Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Activity Book
Marguerite Comley
Samira Spain
Jennifer Zakutney
Mark Watson
Table of Contents
Introduction ______________________________________________________ 4
Module 1 Nutrition _______________________________________________ 6
Part 1 The Distestive System & Nutrition ___________________________ 7
Part 2 The Respiratory System __________________________________ 14
Part 3 The Circulatory System___________________________________ 21
Part 4 The Cell & Its Functions __________________________________ 42
Part 5 The Excretory System ____________________________________ 51
Module 2 Relationships___________________________________________ 55
Part 1 Sensory Relationship _____________________________________ 57
Part 2 The Locomotor System ___________________________________ 72
Module 3 Reproduction __________________________________________ 84
Part 1 Structures & Functions ___________________________________ 85
Part 2 Procreation _____________________________________________ 91
Part 3 STDs & Contraception ___________________________________ 98
Biology Project __________________________________________________ 106
Introduction
Tissues
connective
epithelial
muscle
nerve
Organs
mouth
stomach
liver
pancreas
small intestine
large intestine
4
System
digestive
These systems are not entirely independent. While each has a highly specialized job
to do, they all rely on the other systems. Some organs are found in two or three
different systems because they have many complex tasks to perform. Our bodies, like
most animals and plants, require a number of systems to live. A group of systems that
works together like this makes up an organism. As we study the organism we call
humans, we will use systems to help organize the information. The systems we will
explore are:
1.
Digestive System
2.
Respiratory System
3.
Circulatory System
4.
5.
Nervous System
6.
Skeletal System
7.
Muscular System
8.
Reproductive System
In the months that follow, we will explore how each of these systems, and all their
parts work to keep us alive. We will also look at how and why they sometimes fail
to work properly and the steps you can take to minimize your risk.
Module 1
Nutrition
6
Nutrition
In order for the body to work, it must receive a regular supply of materials to grow,
make energy and run its varied chemical reactions. The collective name for these
chemicals we supply our body with is nutrients.
Nutrients can be broken down into six categories, each with a separate and distinct
function. The categories are:
1.
Fat:
2.
Protein:
3.
Sugar:
4.
5.
Water:
6.
Oxygen:
Most of these nutrients come to us in the food we eat. Oxygen is the only exception.
To keep our bodies healthy, we must make sure we take in the right amount of each of
these nutrients. If we take in too few, we can get sick and die. If we take in too many,
the effect can be the same.
We often measure the amount of food we eat in terms of kiloJoules (kJ). This is a
way of measuring the amount of energy we can get from foods. If we eat too much,
the body stores the excess energy as fat in our body. If we do not eat enough, the
body converts tissues from our body into sugars it can burn for energy. This is why it
is essential to eat a healthy, well balanced diet.
As we continue through the course, we will see a great many diseases that can be
caused by either overeating, or not eating enough. It should become clear to you just
how important a good diet is.
Fibre is also important for a healthy diet. It is not a nutrient because the body cannot
absorb it, but it does play a role in keeping your digestive system healthy and it
supplies us with vitamins.
Nutrition Activities
Some examples of activities you can have your students work on are:
1) Have students look into the effects of taking too many vitamins. Why are only
certain vitamins dangerous in high doses? What are the effects of getting too little
of the vitamins? History buffs might prefer to report on problems like scurvy or
beriberi that plagued us until we learned about vitamins.
2) Have students prepare a sample menu for a meal for four. The menu should take
into account the different dietary requirements of adults, adolescents, and children.
3) Have students conduct an analysis of different foods, testing for proteins,
carbohydrates and lipids. The "Breath of Life" book has a good set up on pages
16-19.
4) Have students analyze the energy content of food. Using a Bunsen burner, have
students burn samples of equal mass of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. They
should see that it is a lot harder to burn fat than sugar, but that it burns a lot longer.
Protein also burns, and will be used for energy by your body if necessary. If you
have access to a calorimeter, you can actually calculate the number of kiloJoules in
your samples.
5) Students could research eating disorders like Anorexia or Bulimia and report on
the effects on your body of poor nutrition.
added to the partially digested food in the small intestine, break the nutrients down
into their simplest forms:
Amino acids
Starches/Sugars Monoglycerides
Lipids Fatty acids & Glycerol
Proteins
In the last section of the small intestine, the ileum, these nutrients are absorbed into
the blood to be circulated around the body. When all the nutrients are absorbed, the
remains of the food you ate pass into the large intestine.
The large intestine is the last step of the digestive process. The remnants of the food
you ate and the various juices added during digestion pass into the large intestine. The
food you could not digest is called roughage or fibre and makes up the bulk of this
material, but there is also a lot of water and salts from the bile (this is why it is not the
same colour coming out as it had going in). In this organ bacteria live which can
partially digest the things you cannot. As disgusting as that sounds, they are vital
because they produce many of the vitamins we need to stay healthy. These vitamins
and the excess water are absorbed by the walls of the large intestine (also called the
colon). What=s left is passed out of the anus as feces. If an infection attacks the
colon, it may not be able to perform its job properly. Since its job is to absorb excess
water, the result is often diarrhea.
The liver and the pancreas are organs that help in digesting, but do not actually take
part in digestion directly. The liver produces a chemical called bile, which it stores in
the gall bladder. When food enters the small intestine the gall bladder releases bile
into the intestine. Bile is vital in breaking down fats, a process called emulsion. The
pancreas produces pancreatic juices, which are enzymes that break down the nutrients
when secreted into the small intestine (see small intestine).
11
2. Stomach:
Ulcers, Gastrectomy
6. Gall Bladder:
Gall Stones
7. Pancreas:
Diabetes
8. General:
12
Mouth
Action
Products
Secreted
Nutrients
Digested
Mechanical
Chemical
Starches broken
down into simpler
carbohydrates
Saliva
Starches
Small
Intestine
Liver
Large
Intestine
Acid and
enzyme
Proteins
Chemical
Short chains of
amino acids
Peristalsis moves
food through the
intestine
Mechanical
Chemical
Pancreas
Mechanical
Chemical
Alcohol and
other drugs can
be absorbed
directly into the
blood from the
mouth.
Peristalsis moves
food to stomach.
Esophagus Mechanical
Stomach
Result
Nutrients
Absorbed
carbohydrates
proteins
lipids
simple sugars
amino acids
fatty acids + glycerol
bile
fats
Pancreatic
Enzymes
carbohydrates
proteins
lipids
Intestinal
Enzymes
Peristalsis moves
wastes through the
large intestine.
Bacteria digest some
waste.
Mechanical
13
Water,
Vitamins and
Minerals
14
RESPIRATORY DISORDERS
A LIBRARY PROJECT
In the library, research the following bone disorders and fill in the chart that follows:
Symptoms
Treatment
Pneumonia
Asthma
Emphysema
Pleurisy
Bronchitis
Write a 150-word report on the effects of smoking on the lungs; also relate the
problems of smoker versus non-smoker rights. This report is to be based on reading
and research - not on hearsay and "old wives' tales". Be both specific and scientific in
your description.
16
Respiration Review
1. Air first enters the
filtered before continuing.
.
.
4. The lungs are actually made up of thousands of little air sacs called
5. The trachea and bronchi are also used to protect the lungs from infection. The two defense
mechanisms are
, and
.
into the body and
8. Breathing in is called
9. Breathing out is called
10. Two sets of muscles are used to make us breathe. They are called
.
11. Gases pass from the lungs into the blood. The blood is found in small blood vessels
called
17
13. The deposit of particles in the lungs can affect the exchange of gases in the alveoli by
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
14. Plants are important to our breathing because
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
15. It is important to have well ventilated rooms because
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
16. Poor ventilation can result in
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
17. Smoking affects the cardiovascular system by
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
18
19
Respiration
20
21
22
Veins: Venules also combine to form larger vessels called veins. Veins are responsible
for bringing blood back to the heart. There are three veins you are responsible for
knowing:
brings blood to the heart from the body.
brings blood to the heart from the lungs.
brings blood around the heart.
On your diagrams, label the chambers of the heart and the direction of blood flow
through the circulatory system.
Pulmonary Circulation
23
The Heart
24
Blood
Whole blood is composed of
1.________________
2.________________
3.________________
4.________________
C ross S ection of a
R ed B lood C ell
T op V iew of a
R ed B lood C ell
The life span of a red blood cell is ________. After this time, the cells are
destroyed by the _________________________________________________.
Red blood cells contain a red pigment called _________________________.
This protein's job is:
____________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________.
Blood which is bright red contains ________________red blood cells. Blood
which is dark red contains _________________ red blood cells.
Describe the role of the lungs in oxygen transfer.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Describe how the cell uses the oxygen in the blood.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
What happens to the red blood cells that contain carbon dioxide.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
26
Antigen
1.
___________________________
___________________________
2.
___________________________
___________________________
Note: There are different types of white blood cells which have different functions,
but you are not responsible for those details.
Immunity
When a germ enters your body, it sets off a chain reaction that will prevent it from
feeling too welcome. The first step is that one type of WBC recognizes that it is
not supposed to be there. It sounds the alarm. Other WBCs are responsible for
.
Once it has been flagged, the biggest white blood cells come in and literally eat the
.
Occasionally, something goes wrong in our bodies and parts of our body are
labelled as "foreign." The immune system attacks that part of the body and can
destroy it. When this happens, the person is said to have an autoimmune disease.
27
Some kinds of Arthritis and possibly Lupus are examples of this disease.
In order to decrease the time it takes for the big white blood cells to move in and
destroy invaders, often you will be given injections called
These force your immune system to produce antibodies against germs before they
enter your body. They are usually made of special inactive versions of the same
germs that would make you sick.
Platelets
Give the definition of coagulation:
____________________________________________
What is the role of platelets in the blood?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
What is hemophilia?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Plasma
Plasma makes up approximately ______ of whole blood. Its main components are:
1. ________________
2. ________________
Plasma has 5 essential functions which are:
1.
__________________________________________________________
2.
__________________________________________________________
3.
__________________________________________________________
4.
__________________________________________________________
5.
__________________________________________________________
28
1.
2.
3.
4.
plasma
red blood cells
white blood cells
platelets
29
Top View of a
Red Blood Cell
It is this shape because it can pick up oxygen and it can move easily in the small
capillaries.
The life span of a red blood cell is 120 days. After this time, the cells are destroyed
by the spleen or white blood cells.
Red blood cells contain a red pigment called hemoglobin.
This protein's job is:
to enable the cell to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide throughout the
body.
Blood which is bright red contains oxygen-rich red blood cells. Blood which is dark
red contains oxygen-poor red blood cells.
Describe the role of the lungs in oxygen transfer.
1. oxygen moves from the alveoli to the red blood cell in the capillaries
2. the red blood cell then moves throughout the body to deliver the oxygen
to the cells
Describe how the cell uses the oxygen in the blood.
1. the red blood cell give up the oxygen
2. the oxygen moves from the plasma into the body=s cells
3. the oxygen is used in cellular respiration where glucose is burned to
produce energy
4. carbon dioxide, a byproduct of cellular metabolism is removed from
the cell and is picked up by the plasma
What happens to the red blood cells that contain carbon dioxide.
1. the red blood cell is circulated to the lungs where it releases the carbon
dioxide and picks up an oxygen
2. the oxygenated red blood cell leaves the lungs to distribute oxygen
3. the carbon dioxide moves to the alveoli where it is exhaled
30
Antigen
an antibody
Once it has been flagged, the biggest white blood cells come in and literally eat the
germ. This process is called
phagocytosis
Occasionally, something goes wrong in our bodies and parts of our body are labelled
as "foreign." The immune system attacks that part of the body and can destroy it.
When this happens, the person is said to have an autoimmune disease. Some kinds
of Arthritis and possibly Lupus are examples of this disease.
31
In order to decrease the time it takes for the big white blood cells to move in and
destroy invaders, often you will be given injections called
vaccines
These force your immune system to produce antibodies against germs before they
enter your body. They are usually made of special inactive versions of the same
germs that would make you sick.
32
Platelets
Give the definition of coagulation:
the clotting of blood and blood products
What is the role of platelets in the blood?
To stop bleeding internally or externally
What is hemophilia?
A inherited disorder where there is an absence of platelets or the platelets do
not clot properly. Individuals affected with this disorder bleed continuously
when injured. They require clotting factor and often blood transfusions
when hit or cut.
Plasma
Plasma makes up approximately 55% of whole blood. Its main components are:
1. water
2. nutrients
Plasma has 5 essential functions which are:
1. transfer of oxygen and carbon dioxide from cell to red blood cells
2. creates a medium for the blood cells to move around in
3. transports nutrients needed for cellular metabolism
4. collects waste and carries them to excretory organs
5. transports antibodies
33
For all of the above conditions, the best prevention is regular exercise and a healthy
diet low in fat and high in fibre. Smoking also increases your risk for all of these
conditions.
36
Blood Types
Antigen
A foreign substance in the body, something that the body does not recognize as its own.
Examples of antigens are bacteria or viruses.
Antibody
Once a foreign substance has entered the body, the body must find a way to destroy it.
Certain white blood cells find the antigen and other white blood cells produce substances
called antibodies, which mark the particular antigen to be destroyed.
Transfusion
A human has about 6 liters of blood moving through the body. If you lose too much, you
may require additional blood. In other circumstances certain blood products are required.
Individuals suffering from hemophilia require platelets transfused so that their blood will clot
normally.
Red Blood Cells
The red blood cells of different individuals differ. This is due to the presence of certain
proteins attached to the red blood cells. Individuals with the same protein(s) on the outside
of their red blood cells are in the same blood group or type.
RBC
Type A Blood
44%
of
the
population has this
blood type.
A protein called A
is attached to the red
blood cell.
RBC
Type B Blood
8% of the population
has this blood type.
A protein called B
is attached to the red
blood cell.
RBC
Type AB Blood
3% of the population
has this blood type.
Both proteins A
and B are attached
to the red blood cell.
RBC
Type O Blood
45%
of
the
population has this
blood type. There are
no proteins attached
to the red blood cell.
Rh factor
The Rh factor is another protein often found on the outside of the red blood cell. It is
called Rh factor because the original studies used Rhesus monkeys to identify the
presence of the protein.
RBC
Rh positive blood
85% of the
population has this
blood type.
A protein called Rh
is attached to the red
blood cell.
RBC
37
Rh negative blood
15%
of
the
population has this
blood type.
There is no Rh
protein on the red
blood cell.
Blood Transfusions
If during a blood transfusion, the body receives blood which contains a protein
that it does not recognize, it considers the blood an antigen (foreign) and will produce
antibodies to destroy the transfused blood. For example, if a type A+ (contains a A
protein and a Rh protein) receives B- blood (contains a B protein) the body will not
recognize the B protein and will destroy the transfused blood. If an incorrect match is
made, the individual who receives the blood is at high risk because their own blood
will destroy the transfused blood. It is very important that a person receives blood that
the body will not see as foreign. Type O blood can be given to a Type B individual
because it has no proteins that the body does not recognize.
There are 8 different blood types. Label each red blood cell and place the
Blood Type
O-
O- O+ A- A+ B- B+ ABAB+
O-
O+
AA+
BB+
ABAB+
Define the terms:
Universal Donor
Universal Recipient
39
__________ x 4 = __________beats/min
__________ x 4 = __________beats/min
__________ x 4 = __________beats/min
__________ x 4 = __________beats/min
__________ x 4 = __________beats/min
__________ x 4 = __________beats/min
__________ x 4 = __________beats/min
Questions
1. When was your heart rate the slowest?
2. Explain why your heart rate was so slow?
3. When was your heart rate the fastest?
4. Explain why your rate was faster?
5. Name 5 factors that influence heart rate.
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41
Part 4
42
The Cell
Mitochondrion
Nucleus
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Cytoplasm
Cell Membrane
Cell membrane: The cell membrane is a covering that surrounds and protects the
cell. It can be compared to the skin. The membrane is made up of fats and proteins.
They allow certain substances to enter and leave the cell. Some organisms have little
hairs around the cell membranes to allow for movement.
Nucleus: All information for the cell to function is stored in the nucleus. The
information is coded using DNA and is organized in chromosomes. When the cell
divides all the information is copied for the new cell. We inherit the DNA from both
of our parents. The DNA in all our cells is almost identical but each cell uses only the
information that it needs.
Endoplasmic Reticulum: Many of the products that the cell produces are proteins.
The instructions on how to make these proteins are encoded in the DNA stored in the
nucleus. The proteins are produced in and transported by the endoplasmic reticulum.
Cytoplasm: The majority of the cell is composed of this fluid in which the organelles
float. It is thicker than water to keep the cell's shape.
Mitochondria: Like any factory, the cell requires energy to run. The mitochondria
are like the furnaces of the cell. They take energy in the form of glucose (sugar) and
convert it into energy that the cell can use.
43
This gas is produced from cellular respiration when glucose reacts with
oxygen. The carbon dioxide must leave the cell or it will prevent fresh oxygen from getting in.
2) Nitrogenous Waste This waste is produced by the breakdown and production of proteins. The
most common types are urea and uric acid, but some cells produce other types like ammonia.
44
Cellular Transport
Substances need to move in and out of the cell. The cell however needs to control
what gets in and what leaves. The cell membrane (the covering of the cell) is
designed in a way that certain substances such as oxygen and sugar can enter while
other substances stay out. There are two mechanisms that the cell membrane uses:
diffusion and active transport.
Diffusion
Some molecules are so small that they are able
to pass through the membrane without any
difficulty. They move from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration.
There is more waste material on the inside of a
cell than on the outside, so it moves out. There
are more nutrients outside a cell than inside, so
they move in. Diffusion is the movement of a
molecule across a membrane so that there is an
equal amount of the substance on both sides.
When water diffuses across a membrane, we
call it osmosis
Active Transport
Not all substances that the cell needs are small
enough to fit through the holes in the
membrane. There needs to be some other
mechanism to get stuff in and out of the cell.
One method that the cell uses is phagocytosis
where the cell surrounds the substance that it
wants and engulfs it. The other method uses
proteins which are found in the cell=s
membrane. These proteins act like doors which
allow certain substances in or out of the cell.
These Adoors@ are quite specific to what
substance can enter.
45
An organelle may be
Organelle
1. nucleus
2. endoplasmic
reticulum
3. cell membrane
4. mitochondria
5. cytoplasm
2.
3.
What product is created during cellular respiration that the cell does not need?
4.
b) Below are different ways substances enter a cell. State whether the cell is using
active transport (A) or diffusion (D).
_____ 1. Water moves across the membrane if its concentration is lower inside the
cell than outside of the cell.
_____ 2. When salts move across the membrane it is picked up by a protein.
_____ 3. The Ameba (a single celled organism) picks up food by surrounding the
food and enclosing the food within the cell.
_____ 4. Salt water fish will die in fresh water because the water outside rushes
into their cell and the cells burst.
_____ 5. White blood cells destroy bacteria by engulfing the bacteria and
destroying it within the cell.
_____ 6. Oxygen moves from the lungs to the red blood cells by diffusion.
46
5.
Research on the cell. Use the encyclopedia or other research materials to answer
the following questions:
1. Give a brief history of the microscope. Questions you should answer are:
Who invented the microscope?
How effective was the first microscope?
How did the microscope improve?
When was the electron microscope invented?
How small can the electron microscope see?
How is the electron microscope different from that of a light
microscope?
2. Who discovered DNA? When was this discovered?
3. What is DNA fingerprinting? When is it used?
6.
Define tissue.
7.
47
System
1. reproductive
2. digestive
3. urinary
4. nervous
5. respiratory
6. circulatory
7. muscular
8. skeletal
Questions
Answer Guide
1.
Match the organelle with the description of its function. An organelle may be repeated more
than once.
Function
Organelle
1. nucleus
3 a) functions as a covering to the cell
1 b) contains most of the inherited material of the cell
2. endoplasmic reticulum
3. cell membrane
4 c) creates the energy for the cell by burning glucose
5 d) the fluid which the organelles float within
4. mitochondria
3 e) controls what substances enters or exits the cell
5. cytoplasm
2 f) produces proteins for the cell
1 g) stores the DNA of the cell
2.
3.
What product is created during cellular respiration that the cell does not need?
Carbon dioxide
4.
48
5.
Research on the cell. Use the encyclopedia or other research materials to answer the following
questions.
1. Give a brief history of the microscope. Questions you should answer are:
Who invented the microscope?
How effective was the first microscope?
How did the microscope improve?
When was the electron microscope invented?
How small can the electron microscope see?
How is the electron microscope different from that of a light microscope?
2. Who discovered DNA? When was this discovered?
3. What is DNA fingerprinting? When is it used?
6.
7.
49
System
1. reproductive
2. digestive
3. urinary
4. nervous
5. respiratory
6. circulatory
7. muscular
8. skeletal
Cheek Cells
Onion Cells
Ocular lens (mag.)
Objective lens (mag)
Total Magnification
Analysis: What differences did you notice between the two types of cells? Compare size,
structure and shape.
50
Part 5
51
Excretory System
Excretion is the process by which the body removes waste products of metabolism in
order to maintain a constant internal environment or homeostasis. When
carbohydrates are metabolized, carbon dioxide and water are produced. When
proteins are metabolized, nitrogenous wastes like urea and uric acid are produced.
As these products would be toxic if they accumulated in the body, they must be
removed. Wastes are transported by the blood to organs that are specialized in
removing them.
Kidneys are the major organ of excretion. They regulate the chemical composition of
the blood by removing urea as well as excess salts and water. The kidney filters many
of these chemicals from the blood, then replaces the ones the body still needs. The
rest are collected to form urine and then sent to the bladder where it is stored until it
is released from the body.
The skin is another organ of excretion. Sweat glands extract fluid from the blood,
that contains water, salts and urea. This fluid is released from pores in the skin as
perspiration to help cool the body.
Lungs also act as excretory organs. They eliminate carbon dioxide and water that is
produced when the cells use energy from carbohydrates. These wastes are eliminated
when we exhale.
The large intestines eliminate solid wastes that come from undigested (and
undigestible) food. It is eliminated through the anus as feces.
System
Specialized Structure
Wastes Removed
Urinary
Perspiratory
Respiratory
Digestive
52
Exit Structure
We have already seen how the body gets rid of the CO2 and some of the water. These
chemicals diffuse into the blood from the cells and are carried to the lungs to be
exhaled. What we still have to look at is how we get rid of the urea.
As the blood circulates around the body, it passes through a pair of filters that take out
all of the waste chemicals and try to maintain the right amount of salts and water in
the blood. These filters are located in the thorax directly behind the lowest of your
ribs. The filters are called your kidneys.
The blood enters each kidney through the renal artery. The artery branches many
times, becoming smaller and smaller. A small branch of the artery, called an
arteriole, brings the blood to the actual filter, called a nephron. As the arteriole
enters the nephron, the blood vessel narrows and becomes a ball of capillaries called a
glomerulus. Wastes, water and minerals diffuse from the blood into a part of the
nephron called Bowman's capsule. Through a complicated process, the nephron
analyses the requirements of the body, and allows the necessary salts and water to reenter the blood. The remaining waste is collected together in the collecting duct, and
into the ureter, which takes the wastes to the bladder. The blood exits the filter
through small branches of veins called venules, which join together to form the renal
vein. The urea, as well as excess water and salt has been taken from the blood.
The ureters take the waste to the bladder, a bag for storing wastes located in the lower
abdomen. Here it is stored until the pressure inside builds up and you get the feeling
that you have to "go." When you release the bladder, the urine is released. It travels
along the urethra, and out of the body.
53
54
KIDNEY DISORDERS
A LIBRARY PROJECT
In the library, research the following kidney disorders and fill in the chart that follows:
Symptoms
Treatment
Nephritis
Cystitis
Pyelitis
Uremia
Kidney stones
Write a 150-word report on kidney transplant and dialysis. Relate the history of
kidney transplants. Discuss ethical and moral issues. Give 5 reasons for and 5
reasons against kidney transplantation.
55
Module 2
Relationships
56
Part 1
Sensory Relationships
57
SIGHT
Parts of the Eye
Iris: The iris is the coloured part of the eye. The iris contains two sets of smooth muscles.
One set is to open the iris, the other set reduces the opening. This opening and closing is
called dilating. The iris controls the amount of light which enters the eye.
Pupil: The pupil is the black center of the eye. The pupil is not actually an organ, but the
round hole that allows light to pass into the eye.
Lens: The lens is located immediately behind the opening of the pupil. It is a transparent
disc-shaped structure, which is elastic and therefore capable of changing its shape. The
interior is filled with a clear jellylike fluid, called the aqueous humour. The lens itself is
held in place by tiny ligaments that are attached to muscles. The lens focuses the light rays
onto the retina (a light sensitive screen).
Aqueous Humour: Transparent fluid in the front of the eye.
Vitreous Humour: Transparent fluid behind the lens.
Sclera: This is the outer coat of the eye. The sclera is a white tough layer forming a case
which helps maintain the shape of the eye. At the front of the eye, the sclera becomes
transparent and bulges forward to form the cornea. The cornea contains very sensitive touch
receptors.
Choroid Layer: The middle layer, which contains many blood vessels and pigmented
granules, prevents light from being reflected within the eye.
Retina: The retina is the part of the cell that picks up the light. The retina is made up of
two kinds of light sensitive cells, rods and cones. The rods are sensitive to dim light and
allow you to see at night, but they can only "see" in black and white. The cones are
responsible for detecting colour. These two different cells are connected to nerve cells
which move to the optic nerve. The message is then sent to the brain. The point at which
the optic fibres connect at the back of the retina is called the blind spot. There are no rods
or cones at this spot.
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The Eye
59
Focussing Light
The Lens at Work
Focussing Defects
Hyperopia (Farsightedness): Person cannot see close objects clearly. It is
caused by the eyeball being too small, so that close objects are focussed behind
the eye. A convex lens easily corrects the problem.
The Ear
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2.
3.
4.
5.
The image of what you see is detected on the back of the eye by the
.
.
.
.
.
6.
7.
The brain has an important job to do in making sure we see properly, what is
it?
8.
9.
10.
There are two transparent media through which the light must pass which we
have not mentioned yet. What are they, where are they and how are they
different?
.
.
Briefly describe the 4 vision problems we discussed. What are they? What is the
cause? How do they affect vision?
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1.
2.
4.
The membrane sets a number of items moving. The first three are called:
5.
The vibrations are then sent to the final stop called the
converts the vibrations into nerve signals.
6.
7.
The ear also contains another part which helps us keep our balance called the
.
8.
9.
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, which
.
65
TASTE LAB
Objective: To find out whether the tongue has specialized areas where it registers
the four basic taste sensations.
Methodology: In this activity, four different areas of the tongue are tested for each
of four basic taste sensations:
1.
2.
3.
4.
It is important to observe the following guidelines:
Do not let the cotton swab drip.
Dip the swab into the test tube before each application.
Apply the substance to a limited area of the tongue each time.
Rinse your mouth with water after each application.
The four areas to which the substance will be applied are, in order:
1.
2.
3.
4.
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Observations
Area of the
Salty
Sweet
Tongue
TIP
SIDES
MIDDLE
FRONT
MIDDLE BACK
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Sour
Bitter
SKIN
68
2.
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2.
Internal Changes
The brain stem collects information from all over the body. If it finds that
something is lacking or in excess, it sends out messages to correct the
situation.
Ex. The brain stem detects too much Carbon Dioxide (CO2) in the blood. It
sends messages to the muscles of the chest and to the diaphragm. This
increases the rate of respiration, which should decrease the levels of CO2 in the
blood.
Reflex Centre
Occasionally, emergency situations require fast action. In these cases, sending
messages to the brain for processing and waiting for a response just takes too long. In
this case, the reflex centre of the nervous system takes over and directs the action.
The reflex centre is located in the spinal cord.
Ex. You accidentally touch a pot of boiling water on the stove. The thermal and
pain receptors in the skin of your hand send off a signal. Association Neurons in the
spinal cord receive the information and immediately send a signal back to the motor
neurons of your hand or arm. The association neuron also sends the message on to the
brain. The muscles receive the message and pull your hand away. Once the brain
receives the message, you begin to feel the pain, often a few seconds after you have
pulled away.
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71
72
The Skeleton
73
The Bones
Read through the section of your textbook on Bones and answer the following
questions.
1. Describe the cranial bones.
2. What is the function of the skull?
3. Which bone in the face is movable?
4. Which bones make up the trunk?
parts.
2. What is the difference between true ribs, false ribs and floating ribs?
7. What are the three most common injuries to bones and joints?
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BONE DISORDERS
A LIBRARY PROJECT
In the library, research the following bone disorders and fill in the chart that follows:
Symptoms
Treatment
Arthritis
Scurvy
Scoliosis
Lordosis
Dwarfism
Cretinism
Write a 150-word report on the importance of diet in the healthy and normal growth of
bones. This report is to be based on reading and research - not on hearsay and "old
wives' tales". Be both specific and scientific in your description. Use the lines on the
reverse to write your report
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Review Questions
1. How is compact bone different from spongy bone?
2. Describe the location and function of periosteum in bone.
3. What is the function of cartilage on bone?
4. What is ossification?
5. When does ossification occur?
6. What are the two parts of the skeleton?
7. What part of the skeleton contains the vertebral column, the sacrum, the
coccyx and the rib cage?
8. What are the two major bones of the head?
9. Describe the regions of the vertebral column.
10. Name and describe the bones in the leg.
11. How are the bones of the lower limbs attached to the body?
12. What are the three types of joints?
13. Give and example of the ball and socket joint.
14. Which type of joint only allows movement in one plane?
15. What are pivot joints and give an example?
16. How is friction reduced in a joint?
17. Why is a compound fracture more serious than a simple fracture?
18. List and describe 3 methods used to repair broken bones.
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78
79
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MUSCULAR DISORDERS
Muscle Spasms: This is a very painful, strong contraction of muscles, usually in the
limbs. It is often caused by an accumulation of chemicals in the tissues. Massage often
helps to relieve the pain.
Muscle Cramps: These pains in muscles are often caused by a build-up of lactic acid
in the muscles. The lactic acid usually builds up because not enough oxygen is getting
to the muscle, so the sugar is not being burned efficiently.
Muscular Dystrophy: This is a general term applied to many different diseases.
What they all have in common is that the skeletal muscles of the body are destroyed
and often replaced with connective tissue. The muscles become weak and shriveled,
often to the point where the patient can barely move. The disease runs in families, but
the cause and the cure are still not known.
Anabolic Steroids: While not a muscular disorder itself, steroid use and abuse can
have serious effects on the health of individuals who use them, and on those around
them. Research this topic and write a persuasive essay about whether steroids should
be used in professional sports.
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82
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
K.
L.
Extension
Tendon
Involuntary movement.
Antagonistic Pair.
Smooth muscle
Cardiac muscle
Ligament
Aponeurosis
Biceps
Muscle body
Skeletal muscle
Voluntary movement.
Use chicken wings, legs and thighs to demonstrate whole muscles, muscle
fibers, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, bones, and marrow. Pull away the muscle tissue
to observe the bone structure. Compare and contrast the bones of the wing to the
human arm and hand bones. Do the differences have any adaptive purposes?
2.
ANTAGONISTIC CHICKENS!
LET GO OF MY ARM!
To demonstrate the relationship between muscles and tendons have the student
grip tightly to their forearms while wiggling the fingers in the hand of the arm being
gripped. The muscles are quite a distance from the attached tendons.
Have a student stand in the doorway and push his/her arms away from her body,
against the doorframe for about 1-2 minutes. When the student steps out of the
doorway, her arms begin to rise. This is because the muscles have tightened and must
relax before the arms will fall again.
4.
NO PAIN, NO GAIN!
To demonstrate lactic build up in the muscles, have the students open and close
their fists as hard and as fast as they can for a few minutes until they can feel the
fatigue setting in.
5.
Ask the students to select one of the following careers and prepare a
presentation for the class.
masseur
weight lifter
body builder (and the sport of body
physiotherapist
doctor of sports medicine
occupational therapist
building)
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Module 3
Reproduction
84
Part 1
Structures and Functions
85
86
Hormones continue to affect the woman long after puberty. FSH is what triggers the
ovum to develop. The undeveloped ovum is in a follicle, which produces the estrogen
when triggered by FSH. After a while, FSH production slows, and LH increases. LH
causes the follicle to release the ovum and the leftover part of the follicle becomes a
corpus luteum, which produces progesterone. If the egg is fertilized, the corpus
luteum continues to secrete progesterone. If there is no fertilization, the corpus luteum
degrades and the process starts over again. See the diagram on the next page for the
relationships among the hormones and their effects.
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Follicle grows
Pituitary Gland
Estrogen
Follicle
LH causes follicle to rupture and release ovum
(Ovulation)
Pituitary Gland
Follicle becomes Corpus
Progesterone stops
production of LH
and FSH
Luteum
Male Puberty
As with the female, the pituitary gland is at the centre of the changes boys undergo at
puberty. The pituitary gland releases FSH and LH at the start of puberty. These
hormones trigger the testicles to start producing male hormones called androgens,
like testosterone. These androgens result in the testes being able to produce sperm
and all the other secondary sexual characteristics.
Secondary sexual characteristics are all the changes that occur during puberty that are
not directly related to making babies. Sperm production in men and ovulation and
menstruation in women are called primary sexual characteristics. Without these, no
babies can result. All the other changes are secondary. Male secondary sexual
characteristics include:
Physiological
Change
Psychological
Change
deepening of voice
growth of body hair
masculine muscle tone develops
genital organs undergo physical changes
feels physical attraction for others
sexual desire (libido)
need for autonomy (freedom)
Boys in the early part of puberty also have two potentially embarrassing problems to
deal with. The erectile tissue in the penis is starting to become active. The adolescent
boy often has little or no control over when an erection might occur. Sexual arousal is
often not the cause, just a nervous response that causes an increase in blood pressure.
The other problem is the wet dream. The body is not used to accumulating sperm in
the body, and sexual release often does not occur, either with a partner or during
masturbation. The buildup of sperm is ejaculated during the night, often during a
dream. While these things may embarrass the adolescent, they are perfectly normal
phases in development, and cannot be avoided any more then girls can avoid
menarche.
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91
Many animals do not form relationships with their mates (some female insects eat
their mates!). Why do you think humans would establish sexual relationships?
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Copulation
Male Partner
Female Partner
1. Sexual Arousal
Sexual arousal increases blood flow in the
genitals.
1. Sexual Arousal
Sexual arousal increases blood flow in the
genitals.
2. Erection
Increased blood flow causes penis to swell
and stiffen.
2. Vaginal Lubrication
Vagina is lubricated by secretions from
Bartholin's glands.
3. Engorgement of Penis
Increased blood pressure in the penis makes
the head turn a deep red or purple.
5. Coitus
The erect penis enters the vagina, lubricated
by secretions from Bartholin's glands.
5. Coitus
The erect penis enters the vagina, lubricated
by secretions from Bartholin's glands.
6. Orgasm
Orgasm is the intense sensual pleasure that
accompanies the rhythmic contractions of
the vagina and uterus that help move the
semen upward toward the ovum.
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1.
2.
Engagement of the Head in the Vagina. This just means that the baby's head starts
to emerge from the cervix and enter the vagina. This can take anywhere from 8 to 12 hours.
If the head does not engage properly, forceps may be used to help position the baby.
Another option is a Csarian Section, where the baby is removed surgically through the
abdominal wall. This is usually only a last resort because of complications
3.
Expulsion of the Baby. Once the cervix is fully dilated and the head engaged, the
contractions push the baby from the mother's body. Usually this is the easiest part of the
delivery, and can take as little as 5 minutes. Sometimes complications occur and it can take
up to 1 hour! If the vulva does not expand enough, a procedure called an episiotomy may be
performed. A small incision is made in the vulva to widen the opening. It is better to have
the opening cut by a professional than torn during delivery. The baby is now born. The
umbilical cord is cut and the baby is cleaned and checked. But the job is not finished.
4.
Expulsion of the Placenta. After the baby is born, contractions begin again. The
placenta, uterine lining and remaining umbilical cord are expelled. This is called the
afterbirth. Since the area was well supplied with blood, it is not uncommon for some
bleeding to occur which can last up to a month. If it bleeds heavily or does not stop, a doctor
should be consulted.
The first few weeks and months are essential for the baby. Proper nutrition now will mean a
healthier life. Breast milk contains all the nutrition a baby needs and has the added bonus
of antibodies to help fight disease. This means that the mother must still follow all the diet
and lifestyle restrictions she had when pregnant.
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2.
b.
Gene Therapy
c.
d.
Genetic Diseases
e.
b.
c.
Parenting classes
d.
Birthing Methods
e.
This is not meant to be an exhaustive list, just some suggestions to get you and the
students started.
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Part 3
STDs
and
Contraception
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GONORRHEA
SYPHILIS
CHLAMYDIA
GENITAL WARTS
AIDS
99
GONORRHEA
SYPHILIS
CHLAMYDIA
GENITAL
WARTS
DESCRIPTION
TRANSMISSION
SYMPTOMS
COMPLICATIONS
TREATMENT
Infection of the
mucous
membranes of
the genital
organs.
Only through
sexual contact.
Bacteria die
quickly outside
the body.
Women can pass
it to babies during
birth.
Males usually
have burning
during
urination and a
discharge of
pus from
urethra.
80% of women
show no
symptoms
Antibiotics
like penicillin
A bacterial
infection that
starts in the
genitals and
quickly spreads
around the body
Sexual contact.
Women can pass
it to babies in the
uterus.
1. Chancre
appears on
genitals.
Disappears in 2
weeks
regardless of
treatment.
2. Rash on parts
of body
sore throat,
fever, nausea,
hair loss, etc
In late stage:
heart attacks,
blindness, paralysis,
insanity, death
Antibiotics
Sexual contact.
Can be passed on
to babies during
childbirth.
Like Syphilis,
but milder
for men.
In women, light
vaginal
discharge,
discomfort
during sex,
increased
menstrual flow,
bleeding
between
periods.
In males: infection
of prostate and
epididymes
(sterility).
In females: ectopic
pregnancy, sterility,
chronic pain,
salpingitis
Chlamydia is
resistant to
penicillin, so
other
antibiotics
must be used.
Warts have an
irregular shape.
The colour and
shape depend
on location
Any physical
contact with
genital warts.
One of the most
common STDs.
Can be
transmitted to
fetus. Affects the
larynx.
Irritation,
itchiness,
discomfort
during sex (if
the wart is
large). They
usually are first
noticed when
they are tiny,
but can grow to
the size of a
walnut.
Applied liquid
medicine.
Freezing.
Laser
treatment.
Surgery.
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Warts are
caused by a
virus. They
cannot be
treated with
antibiotics.
Infected
Student 2
Infected
Student 3
Infected
Student 4
Infected
Student 5
Infected
Student 6
Infected
Student 7
Infected
Student 8
Contact 1
Contact 2
Contact 3
A modification of this exercise is to divide the class in half and have two "infected"
people. One group plays as above; the other group has "monogamous" exchanges
(They exchange solution with the same person each time). Students see that only 1
other person is infected in the monogamous group while 7 others are infected in the
other group.
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Contraception
Contraception refers to a voluntary prevention of pregnancy. It is somewhat
different from birth control, which simply means the methods people use to plan if
and when they will have children. There is some overlap, but the terms are not
interchangeable.
The number and variety of contraceptives is large. To simplify things, we can break
them into four categories:
Mechanical Methods: These methods put a physical barrier in the way. They can
either prevent the sperm from fertilizing the egg, or they prevent the fertilized egg
from implanting in the endometrium.
Examples: Condom, Diaphragm, IUD
Chemical Methods: These methods use chemicals to prevent either the sperm or the
egg from being viable. They either make the woman not produce an egg, or they kill
the man's sperm before it reaches the egg.
Examples: Spermicide, Birth Control Pill
Surgical Methods:
In these cases, the man or the woman is sterilized. They do
not release sperm or eggs anymore. The passages (Fallopian Tubes in women or Vasa
Deferentia in men) are tied off and cut.
Examples: Tubal Ligation, Vasectomy
Natural Methods: No artificial means are used in these methods. The natural cycles
of the body are used to determine "safe" times to have sex. The other alternative is
simply not to have sex.
Examples: Rhythm Method, Billings Method, Abstinence
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Discussion Question
In groups, discuss what factors are important to consider in choosing a contraceptive
method. List your criteria below:
Research the different methods and determine which method (or combination of
methods) best meets your criteria.
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104
Method
How It
Works
Advantages
Disadvantages
Effectiveness
92-95% effective
Intrauterine
Device (IUD)
A variety of devices
inserted into the uterus
to prevent the egg
from implanting
Convenient. No need
for daily planning.
Long term use is
possible
Must be inserted by a
doctor. Insertion may
be uncomfortable.
Increased risk of
infections. Possible
increase in menstrual
pain
Diaphragm
A doctor must be
consulted before first
use. The woman may
have difficulty placing
it properly.
83% without
spermicide
91% with spermicide
Condom
(Male and
Female)
89% without
spermicide
95% with spermicide
Birth Control
Pill
No protection from
STDs. Blood clots,
increased blood
pressure. weight gain,
headaches, nausea.
Vaginal infections and
discharge.
98% effective
Spermicide
Chemical products
that kill sperm.
Easy to get.
Relatively easy to use.
Tubal
Ligation
Highly effective. No
effect on menstrual
cycle.
Requires surgery.
Irreversible. Small
chance of
complications.
99.9% effective
Vasectomy
Irreversible. Requires
regular follow up to
ensure sterility.
99.9% effective
Rhythm
Method
Limiting sex to
infertile periods of the
woman's menstrual
cycle.
70% effective
Billings
Method
Restricts sexual
activity. Requires a lot
of planning.
Abstinence
No sex allowed
100% effective
105
Biology Project.
Due date:
The purpose of this project is to design a pamphlet on a disease or illness of your choice. The
pamphlet should be intended for a doctor=s office to help inform a patient of their problem. The
format of this project is very important. Failure to follow the criteria will result in lost marks.
You will work with a 8 x 14 sheet of paper divided into 3 sections on each side.
Side 1:
Title Page
Side 2:
Description
Side 3:
Symptoms
Give the title of the illness or disease that you have chosen with a short definition of the
illness. Make the pamphlet eye catching.
Give a description of the illness or disease.
Questions that you should answer are:
1) What area of the body is affected and how?
2) How does one get this disease?
3) What are the long-term consequences?
Note: A diagram here may be very helpful to help understand the problem.
What symptoms would someone have if they were suffering from the illness?
Are there stages to the illness?
Side 4:
Medical Treatment
Side 5:
Statistics
Find data on the illness or disease. Some examples of statistical data are...
o How many people are affected with this disease or illness?
o What is the chance of a cure?
o What kind of research is being done on the illness or disease?
o Is the disease hereditary? If so what chances will a person give the illness to their
children?
o Does a particular habit or diet increase your change of developing the disease?
Side 6:
Bibliography
List all your references. You must have at least two references.
Is there an organization available for individuals suffering from the illness? If you find one,
list it here as well.
106
1 2
10
10 marks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Information is clear.
Description of the illness.
10 11
10 marks
1 2 3 4
Symptoms
10
Side 3.
10 marks
1 2 3 4 5 6
Medical Treatment
10
Side 4.
10 marks
1 2 3 4
Statistics
10
Side 5.
5 marks
Total
/70
12
13
14
15 Side 2.
Side 6.
Comments:
Kidney disease
Depression
Multiple sclerosis
Sickle cell anemia
Glaucoma (eye)
Down syndrome
107
Muscular dystrophy
Asthma
S.I.D.S
Anemia
Cataracts
Web Resources
Further resources can be found at the Quebec English School Network web site.
http://www.qesnrecit.qc.ca
108