©) vom PIT: $0094-5765(98)00031-9 Acta Astronautca Vol. 42, No, 10-12, 9p. 111-119, 1998 (0 1998 Elsevier Science Ld. All sights reserved Printed in Great Britain ‘0094:5765/98 $19.00 + 0.00, CULTURAL ASPECTS OF THE SEARCH FOR EXTRATERRESTRIAL INTELLIGENCE J. BILLINGHAM SETI Institute, Mountain View, CA 94043, U.S.A, Abstract —SETI is an acronym which stands for the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence. The NASA SETI High Resolution Microwave Survey Project is microwave signals from extraterrestrial civilizations. last to the end of the century. The discovery of anott milestone for our civilization. In addition to the new ‘chemistry, physiology, behavior and evolutionary’ hi learn of the cultural achievements of another ci ‘a new and comprehensive search for evidence of It will formally begin on October 12, 1992, and ther form of intelligent life would be an important scientific knowledge that we might acquire on the story of extraterrestrial life forms, we may also ization, or indeed of many other civilizations. It is likely that the society that we detect will be much in advance of our own, so that they may long ago have passed through the evolutionary stage we are at now. The implications of such a discovery would hhave important consequences for our own future. This paper presents an analysis of some of the im- portant arcas which will require study as we upproa: Significant questions about the ease or difficulty of ch the beginning of the NASA search. There are incorporating the new knowledge into the belief structures of different religions. Sociological and educational changes over time may equal or exceed those of the Copernican revolution. The status of the other civilization relative to ours is a challenging {question for intern represent Earth in any future interstellar communicati jonal space law. There are institutional and international questions on who will jon endeavors that we may attempt. There may be challenges in how we absorb the knowledge of an advanced technology. In political science we may have much to learn from their history, and what influ jence it may have on our own future. Last but not least, there is the effect of the discovery on individual and group psychology. These are the cultural aspects of SETI, Each area warrants further study, ar isms which could be used to undertake such studies, € 1 INTRODU TON Over the past 30 years there has been a steady increase in the resources devoted to the science and technology of SETI. It has now been generally accepted that the hypothesis of the existence of extraterrestrial intelligent life (ETI) is reasonable. It is based on our increasingly sound understanding of physical, chemical and biological evolution in the cosmos; although it should be noted that there is still only the terrestrial example of biological evol- ution. Concomitantly there has evolved a techno- logical strategy for testing the hypothesis by listening with radiotelescopes for signals of ETI ori- gin. Some 60 searches have been carried out to date. In 1992 the US NASA High Resolution Microwave Survey Project began. In the first few minutes of its operation it exceeded the volume of astronomical search space covered by all 60 pre- vious searches in the past 30 years. It will last 10 years. Until recently most of the emphasis in SETI has been devoted to science and engineering. The unequivocal detection of the signal is the goal. We do not know when a signal will be detected. It is even possible that we may not make a detection with the most powerful future SETI systems operat- ing over millennia. But as the power of the searches, continues to increase so does the probability of dis- covering an extraterrestrial civilization, m™m nd recommendations are made as to the mechan- 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved As the likelihood of success begins to rise, ques- tions about the consequences of detection emerge. Those questions have received only occasional study in the literature. Now they deserve more. After all, it has been repeatedly pointed out that the discovery would be a major event in the history of mankind, This would scem reason enough to begin to devote some significant resources to studies of the events following the detection of ETI The consequences of the discovery can usefully be divided into near term and long term. The first refer to those months and years immediately after the event, and the second to the indefinite future ‘Some short term questions, “What do you do after detecting a signal?” have already led to the question of SETI “post-detection protocols”. A special issue of Acta Astronautica has been devoted to 17 papers on this topic.{1] Comparatively little attention has been paid to the longer term questions which deal in a broad way with the effects the discovery will hhave on the future of our own civilization. These are the cultural aspects of SETI. In reality the “cultural aspects of SETI” are even broader. They embrace all human thinking about ETI going back to the classical era, the immediate sequelae of detection, and indeed the science and engineering of SETI as set in the context of human activity, Note that the detection of a signal affects72 only our culture, since they will not know that we exist. If we should choose to send a return signal which they would detect many years later, then there would presumably be an effect on their culture. It is possible that such effects might be proportionately much less, should their civilization be much in advance of ours. Such distant events are not within the scope of this paper. Dealing with the results of our discovery of them is difficult enough, In the following paragraphs some of the ques- tions about the near and long term effects of a dis- covery are posed. There are more questions than answers. There are very few answers; so few that some have questioned the usefulness of devoting time and energy to this topic in the first place, Since we now know so little about ETI, how can we begin to think about the question? The answer here is that we can, by exploring different scenarios for signal class; and we should, because we will then be better prepared to digest the new knowl edge after the detection is made. 2. PAST HISTORY A number of books and papers have been devoted to the history of the idea of a plurality of inhabited worlds in the universe[2-4]. The most recent is a scholarly publication by Guthke entitled “The Last Frontier: Imagining Other Worlds from the Copernican Revolution to Modern Science Fiction” [5]. Guthke holds that the belief in ETI. now soundly based on science, is the great myth of our time (using the term myth in its most positive sense). He traces its emergence from a position of a religious heresy in pre-Renaissance times to a situ: ation of scientifically based acceptance today. Giordano Bruno was burned at the stake in 1600 for his belief in a plurality of inhabited worlds in the universe. Over the next 250° years the Copernican view of the solar system’ gradually gained acceptance and more and more was becom: ing known about the planets. There was a corre- sponding slow increase in the number of papers and treatises on the possible existence of inhabited pla- nets, albeit based on an almost total lack of evidence, and usually involving the hand of God in some way. Frank Drake describes the historical period before about 1850 as the first phase of SETI In the second half of the nineteenth century advances in science and engineering stimulated more studies of the idea of ETI. The filling out of the periodic table, the nebular hypothesis, the astro- nomical discovery of the chemical elements in stars, and most of all the Darwinian theory of evolution, put ideas of life on other worlds on a firmer foot ing. The Hand of God still appeared, but was less conspicuous. There began to be speculation that the extraterrestrial intelligent beings may even be as J. Billingham highly developed as human beings, another threat to those religious dogmas which held that man, in the image of God. was supreme in the universe (perhaps now more important for some religions because the Earth had been demoted by Copernicus and Galileo). At the turn of the century the whole question returned to prominence, The astronomer Percival Lowell claimed to have discovered canals on Mars, and went on to postulate the existence of a superior race of beings on the red planet. We are technologi- cally inferior and psychologically underdeveloped in comparison. While Lowell's theories fell into disre- pute, the idea that we might be ordinary or even lowly creatures was bold, new and unrelieved by any religious compensation. It was to be read- dressed and expanded by Sagan in 1966 as the “Principle of Mediocrity” [6]. It led to a new genre in science fiction. Rather than conquering other worlds in a proper Victorian fashion, the new science fiction allowed for ETI of superior intellect and technology, H. G. Wells’ “The War of the Worlds” is a good example. For the first time, the extraterrestrial species might even pose a threat to us, The first half of the twentieth century saw rapid progress in science and technology. the first outline of the story of cosmic evolution, consolidation of the Darwinian hypothesis, the discovery of its mol- ecular basis, major advances in astronomy and a further realization that we really could be a rather ordinary phenomenon in a universe teeming with galaxies and stars in numbers almost beyond com- prehension. Between 1950 and today the science of exobiology was born, and NASA dispatched the Viking missions to Mars to search, among other ex- periments, for evidence of microbial life. It was not found. Drake has called the period from 1850 to 1959 the second phase of SETI, where science and engineering have become progressively more applied to ideas about ETI, but neither had matured. In 1959, Coceoni and Morrison 7] proposed that we use radio to achieve interstellar communication. In 1960 Drake conducted the first search for micro- wave signals of ETI origin using a small radiotele- scope at Green Bank in West Virginia (8). Since that time, 60 SETI searches have been carried out, most on minimal budgets and without sophisticated instrumentation. Tn 1992, the US NASA High Resolution Microwave Survey began on the 500th Anniversary of the discovery of America by Columbus. Such is the pace of development of sig- nal detection technology. that in a short time of op- eration the NASA search will exceed the sum of all previous 60 searches over 30 years in its coverage of astronomical search space. Drake calls the period from 1959 to 1990 the third phase of SETI. charac- terized by actual searches but poorly supported and pioneering in nature.‘Cultural aspects of the search for extraterrestrial inteligence Some interesting cultural changes have been re- sponsible for our ability now to begin some really definitive searches for evidence of ETI. The first is the scientific acceptance of cosmic evolution, the natural origin and evolution of life, and the realiz- ation that the universe could be teeming with pla- nets which have spawned biologies now everywhere at different levels of development. The second is a parallel development of radioscience and technology which allows the construction of huge antennas and very sophisticated signal detection systems. ‘The third is the acceptance of the idea of SETI by the US political establishment, an event which has allowed the first substantial government funding for SETI (S100 million in the United States over the decade of the 90s). Note that all three of the above earlier set the stage for part of a US project to search for evidence of microbial life on Mars. This was Project Viking, about which more later. It could be considered in some ways as a forerunner of SETI. The analogy is of some ‘interest, but it must be remembered that the course of SETI would likely be approximately the same if Mars did not exist. The fourth change has been the increasing lit- eracy of the general population of many nations in the areas of cosmic and biological evolution, astronomy and planetary science, space exploration, and SETI itself. The best of science fiction has played a role. Many colleges and universities have courses which deal with life in the universe and SETI. Most recently a $700,000 grant has. been awarded by the US National Science Foundation to the SETI Institute for the development of new cur- riculum materials, based on the Drake Equation, which will allow the ideas of SETI to act as a stimulus to education in primary and secondary schools, (See Ref. [9)) At this time, SETI has a foothold in the worlds of science and technology and in the polities body. To this degree it is emerging as a small new element of our culture as a whole. In contrast, it does not have a foothold in most other aspects of society. It would seem appropriate to address this situation, since those who do understand SETI are agreed that the detection of an extraterrestrial civilization ‘would change society here on Earth. 3. CULTURAL SSPECTS OF SETI: PRESENT AND FUTURE In 1977, the report of a seties of Science Workshops on SETI, chaired by Morrison(10}, included a brief chapter on “The Impact of SETI”. Morrison ef al. point out that any civilization that we detect is likely to be far older than us. On stat- istical grounds, we are the youngest civilization in the universe, having only just arrived at that tech- nological stage which allows the construction of powerful transmitters and receivers capable of achieving interstellar communication. This could mean that they are also fat in advance of us in their 73 own evolution as a culture. In turn, they may there- fore have passed through a halting period of evol- ution, similar to ours of today, many millions of years ago. They are still there, and still transmitting: 30 they must have achieved some sort of longevity and stability in their society. Their past history could give us one glimpse of possible evolutionary pathways for our own future. (Note that it is also possible that SETI may reveal a multitude of other civilizations, of different ages and histories. It is inconceivable that the one we discover will be the only other society in the universe. If there are two, there are many.) Morrison points out that this is a powerful ad- ditional impetus for us to examine the consequences of SETI: “If it is true that such signals might give us S0 to speak a view of one future for human his- tory, they would take on even greater importance. Judging that importance lies quite outside the com- petence of the members of this committee, chosen mainly from natural scientists and engineers. We sought some advice from a group of persons trained in history and evolution of culture, but it is plain that such broad issues of the human future go beyond what any small committee can usefully out- line in a few days. The question deserves, rather, the serious and prolonged attention of many professionals from a wide range of disciplines. anthropologists, artists, lawyers, politicians, philo- sophers, theologians—even more than that, the concern of all thoughtful persons whether specialists or not. We must, all of us, consider the outcome of the search.” Since the publication of the Morrison report, the science and engineering of SETI have made con- siderable progress. But there has been little activity on those cultural aspects of SETI other than science and engineering. As major searches will soon begin, the time is ripe to begin thorough examination of “SETI and society”. One obvious approach is to foster the initiation of scholarly studies in a number of different areas. To date the number of authors who have published on these issues can be counted on the fingers of a few terrestrial hands. What are the issues? The remainder of this paper will briefly describe some disciplinary areas which would be suitable for extensive and extended study in the future. They are’ L. Historical analogs of the discovery of ETI 2. Immediate consequences of a detection. Planning for significant activities following the detection. The role of journalism and the media, 4, Social and psychological outeomes of a success ful search, with contributions from anthropol- ogy. 5. Positions and responses of the world’s major reli- gions.ns 6. Should Earth reply? How do we address this question now? 7. National, political, institutional, international and legal sequelae of detection. 8, The need of education about the potential for discovery. Conversely, the contribution SETI can make to education 9. An analysis of the cultural aspects of SETI by the use of modern tools of systems analysis, uti lity theory, cost-benefit studies, operation research and decision theory The list is far from complete. It tries to address some of the more obvious candidates. Some of the categories deal with study, some with action. It should also be noted that there are three or more different stages in the evolution of knowledge of the cultural aspects of SETI. The first is the period before the discovery is made. The second is the period of months or even a few years immediately following signal detection. The third is the sub- sequent long term stage during which the knowl- edge gained is digested, absorbed and assimilated into society here on Earth. Each of the nine cat- egories of activities listed above focuses variously con different parts of the time continuum. With one ‘or two exceptions, each of the nine areas has little content today. The remainder of this paper is there- fore brief, It consists of ideas, or proposals, for the scope of studies on which specialists in those fields, and non-specialists, should embark in the years to come. 4. HISTOR’ \NALOGS OF THE DISCOVERY OF ETI While the seminal volume of Guthke[5] will remain as the standard work in the field for a Tong time, further studies of the enormous change in understanding and beliefs about ETI through- out history are warranted. This is particularly so for this century, since Guthke stops at about 1910, A greater need, however, is the search for historical analogs of SETI, of the discovery, and of the long term consequences. Examination of such parallels is one of the few methods we have for exploring the future cultural aspects of signal detection. In order to undertake prospective stu- dies of a future event, it is helpful to undertake retrospective studies of past events which have some similar features. The first and only study of this type was done by Logsdon and Anderson [I] who focused on preparations for making the announcement of ETI signal detection and recom- mending the examination of the experience of nuclear accidents or major earthquakes as a useful analog of some of the factors to be considered. ‘There is, of course, one dramatic difference. Both events are disasters. Most authors have considered the detection of an extraterrestrial civilization to be the opposite, namely a major achievement of J. Billingham the human species. Also individual earthquakes or nuclear accidents do not significantly change the course of human history, whereas the discovery of ET! will Closer analogs should be sought, and a systema- tic examination made of the major milestones of our own evolution. The Copernican revolution is an obvious example, but took place at a time when the church, in the Western World. had a pervasive in- fluence on most human behavior. Voyages of di covery should be examined. They have the major drawback that they involved physical and economic contact between different groups of the same species. The great voyages of scientific discovery on the other hand, have more merit, especially that of the Beagle. In fact the impact of Darwin's work on human thought has been so profound that it could have some relevance in the context of a comparison with SETI. The biological part of Project Viking[12] surely deserves more attention as a recent example of a putative discovery. While Viking did not detect life, there will be more sophis- ticated follow-ons in the future which may detect microbial life, extant or extinct. In all cases of possible analogs of ETI discovery, another question should be asked. Were any pro- spective studies carried out, in parallel with the enterprise, to examine the influence of the putative discovery in the future? There is a corollary ques- tion. If the anticipated discovery was actually made, how well did the predicted consequences for culture as a whole equate with what actually happened? An obvious recommendation is that these ques- tions be pursued by scholars from different disci- plinary backgrounds, especially by historians of science and technology. 5, IMMEDIATE RESPONSES TO THE DETECTION OF ETI This topic addresses the period immediately fol- lowing the detection of a SETI signal and lasting a few months or years. In contrast to studies of the Jong term cultural effects, it has been given some attention in the international arena. Over the past decade the SETI Committee of the International Academy of Astronautics has been examining the consequences of the detection. Two major activities were undertaken, The first was the initiation of special sessions at the annual meetings of the International Astronautical Congress. These were titled “Social, Political and Legal aspects of SETI” The results were published in a special edition of Acta Astronautica[l} called “SETI Post-Detection Protocol”. The papers were divided into sections dealing with the receipt and verification of the sig- nal, announcements of the discovery. the impact of the event, and legal aspects of contact with ETI The second was the development of a document entitled “Declaration of Principles for Activities fol- lowing the Detection of ExtraterrestrialCultural aspects of the search for extraterrestrial intelligence Intelligence” [13]. This has now been endorsed by five international space societies and will shortly be transmitted to all individuals or organizations car- rying out SETI searches with a request that they consider becoming signatories. The declaration is essentially a set of logical guidelines for ensuring unambiguous verification of the discovery, proper dissemination of the details, and meticulous archiv- ing of the data. One of the nine principles states that “no response to a signal or other evidence of extraterrestrial intelligence should be sent until appropriate international consultations have taken place. The procedures for such consultations will be the subject of a separate agreement, declaration or arrangement”. This deals with the possibility of a reply from Earth and is considered later in this, paper, Principle 9 of the declaration addresses the need for continuing review of the procedures for dealing with the putative detection, and for assembling a committee of experts to provide a focal point for continuing analysis of the evidence and for provid- ing information on the release of the information to the public. This is now under active consideration by the IAA SETI Committee. Donald Tarter{14] has recently written about the interesting question of “Signal Typology as a Variable in Interpretation and Reporting of a SETI Discovery”. He points out that signal verification and interpretation could be complex and could take a considerable time, supporting the analysis made some while ago by Boyce[I5]. He recommends the establishment of an international “Contact Verification and Identification Committee”, arguing that such a group could be a focal point for the dis- semination of information in response to the pre- dictable deluge of demands from all quarters. His paper then explains the wide variety of different characteristics of the signal under the heading of “signal typology”, and makes some suggestions as to the activities that a committee might pursue. His main argument is that a committee is needed now to deal with “the fast paced media world of the pre- sent”, and should therefore be a standing commit- tee. This discussion provides a good introduction to questions about the role of the media in the months after the discovery 6. JOURNALISM AND THE MEDIA It has repeatedly been predicted that the discov- ery of ETI would be the most spectacular news story of all time, Some thought has been given to this situation by a number of authors who pub- lished in the special issue of Acta Astronautica on SETI post detection protocol [I]. It is clear that the demands of the media will be insatiable in the few days or even weeks after the event, and it makes sense to try to plan in advance for the onslaught by ms having a focal point for information. There will be an obvious focal point, namely, the individual or team or organization which makes the discovery. Another source could be 2 SETI post detection committee with credible international participation as envisaged in the Declaration of Principles. An interesting and believable scenario was developed by Sagan in his novel “Contact” [16]. Major pro- blems could be a lengthy period of time before the validity of ETI origins was unambiguously estab- lished, or a lengthy period of time during which messages were extracted from the signal. From the point of view of the scientific community, caution, indeed skepticism, will be the order of the day. It ‘would not be inappropriate to have, as a part of a SETI post-detection committee, experts with one foot in the camp of journalism, and the other in hard nosed scientific discipline. The other side of the coin should be noted. If the emergence of data is protracted, the media appetite could surely wane and the general public might return to their regular interest in football, siteoms and game shows, Little has been done to study the details of the transmission of information to the public. While action should be taken by an international SETI post detection committee it is also the responsibil- ity of the media, and schools of journalism, to carry out prospective studies of the putative dis- covery, It should be pointed out also that both the SETI community and the media should be proactive in educating people from all walks of life in the SETI story, and in encouraging debate and proposals for further action in this new field of human endeavor. 7. SOCIOLOGY, PSYCHOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY The gap between the importance of cultural aspects of SETI and the attention it is currently being given is perhaps widest in the areas of soci- ology and psychology. Human behavior, both in groups and on an individual basis, will be influ- enced by the knowledge of the existence of ETI in many ways over a long period of time hhas summarized some of the scattered literature in his paper on the “Impact of Contact”, and summed up the situation as follows: “scenarios of the impact on human society of radio contact with an extraterrestrial civilization vary widely between paranoid projections. that contact with advanced extraterrestrials would quickly devastate the human spirit, and paranoid predictions that the extraterrestrils would be so advanced that they would swiftly and benevolently lead us into a golden age. Such extreme pronouncements exag- gerate the probable speed and magnitude of the impact of radio contact in that they conflate tech- nical and cultural understanding, and ignore the problem of inter-cvilizational comprehension. Judging from the record of cultural misunder-76 standing between closely related human groups, comprehending a totally different civilization light years away, and absorbing the meaning of what- fever messages were sent, would be a slow and tedious process calling for the efforts of specialists from many disciplines as well as the SETI scien- tists now engaged in the search’ With such a wide spectrum of beliefs, based on so few studies, it is surely time for some more substantive activities. While SETI is understood by small numbers in the scientific and engineering communities, and in the political structure of some nations. it is poorly understood by the pub- lic at large. The prospect of actually achieving a detection is even less well understood, and the cultural consequences not at all, In. contrast it must be said that a general belief in the existence of ETI is now becoming high in the US, accord- ing to polls. But there is confusion, much of it induced by the incessant media deluge on the rep- resentation of UFO's as visitors from outer space. Sociological and psychological studies are now much to be desired. Public opinion should be stu- died by the leading university centers. Previous examples of supposed discoveries of ETI, some hoaxes and some not, need to be re-examined in a dispassionate and scholarly way, as in the inves- tigations by Connors of the 1938 Orson Welles radio broadcast describing a Martian landing in the U.S.A.[I7]. Much of the “fear and panic” supposed to have occurred at that time was man- ufactured or exaggerated by the media. The com- ison is a poor one in the first place because it deals with purported physical contact. SETI envi- sages detection only of a radio signal from a remote civilization far out in the galaxy Anthropological studies may also contribute to the sociology of SETI The major probiem is that we deal here with physical contact between mem- bers of the, same species on a single planet, so that convincing analogies will not be easy to find. Those who think of the catastrophes sometimes experi- enced by less well developed civilizations at the hands of more advanced civilizations in our past will have some difficulty making their case. The opposite has sometimes been true, Perhaps a better example in the first place is the very successful edu- cation of illiterate peasants in Indian villages through the use of satellite television technology, or ‘our modern view of the importance of preserving primitive cultures. 8. RESPONSES OF RELIGIONS. This is considered as a special case of sociology and psychology because of its obvious importance. A recent paper by Ashkenazi [18] has summarized some aspects of the possible responses of Christianity, Judaism and Islam, In questioning experts in these religions, Ashkenazi found that the J. Billingham commonest response to the prospect of the discov- ery was one of amusement. If this is confirmed by more detailed studies, it surely reflects on how far the educational process on SETI has to go. Alternatively it could reflect a rejection of the idea. Extensive research is needed into this area. There are obvious extremes. The doctrine of the Mormon Church explicitly includes a strong belief in a plur- ality of inhabited worlds in the universe. On the other hand, those humanist branches of different religious groups which believe in the supremacy of Homo Sapiens may have difficulty accepting the concept of another intelligence, let alone a superior one, Perhaps there could be some solace in the knowledge that the species we detect, while inteli- gent, will not be human. The need for study and education in schools of divinity and comparative religion, as well as among the great religions of our civilization, is self-evident. 9, SHOULD EARTH REPLY? The detection of extraterrestrial intelligence could take many forms, and the exact scenario of such a detection may be unpredictable, In many potential scenarios, however, the same questions would arise. Should the human species send a message to the extraterrestrial civilization? Who decides? Are there reasons why Humankind should not reply? Who decides? If we decide to reply, what should we say? Again, who decides? ‘These questions lead to others. Should human- ity respond as a unit, rather than as separate nations or organizations? Should we attempt to design a generic response, or await the circum- stances of the detection before drafting a more specific response? Can we design a reply without a signal to analyze? A transmission from them that we detect could vary all the way from a con- tinuous wave carrier signal to a very complex message. So the decision as to whether or not to reply and the* decision on the content of our message will depend to a considerable degree on the nature of their signal, It might be argued that it is fruitless at this time to even think about the content of our message in view of this unknown However, it might be useful to assume, for example, that their signal has no message but is indisputably generated by a radio. transmitter. What would we do if we detected their interpla- netary radar? Conceivably our reply, should we send one, could vary all the way from the simple message transmitted by Drake from Arecibo[19), or the time consuming shipment of physical arti- facts such as those carried aboard the Pioneer and Voyager spacecraft{20,21), to a lengthy description of Earth, its history and our civiliza- tion. This question can be studied now.Cultural aspects of the search for extraterrestrial intelligence nt A fruitful way to begin addressing these issues is to focus on the process by which the human species as a whole might react to the detection of an extraterrestrial civilization. Michaud et ai.(22] suggest the development of an inter- national agreement or declaration of principles that would establish procedures enabling all humans, through appropriate representatives, to participate in the making of decisions on a reply from Earth. They propose that the SETI Committee of the IAA, in cooperation with interested persons from other international bodies such as the International Institute of Space Law, begin drafting an agreement or deciaration of principles that would set up these procedures. Of existing international bodies, the United Nations would appear to offer the most in- lusive and legitimate framework for such pro- cedures. They suggest that the draft agreement or declaration of principles, when completed, be pro- vided to the United Nations for its consideration, through the Commitice on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. As the committee acts on the basis of proposals made by its member states, the draft agreement or declaration would have to be pro- posed to the committee by one nation or a group of nations. ‘An agreement with the potential importance of this one would need to be widely discussed before it was put in final form, through workshops, public debates, media coverage, and other forms of public discourse. However, the process of developing has to begin somewhere. One place would be the SETI Committee of the IAA. Asa starting point for discussion, the draft agree- ment or declaration might include the following principles: 1. a response to the detection of extraterrestrial should be on behalf of all Humankind. If Humankind decides to respond, it should do so with one voice, not many; 2. the decision on whether or not to respond should be made by an appropriate international body, broadly representative of Humankind; 3. the content of a reply should reflect an inter- national consensus. 10, NATIONAL, POLITICAL, INSTITUTIONAL, INTERNATIONAL, AND LEGAL ASPECTS OF SETI At the present time SETI is too small to have any significant impact in these areas. If a signal is detected, this will change. There is likely to be a major increase in funding for further SETI activi- ties, since it will then be virtually certain that there are many other civilizations to detect. The level of interest will be enormous, and will pervade all aspects of our society ‘The degree of national activity will depend in some measure on the policies of the nation which makes the discovery. However, this in itself may become diffuse because many nations may be involved in signal verification and other post-detec- tion activities. There will obviously be intensive study, scholarly and otherwise, by individuals and institutions in many nations. One SETI Institute already exists in Northern California. There will be a need for some coordination of such efforts International societies will expand to embrace ac- tivities related to ETI. Two professional societies already address SETI questions. The International Academy of Astronautics has had a SETI Committee and SETI Review Session for twenty years. More recently Commission 51 @ioastronomy) of the International Astronomical Union has been formed. It has become the largest of all the [AU Commissions. ‘A few papers have been written on the legal aspects of SETI, the most significant by Kopal 23] The present body of space law has been claimed to be adequate to cover SETI. Many others feel that it needs greatly to be expanded, since it was not for- mulated with SETI in mind. Perhaps a separate body of law is needed, as has been argued by Haley [24]. There will surely be agreements and treaties between nations having to do with SETI. But the existence of ETI is surely a matter for all mankind, and could therefore be focused within the United ‘Nations structure. 1. SETI AND EDUCATION There are two aspects of this subject that war- rant attention, The first is the need to prepare society for the possibility of the discovery of ETI. The scientific arguments underlying SETI are complex and require extensive explanation before they can be understood. It is not sufficient simply to involve the political and scientific establishments. It is essential that the educational effort be organized, thorough, widespread and prolonged. All the normal avenues can of course be used. The second aspect is the value that SETI has as a stimulus to education, especially science education. This value has recently been recognized by the National Science Foundation. Their three year grant to the SETI Institute for the preparation of secondary school curriculum materials{9] is the first step in what will become an international process Plans are already under way to offer the US ma- terial for translation into other languages as a part of the International Space Year. The two educational aspects of SETI are, of course, complementary. Both should be actively pursued,8 J. Billingham 12, SYSTEMATIC ANALYSIS OF THE CULTURAL ASPECT oF SEN From time to time authors predict confusion, even chaos, following the discovery of ETI, and many pleas have been made for organized plan- ning (o prepare society for the detection, and to lay the groundwork for further activities of all types in the wake of the detection. It is worth thinking through the possibility that a thoroughgoing sys- tems analysis of the future be undertaken with this goal in mind. There are now fairly sophisticated tools for conducting such studies. To give some examples, systems analysis is now well devel- oped. Other areas are utility theory, cost-benefit analysis, operations research and not least decision theory and analysis. These formal methodologies are seldom applied in the real world, Perhaps the ‘outcome of the detection of an ETI signal would be a candidate for such studies. We can, of course, do nothing and muddle through. But there is now an ‘opportunity to see if we can shape the course of events in some rational way, in spite of the sceptics, and begin a logical series of steps to address the One attempt has been made. Billingham [25] examined the biological part of the Viking mission, using utility theory, to find out the value of doing SETI, in comparison to the value of doing Viking. Bearing in mind that the probability of detecting life was for Viking, and is for SETI, unknown, one can arrive at a conclusion that SETI is at least as valuable as Viking. While this uses a fairly simple approach, the situation in fact, complex and deserves more detailed investi- gation. The nine areas described above are not meant to be comprehensive, We should study SETI and the discovery also from the perspective of philosophy, the humanities and the arts, Morrison said in 1971 [26] “The recognition of the signal is the great event, but the interpretation of the signal will be a social task comparable to that of a very large disci- pline, or branch of learning. Most of this very com- plex signal will contain not merely science and ‘mathematics, but mostly what we would call art and history” 13, CONCLUSIONS. In the nine areas of the cultural aspect of SETI, excluding science and engineering, detailed briefly in the preceding paragraphs, arguments have been made for extensive further studies, and for actions of different types, which are focused on SETI and especially on a putative detection and its outcome for our society. It seems that such studies would be valuable in their own right, both before the detec~ tion occurs, and even in the absence of a detection after many decades. They will contribute to a better understanding of our own society, and our place in the cosmos. If a signal is detected, the activities ommended above will have at least made people and institutions more alert to the situation, and could have laid some groundwork for an orderly twansition into the rather different universe that REFERENCES, 1 Tarter, 1. C. and Michaud, M. A., Special Issue Acta Astronautica, 1990, 212), 2, Dick, 8. J. 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