Aspects, Steven Crossin, Mmctinescu, Escape Artist Swyer, Seedbot, LonelyMarble, Akarkera, Cosmo0, Mtaylor848, TaerkastUA, Geo Plourde, Punitpankaj, ImageRemovalBot, Dave1959, ClueBot, LAX, Sennen goroshi, All Hallows Wraith, Afrique, Vasupergirl, Mild Bill Hiccup, Joao Xavier, Ktr101,
Kyle056, Gtstricky, Royalmate1, Gereon K., 2, DumZiBoT, Life of Riley, Pichpich, Livingwords, Dthomsen8, WikHead, Good Olfactory,
Kbdankbot, Addbot, Betterusername, OmgItsTheSmartGuy, Elmondo21st, Download, Maplealtar, Tassedethe, Lightbot, FuneFeai, Jarble, Legobot, Kurtis, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Dodgerblue777, HidyHoTim, AnomieBOT, , Jacinto-Mirbriga, VALLEYMAN25,
Ulric1313, Dicttrshp, Materialscientist, James500, Vanished user zm34pq51mz, Xqbot, Jayarathina, Guto2003, GrouchoBot, RibotBOT,
BlueGroup, Samwb123, Kukunov, Nzanga, Levalley, RicHard-59, Gouerouz, Sfs90, DefaultsortBot, Misaligned, Jschnur, Zareksiegel,
Peace and Passion, Blodance, Jaba1977, Reach Out to the Truth, RjwilmsiBot, MMS2013, Ripchip Bot, JB50000, EmausBot, Dcirovic,
Day123, Sukarnobhumibol, JSquish, The Madras, BealFeirste, Isinbill, SporkBot, Turjan, Liambrother, Omar-toons, Mcc1789, Brigade
Piron, Mjbmrbot, ClueBot NG, Michaelmas1957, NapoleonX, Gareth Grith-Jones, This lousy T-shirt, Chester Markel, Emi.deborah, Frietjes, Twillisjr, Hazhk, Braincricket, Widr, Jonspurling, Coolin815, Bone1234, Tbe, IgnorantArmies, Mightymights, Asalrifai, Helpful
Pixie Bot, Shortydan215, BG19bot, Sematz, Boriaj, ISTB351, Zuluman707, Mark Arsten, MartinZwirlein, Corlier, Polmandc, Klilidiplomus, MazabukaBloke, Mcblando10, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, YFdyh-bot, Finnegas, Charles Essie, Mogism, Thine Antique Pen (public), VIAFbot, Bulba2036, ColaXtra, MarsBarLover, DrewJo1, UnluckyJohnThomas, Tar777, Tynmar66, 1982vdven, FrantzFanon2000,
Filedelinkerbot, Jabambridge, Monopoly31121993, Polemicista, Precarious15, Emanuelito martinez, Somuchnope, Prinsgezinde, KasparBot, Nighter2136, Jongwe, TheRealNoscoper xx 56, Ngweshe, AbeLincolnsBeard and Anonymous: 404

9.2

Images

File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Katoenen_overhemd_met_portret_van_Mobutu_TMnr_5829-1.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Katoenen_overhemd_met_portret_
van_Mobutu_TMnr_5829-1.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Collectie Stichting Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen Original
artist: Afgebeelde persoon / depicted constituent: Mobutu Sese Seko (1930 - 1997)
File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/
1b/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Congo-Kinshasa_(1966-1971).svg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Flag_of_
Congo-Kinshasa_%281966-1971%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Congo-Lopoldville_(1960-1963).svg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Flag_of_
Congo-L%C3%A9opoldville_%281960-1963%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
Flag_of_Congo_Kinshasa.svg Original artist: Flag_of_Congo_Kinshasa.svg: User:Moyogo
File:Flag_of_Congo-Lopoldville_(1963-1966).svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Flag_of_
Congo-L%C3%A9opoldville_%281963-1966%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_Zaire.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Zaire.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work based on ocial ags Original artist: User:Moyogo
File:Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg_(1997-2003).svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/1/1f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%281997-2003%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?

14

9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Flag_of_

the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Nightstallion
File:Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_(2003-2006).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
6/66/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%282003-2006%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Moyogo
File:Gbadolite_mobutu_palace_site.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Gbadolite_mobutu_palace_
site.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dans
File:Mobutu_Nixon.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Mobutu_Nixon.gif License: Public domain
Contributors: This media is available in the holdings of the National Archives and Records Administration, cataloged under the ARC
Identier (National Archives Identier) 194548. Original artist: Kightlinger, Jack E.
File:Mobutucoin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Mobutucoin.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Man77 using CommonsHelper. Original artist: DrusMAX at English Wikipedia
File:PD-icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/62/PD-icon.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Presidential_Standard_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/7/7e/Presidential_Standard_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Zscout370
File:Prince_Bernhard_and_Mobutu_Sese_Seko_1973.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Prince_
Bernhard_and_Mobutu_Sese_Seko_1973.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 nl Contributors: [1] Dutch National Archives, The Hague, Fotocollectie Algemeen Nederlands Persbureau (ANeFo), 1945-1989, Nummer toegang 2.24.01.07 Bestanddeelnummer 254-9346 Original
artist: Mieremet, Rob / Anefo
File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rei-artur

9.3

Content license

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