Social Life

Saturday, February 4 2012, 1:32 AM

Harappa
Social Divisions
1. The city was divided into a citadel area (to the west) where the essential institutions of civic life would
be located with important public places together with a larger residential area to the east. This indicates
social divisions. In the later ages even though the citadel feature was absent, the tendency to
concentrate people of different occupations in particular areas was prevalent.
2. The citadel area of the city generally had defence walls and bastions and sometimes the entire cities
were fortified. Some scholars have interpreted this to mean that Harappans were aliens to the land. But
this can be easily explained by the fact that cities were focus of wealth that was different in quantity
from that of the village. The system of authority was different from the surrounding villages and hence
had to be guarded.
3. Harappans don't display their wealth as much as other contemporary cities either in terms of
construction (massive temples, palaces etc.) or grave goods.
Pre-Mauryan Age
Type of Villages
1. The first type was the typical village inhabited by various castes and communities, practicing agriculture
and headed by the bhojaka.
2. The second village was dominated by a particular craft, was located near the town and catered to its
needs.
3. The third village was located in the countryside and merged with the forests. People were mainly
hunter-gatherers.
4. There were also Brahman villages or brahmadeyas where brahmans held large tracts of land.
The Village Community
1. There was significant degree of community presence in the individual lives. The village land was divided
into cultivable plots and allotted family wise. But the transfership rights remained with the community.
Similarly, field fencing and irrigation channels were done collectively.
2. The gahapatis, apart from being head of the households were also rich land owners. They were
associated with agriculture. There are references of brahman gahapatis living in brahman villages. The
gahapatis were quite influential.
The Social Order
The Brahmanical Order
1. The society was supposed to follow varnashrama lines in occupation as well as marriage. But that this
was not happening can be seen from the Dharmasutra accepting certain kinds of inter-varna
marriages and pursuing alternate occupations in times of emergency by various varnas.
2. The brahmans had emerged as the dominant class and the society had become rigid.
3. Gotra (clan affiliation) was an important factor - specially in marriage.
The Jati System and The Varna System

1. The caste system had emerged and although varna system still existed, the basis of social identity specially for vaishyas and shudras - was jati. Pali sources describe vaishyas and shudras mainly by
their occupation indicating jati had become the framework of social identity - marriage, dining, social
intercourse etc. Varna system was more applicable for upper varnas. Another reason for the jati
system to emerge could be an amalgamation of 'outside' people into the varna society and hence the
need to assign them separate groups. The brahmans also realized the significance of the jati system for
now they could retain the highest position by claiming the right to put different people into different
jatis.
2. The reason varna and jati got intermingled was because jati members often claimed to be a part of a
particular varna. The hereditary nature of crafts and occupations, assimilation of tribals into
brahmanical fold, birth based social system and endogamy led to the birth of jatis.
The Elite Class
1. Gahapatis: They were rich land owners apart from being head of households. There are references of
brahman gahapatis as well indicating varna duties were not followed rigidly.
2. Setthis: They were rich people associated with trade and money lending.
3. Gahapati-Setthis: They were the rich land owners who also had large trading operations. Both setthis
and gahapati-setthis were an important class as indicated by them being clients of Jivaka, the court
physician of Bimbisara.
Status of Shudras
1. They were asked to serve the other 3 varnas and couldn't study.
Marriage & Family
1. Ties of kinship were very important given the fact that even Buddhism didn't try to completely forbade
kinship ties for monks and nuns, rather had to accommodate them to some extent. The monks were
not allowed to travel in rainy season but they were allowed to retain contact with their family to some
extent. The monks were allowed to visit a kinsman sick or dying.
2. In marriage, 8 forms of marriage emerged. Inter-varna marriages were happening and even
Dharmasutra accepts them to some extent. It allows hypergamous marriages (higher varna male and
lower varna female) but disapproves hypogamy (lower male, higher female). Worst form of hypogamy
was brahman female, shudra male.
3. Marriage happened as soon as puberty reached. Practice of dowry present.
Education
1. Script emerged and compilation of Vedic knowledge began.
2. Taxila emerged as an important learning centre.
Slavery
1. Slavery continued from the Vedic age. Slaves were still used primarily for household work.
Untouchability
1. Though first direct literary reference to this practice comes in 1-3 cent AD, the sutra literature of this
age places serious disabilities on chandals quite akin to untouchability. It talks about pollution
associated with chandals when a person who gets in contact with a chandal must perform a host of

purifying tasks. They are given derogatory origins and are often equated to dogs and crows.
Women
1. Marriage happened as soon as puberty was reached. Dowry was prevalent. Women had virtually no
or debatable inheritance rights in brahmanism. But they did have claim over stridhana. Buddhist
sources mention donations made by women which indicates a marked departure from brahmanical
religion where women didn't have property rights.
2. An ideal woman's role was confined to being a good wife and mother of good sons.
3. Even in Buddhism, women suffered from discriminating outlook. The nuns were subordinated to the
monks and Buddhism didn't do anything to change the outlook towards common women. Women had
to obtain permission from their fathers or husbands before joining sangha. But in that context, definitely
this was a progressive step. Nuns figure more prominently in Buddhist works compared to women in
Brahmanical works.
Mauryan Age
The Social Order
1. Brahmanical dominance, varnashrama system and rigidity of the society continued.
2. The artisans and craftsmen enjoyed higher status due to their economic significance.
The Caste System
1. Caste system strengthened and hereditary occupation and endogamy were its chief features.
Arthashastra goes on to classify various jatis into different varnas.
2. There were 7 occupational groups --> philosophers, peasants, shepherds, craftsmen, supervisors,
warriors and councillors. (Source: Megasthenes) But Megasthenes classification doesn't correspond to
the varnas or the jatis and could have been his own creation or borrowed from Herodotus'
classification of Egyptian society.
Status of Shudras
1. It was better than previous period as they were now allowed (by Arthasastra) to enlist in the army
(increasing military needs of the bigger state), to practice agricultural activities (increasing economic
needs of the bigger state and hence the need to bring more land under cultivation), to engage in crafts
production and also in trade and commerce and to own property.
2. Arthasastra also calls shudras as Aryans and distinguishes them from Mlecchas. It then goes on to
prohibit enslavement of shudras while allows the enslavement of Mlecchas.
Slavery
1. Slaves were now put to agricultural labor as well. But they were also allowed to own property and
Asokan Dhamma calls upon the slave owners to treat their slaves properly.
2. Arthasastra mentions 9 types of slaves. Megasthenes denies existence of slaves but probably he was
not able to distinguish slaves from shudras.
Family and Marriage
1. Family remained same. In marriage, there was one big change. Marriage was no longer considered
sacrosanct. Divorce was allowed in case of infidelity of wife, abandonment by husband or contagious
disease. (Source: Arthasastra)

Women
1. Greek sources tell us employment of women as CGM's bodyguards and accountants.
2. But at the same time, their general status deteriorated and the practice of their social seclusion
began given the use of terms like avarodhan, anishkaasini (not to come out of the house),
asuryapashya (not to see the sun), antapur (to live within the house).
3. Although Arthashastra, buddhist and jain literature gives no indication of the practice of sati, the greek
literature talks about the practice of sati in some military families of NW.
Education
1. The level of general education seems to be high given Asokan edicts.
Untouchability
1. The brahmanical stand on untouchability hardened. There were wells which could be used by Chandals
only and no one else. Chandals were to live at the margins of settlements now.
Post-Mauryan Age (North India)
The Social Order
Challenges to the Brahmanical Order
1. Rapid economic growth led to proliferation in occupations. There was a need to fit these new castes
and sub-castes into the brahmanical order.
2. The growth was led by secondary sector and this led to economic prosperity of artisans and craftsmen,
many of who were shudras.
3. There was influx of foreigners and new tribal groups which had to be fixed in the hierarchy.
4. The inter-varna marriages too added to the complexity.
Response of the Brahmanical Order
1. More rigidity as can be seen in the law books and they explicitly define legal and illegal things.
2. Various castes and sub castes were fitted into the brahmanical society. Each tried to claim association
with a particular varna and a higher status. They created the concept of sankirna caste to keep the
social mobility in check. Inter-varna marriages were banned.
3. Brahmans couldn't have labeled their new political and economic masters as mlecchas or outcastes.
They had to incorporate them and they did so by calling their rulers 'fallen kshatriyas'. A conversion
sacrifice (vraityastoma) was devised. This ensured brahmans didn't loose royal patronage. At the
same time the rising sects like buddhism, jainism, vaishnavism, sivaism etc. opened their gates for the
new masters. However in some brahmanical literature we can see instances of demonizing the
yavanas indicating the hostility of brahmans. The new sect bhagwatism embraced the yavanas
(Heliodorus was a vaishnavite) and hence could become popular in this period.
Status of Shudras
1. The status of artisans and craftsmen improved in this age. Many shudras were engaged in such
activities and naturally they became more assertive in their opposition to the brahmana dominated
varna system. The rule of the foreign kings who were not within this varna fold also encouraged them
to oppose the system. As a result we find that the treatment prescribed for them in the law books of
the age (like Manusmriti) is highly disabling and cruel. Thus the writings of Manu reflect the fears and
resulting rigidity in the society of the brahmans of that age. He recommends strict punishment for

shudras, calls the age the age of kali and calls for regularly beating them.
Family & Marriage
1. Family same. Marriages took a turn for worse. Pre-puberty marriage came into being and inter-varna
marriages were banned.
Untouchability
1. It hardened. Now the chandals had to live outside the settlement and complete distance was
maintained with them. The contemporary books discuss touch and even sight pollution.
Women
1. Nosedived in brahmanical literature. Women were treated as property of menfolk. Their inheritance
rights were negligible. While a man should marry after completing education, a girl should be married
even before puberty. Every menstruation was a missed cycle for birth and hence equivalent to embryo
killing. Husbands could abandon wives for infidelity, harsh speech, insubordination. Widows were
encouraged not to have any man after their husband's death.
2. In Buddhist world, large amount of wealth was granted to the sangha by nuns. It can only be guessed
that this implies that women did have property rights - maybe over the stridhana or a share in parental
property as well (if there were no male heirs). Yet this shows things were not exactly how they were
prescribed in the brahmanical literature.
Education
1. Philosophical education was considered to be a perogative of brahmans, vocational education that
of vaishyas.
2. Guilds played a vital role now and the economic prosperity led to general increase in educational
levels.
Post-Mauryan Age (Satvahnas)
The Social Order
1. The Satvahna society was a newly brahmanized society. So the penetration of brahmanical order was
only superficial.
2. On top of it, it had to face ruffles due to influx of foreigners (Sakas) and inter-marriages between
various social orders.
3. Buddhism too was a challenge for the brahmanical order as the tribals had been easily converted to
Buddhism. It was also popular among the trading class.
4. The Satvahnas were looked down upon by orthodox north Indian brahmans as a mixed class.
5. Gautamiputra Satkarni claims to have put an end to the social anarchy, banned inter-varna marriages
and promoted brahmanisation of the society.
The Family Structure
1. Satvahna family structure was matrilineal because the name of the kings were after their mothers'
names. But the society was patriarchal because the son inherited the throne. Nevertheless women
enjoyed a higher status compared to N India.
Sangam States in Tamil Land

The Social Order

1. The brahmanisation had not percolated deep enough in the society and neither was the jati system
important. The social stratification was horizontal and not vertical like N India. The more relevant basis
for classification was kuti. Kutis were the clan based descendent groups from early days which were
divided into those living in hills, forests, deltas, sandy areas and coasts. Hereditary occupation,
worshipping same God and endogamy were features of kuti. People of different kutis were cut-off
from each other.
2. The Sangam age witnessed entry of brahmanisation into S India (references in literary texts in form of
Augstya and Parsuram). This had twin effects. First was the establishment of a rudimentary varna order
where the brahmans were at the top and all others were clubbed into non-brahmans. The nonbrahmans could be vaguely sub-divided into arasars (the ruling class), nagarattas/vaishiyars
(traders) and vellalas (rich farmers) and kadaisiyars (agriculture labor) towards the end.
3. Second feature was the interaction and fusion of N and S culture. Several south gods like Murugan
began to make way into the Hindu gods and northern gods (Indra, Varuna, Vishnu), practices
(marriage, vegetarianism) and beliefs (subordination of women) found their way into south.
Manram
1. The institution of manram was precursor to the institution of temples in later age. During the Sangam
age, manram was the focal point of social interaction. The villagers used to assemble there. Fairs,
ceremonies, festivals, judicial-administrative decisions were taken there.
Status of Women
1. Women took part in a large range of economic activities like agriculture, cloth making, beads fishing
etc. They used to participate in social and religious activities as well. However, some evils like harsh
treatment of widows and sati were practiced.
Untouchability
1. Only towards the end of Sangam age, the notion of untouchability emerged. Some works, including a
Tamil epic, talk about pollution - both touch and sight.
Education
1. Script was unknown so education was imparted orally mainly by brahmans as in north. It was religious
and philosophical in character.
Gupta Age
The Social Order
Challenges to the Brahmanical Order
1. The increasing talk of kaliyug in the brahmana literature indicates growing social tensions and
challenges to the brahmanical order.
2. Proliferation in the number of castes and sub-castes continued. One reason was influx of foreigners
into Indian society. Second was the inclusion of many tribals into the brahmanical fold as a result of the
widespread increase in land grants. A third was growing localization and specialization of labor. For
instance a new section emerged of mahattars who had to be informed of all land transactions.
3. The decreasing economic prosperity led to growing importance of agriculture and diminishing
importance of trade and secondary activities. So the income of brahmans from traditional activities was

declining.
4. Due to proliferating land grants, a new caste kayastha emerged who were the cast of scribes who
kept the records of land grants. This was in direct challenge to brahmanical profession.
Response of Brahmanical Order
1. The foreigners were inducted as fallen kshatriyas. The tribal chiefs were given a more respectable
origin and the ordinary tribesmen were given a lower caste.
2. Due to lack of income sources, other professions were opened to brahmans. Shudras were also
allowed to conduct vedic sacrifices to enhance income for brahmans. Thus overall social flexibility
increased in the society.
3. Contemporary law books (Narad, Brihaspati, Katyayan) present kayasthas in very bad light.
4. That the smriti literature of this age reflects the underlying social tensions is evident from the fact that
many of the works emphasize the desirability of strong relations between the brahmans and kshatriyas.
This reflects the brahman fear of the growing dissent among the vaishyas and shudras. That significant
social upheavals were going on can be gauged from the fact that many rulers of this age were wither
vaishyas (like Guptas, Harsha) or even shudras (the rulers of Saurashtra, Avanti, Malwa). The
literature of the age also speaks in very high terms of the land grants which should be made to the
brahmans.
5. Still despite all that is said in the brahmanical literature, that social mobility was present in the society
can be seen from the Mandsor inscription where the guild of silk weavers migrated and changed its
occupation.
Status of Shudras
1. The position of shudras improved in this period due to growing importance of agriculture and the fact
that large number of shudras were agriculturalists. They were also allowed to indulge in other economic
activities (for instance Yagvalkaya allows them to carry on trade, agriculture and industrial activities
even though Manu repeats that they should serve the other three varnas, Narsingh Puran speaks of
agriculture to be the occupation of shudras). Some shudras also enlisted in state and military
services (source: Mrichchakatika by Sudrak)
2. The decline of secondary activities meant that brahmans who depended on merchants and craftsmen
for their income through rituals and sacrifices had to find new clients. These new clients were
shudras who were now allowed to conduct vedic sacrifices. They were also allowed to hear epics.
Matsya Puran goes on to say that if a shudra lives an ideal life as set out in the scriptures then he may
even attain salvation. Yoga and samkhya schools of philosophy were open for shudras as well.
3. Narad, Brihaspati and Katyayan uphold the varna based legal system and impose severe disabilities on
shudras and give liberal concessions to brahmans.
Untouchability
1. The position of untouchables and their number took a turn for worse. Basically the earlier shudras who
were not involved in agricultural activities were now denounced as untouchables.
Women
1. The position of women increased marginally as they were allowed to listen to religious works like epics
and puranas.
2. But other aspects worsened specially in the lives of higher varna women as they were made to be more
dependent on their menfolk for livelihood. They lacked any property rights generally though according

3.
4.
5.
6.

to Katayena, women enjoyed property rights in the immovable property of his father as well. They
lacked inheritance rights but had a right on their stridhana.
Girls were married off as soon as reaching puberty. The upanayna ceremony (leading to the beginning
of education) was formally banned in this period.
Polygamy increased, they were treated as property and sati began.
Seclusion took even worse form as practice of veiling began among higher varna women.
The practice of devadasi also became prevalent in this period.

Slavery
1. There were 15 kind of slaves. They continued to employed in the dirty household work (as is evident
from Narad and Brihaspati) and in some instances in agricultural work. Slavery was voluntary as well
and some people became slaves to earn merit.
2. They could be from any varna though brahman slaves were rare and buying/selling of brahman women
was prohibited. Katyayan prescribes explicitly that a brahman couldn't be enslaved as slavery was not
meant for a brahman. In exceptional condition even if he became a slave he could be employed only in
"pure" jobs like vedic studies and nothing else.
3. Slaves could be freed if they saved the lives of their masters. Narad prescribes a ritual by which slaves
could be freed. On the balance there are evidences that slavery weakened during the Gupta age. This
could be because of - (a) weakening of entire varna order through growing assertiveness of vaishyas
and shudras, and (b) decimation of old kings etc. who used to patronize slavery and their replacement
by foreign rulers who were outside the varna system.
Education
1. Sanskrit learning took place in ashrams and focus was on memorizing texts like parts of Vedas,
contents of Dharmashastras and subjects like grammar, rhetoric, prose and verse composition, logic,
metaphysics. Astronomy, mathematics, medicine and astrology also formed a part of the curriculum. In
medicine, veterinary sciences also became important (particularly horse and elephant due to
importance to army).
2. Professional knowledge was imparted separately by the guild. Study of mathematics would have
provided a bridge between the professional and the theoretical knowledge. Buddhist monasteries were
also important.
3. Aryabhatta calculated , length of solar year, earth was a sphere and rotated on its axis and its the
shadow of earth and vice versa which causes eclipses. Brahmagupta objected to this thesis on eclipses.
The Pallavas
Social Order
1. The process of brahmanisation continued from the Sangam age. The only change apart from
strengthening of those processes was that the N Indian brahmans created a class of S Indian brahmans
who were basically early Tamil priests. The brahmans divided the society into brahmans and nonbrahmans. But a more real basis of social interaction was ruling groups, vellalas, nagarattas, kadaisiyars
etc.
Temples
1. They played an important role.
Post-Gupta Age

The Social Order

Contemporary literature on N Indian Society
1. On brahmans: Medhatithi frees brahmans from corporal punishment and fines but limits this to only
'learned' brahmans. Matsyapuran frees them from capital punishment but advocates their exile and
branding. Vishwarup smriti however says there is no harm in giving capital punishment to an
exploitative brahman. The literature of this age begins to make distinctions even among brahmans
particularly based on their region. They hold brahmans in south, Odisha and AP in low light.
2. On kshatriyas: Lay down the usual duties for kshatriyas and rajputs.
3. On vaishyas: Lay down the usual duties for vaishyas.
4. On kayasthas: Ridicule them.
5. On shudras: Parashar and Laghu Vyasa smritis forbid any touch or food touched by shudra.
Medhatithi advocates servitude of shudras but still allows them personal freedom. He says some
shudras used to study grammar. Narad smriti even advocates shudras to take up arms in emergency
and defend. But all these are exceptions only.
6. On untouchables: Many new classes and tribes were added to untouchables and new disabilities
imposed.
7. On marriage: Medhatithi allows anulom (higher caste male and lower caste female) marriages as
exceptions and says the caste of the offspring will be that of mother in such a marriage. Narad smriti
bans inter caste marriages. Incest is prohibited.
8. On remarriage of women: Medhatithi completely prohibits remarriage of women while narad, parashar
smritis allow remarriage in case of death, abandonment, missing husband. They also allow niyoga.
The Pre-Dominance of Feudal Outlook
1. People became tied to the local area. Their outlook became increasingly parochial (local centric). In
numerous land grants (both to brahmans and secular) we find that not only the land but also the labor
and craftsmen living on the land were granted to the donee as well in perpetuity. This severely limited
mobility and gave a great boost to feudal society. This was also aided by the growing number of selfsufficient villages. The local outlook also got reflected in notions such as sea-travel, visit to coastal
areas and dakshinapatha would lead to pollution and hence out-casting.
2. Land became the source of social prestige as well and association with land became more important
than the varna. Landed persons were held in high esteem irrespective of their original varna and the
holders of vast tract of land used to assume titles like raja, ranak, rai
etc. People indulged in secondary activities began to be treated in low esteem. Naturally this lowered
the status of vaishyas who were primarily engaged in secondary activities and they began to be treated
like shudras (source: Al Berouni). Thus even they were not allowed to listen to or study the vedas.
3. The number of castes and sub castes increased substantially to accommodate the needs of a feudal
society as old classes disappeared and new ones emerged.
4. An important phenomenon in this age was the emergence of rajputs (who replaced kshatriyas) who
were basically some martial castes and influential samantas. These influential samantas had carved out
their own spheres of influence and further sub-divided the territory among their kin. These in turn
became samantas and had full administrative authority over their fiefs. The post of village headman
increased in importance.
Challenges to the Brahmanical Order
1. Emergence of feudal economy and decline of trade and commerce. This was a new situation and hence
needed new response.
2. There was increased social upheaval and we find a number of instances of revolts against the caste

order. There are instances where shudras became the rulers, entire castes moved up and down the
hierarchy. Naturally this created a sense of insecurity even though these remained exception and not
the norm.
3. The growing influence of kayasthas due to increase in land grants.
4. Growth of bhakti movement and temples led to changes in the religious practices of the laity and the
brahmanical sacrifices disappeared from popular religion.
Response of Brahmanical Order
1. Rigidity increased. Land based activities meant that people were confined local lands. To prevent
migration of laborers etc. parochial outlook and caste rules were developed which prevented travel.
2. New castes and sub-castes evolved to accommodate the new classes of a feudal order.
3. Status of land based classes increased and that of non land-based ones decreased. So status of
vaishyas declined, that of shudras improved. Al-Berouni mentions vaishyas and shudras lived in same
quarters. Some secondary activities came to be associated with untouchables now.
4. The contemporary books refer to kayasthas in very bad light.
5. Brahmans migrated into the newly formed states, got land grants, became associated with the temples.
The Jati System
1. It remained the main basis of social intercourse. Endogamy and hereditary occupational practices
continued.
2. A new caste called Rajputs emerged.
3. There were social upheavals and there are examples of caste mobility after revolts.
Status of Shudras
1. It improved due to their association with land and naturally the number of shudra farmers increased.
Contemporary sources refer to them as anashrits and annadatas. They continued to be able to
perform vedic sacrifices.
Untouchability
1. Untouchability increased in terms of worsening of treatment as well as increase in the number of
untouchables.
2. Due to decline in trade and growing feudal outlook, persons associated with secondary activities began
to be treated as untouchables. Al-Berouni testifies that weavers were the low even among the
untouchables who had to live outside the villages and towns.
Women
N India
1. Nosedived. All known evils became common. Jauhar came into existence.
2. But some law books of this age talk about allowing remarriage in case of death, impotency or
renunciation of the world by the husband. Sometimes women from elite groups were given education
@ home.
3. They lacked property and inheritance rights but had a claim on their stridhana.
4. Women who were sold into slavery lost their caste and family ties and could be forced to do anything.
S India

1. They still held higher social status and were also employed in administration. There was no purdah
system but sati was practiced. Polygamy was prevalent too. They had right to stridhana.
2. The literature of the age portrays royal women as retiring, romantic, unconcerned with the matters of
state but we know from the Chalukyan and Rashtrakuta inscriptions that some women also took active
part in administration.
Rashtrakutas
1. According to Arab writers, the practice of veiling among elite ladies was absent.
Slavery
1. The number of slaves increased immensely due to socio-economic upheavals. Even the various
temples, mathas etc. also used to keep a large number of slaves. The literature also tells us that slaves
were freely exported and imported. They were also given away in donations by the masters. Many
people would sell themselves into slavery when they failed to pay off a debt.
2. The literature further tells us that the slaves were used mainly for dirty household work only though the
(buddhist) literature also mentions their employment for agricultural work in some cases. The temples
and mathas, however, used to employ the slaves in agriculture in a big way.
3. The literature of this age also doesn't give us any information about the property rights of the slaves and
their freedom (not even by working very hard and pleasing the master) so it can be inferred that the
condition of slaves had definitely worsened from the previous period. The master had full right over the
life of the slave, he could beat him, treat him in any way he pleased and was not liable even if the slave
died due to torture and ill treatment.
4. Women who were sold into slavery lost their caste and family ties.
Education
1. General education level nosedived due to decline in secondary activities. There was no concept of
mass education in these times. Reading / writing remained a perogative of Brahmans and some upper
castes.
2. Though philosophical education continued to grow, it got detached from scientific education and
science suffered.
S India
1. In the S India, agrahara grants played a vital role in the spread of education.
2. The temples (along with agraharas, mathas and ghatikas) were also associated big time with learning.
Initially entry was open to any twice born caste but gradually they came to be restricted to brahmans
and became centers of advanced studies. They received extensive royal patronage. Kanchipuram
became the most famous center for learning. Sanskrit was the medium of learning.
Brahmanisation in S INdia
1. The inscriptions also show the growing brahmanisation of the society. The earlier inscriptions were all
in Tamil but by this age bilingual inscriptions came up with the main body in Tamil and only the more
formulaic sections in Sanskrit. Similarly in other regions bilingual Kannada and Sanskrit inscriptions
came up.
2. The growth of Tamil devotional movement is also seen as a reaction to Brahmanisation but its
incorporation of certain brahmanical features tells us about the fusion.

Temples of S India
Economic Impact
1. The temples received tax-free land grants and rich donations. As a result, they themselves became very
rich and often used to invest their money or lend it. Their scale of creation and expansion is a symbol of
the economic power of the rulers and the elites of the age. The big temples are also found usually in the
capitals of the rulers or very important cities only. Thus they also reflect the economic fabric of the
society in that time period.
2. They used to provide employment to a large number of people both in construction and after
construction.
3. The temple authorities, increasingly with time, had a say in the agriculture activities like irrigation etc.
4. The temples used to lease out land to the tenants for cultivation in return for share in produce.
5. The temples used to invest their wealth into property and business.
Social Impact
1. The temples became a focal point of all the social activities of the surrounding areas.
2. They along with mathas were centers of education - both at elementary and higher levels. Thus the
Ainnarium inscription of Rajendra Chola tells us about a school called Gangaikondachola Mandap
which was run by a temple. The sabha of the village had donated hundreds of acre of land to the
temple and hundreds of students studied and lived there. The allowances for students were in terms of
food while the allowances and salaries of teachers were in the form of land as well as food.
3. They helped in propagating the influence of brahmans in the society since the temples were run by
brahmans only. Yet at the same time their spread was a symbol of protest against the brahmanical
religion.
4. They helped in crystallizing the social divisions - brahmans > ruling groups, vellalas, nagarattas >
illangai, wallangai > others by giving them standing accordingly in the temple ritual order.
5. Those commissioning temples were not only members of royalty but also rich merchants which
highlights the role of temples as a medium of social exchange.
6. They also aided in exclusion of certain groups. No ritual / deity could now gain respectability until
incorporated by the temple and many groups were marginalized.
7. The temples also acted in some cases as a conduit of social mobility. Thus we have an instance of a
large herd of cows being donated to a coastal AP temple which was cared for by the local Boya
tribals. Gradually because of their looking after the temple property, they rose from outcastes to
shudras. Many temple donations include those from women and devdasis as well.
Cultural Impact
1. It led to the growth of music and dance as devdasis were employed in the temples. The temples also
became the centers for music and dance on festive occasions.
2. They led to growth of sculpture, both in relief and independent form.
3. The bhakti movements along with the temples led to change in the religious practices of the laity.
Brahmanical sacrifices became a thing for the ruling elite only and disappeared from the popular level.
Political Impact
1. They used to perform the role of agents of the ruling authority into the village. The important
administrative and judicial decisions at the local level used to be taken by the temple authorities only.
2. Some temples were influential at the capital level too. Later, a new class of mathadipati emerged who
were chiefs of big temples. They were appointed as royal advisors and held considerable political

sway.
3. They helped in legitimizing the rule of the king as images of the king and the queen were placed in the
temple complex.
Cholas
The Social Order
1. Social division was on the basis of broad occupational groups and typically indigenous in character. At
the top were brahmans - N Indian and S Indian. Then came the ruling groups, vellalas,
nagarattas. Then Illangai (small artisans and craftsmen) and Valangai (small farmers). Then came
others. Varna was not so important in S India.
2. The cultivating group of vellalas comprised of the land owning peasants as well as the landless labor.
Although, technically they were shudras, but in S Indian society, shudras didn't suffer from the typical
disabilities of the N and vellalas enjoyed a high status the source of which was their economic
status. The village residential area was divided into quarters of land owning farmers, artisans and
agriculture labor. This division was legitimized by giving it a place in the temple ritual order as well.
3. The sculptors enjoyed high prestige in areas where their skills were in high demand but in other areas
like Malabar where not many temples were made they were treated as untouchables. Other artisans
nosedived and were treated as untouchables. Generally anybody who didn't own land saw a fall in their
social standing. So the agriculture labor organized themselves as Valangai and the sculptors, petty
traders etc. organized themselves as Ilangais to press for better standing.
4. Since Valangais enjoyed close relations with the land owning class the vellalas used to support them.
Moreover Ilangais had to pay higher taxes as well. As a result the Ilangais grew restless and would
often revolt. The vellalas and royal troops would always crush their revolts.
The Vijayanagar Kingdom
Social Order
1. The polarization in the society increased and even turned bloody. The new social order was brahmans
@ top, followed by ruling classes followed by Illangai and Valangai @ same levels.
2. This age witnessed increasing trade and secondary activities. Hence Ilangais increased in influence and
began to demand higher social status. This led to all the agriculture related groups rallying behind
Valangais and fighting it out with Ilangais in the streets.
3. Moreover large number of immigrants from N India came and established their influence over trade
and commerce in this age. This naturally increased social tensions.
4. Brahmans enjoyed a very high status in the Vijaynagar society. They were exempted from capital
punishment for whatever crime. They were considered trustworthy, received high offices (including
military offices) and received large number of land grants.
Women
1. Women were employed in state service as accountants. Women of elite class received education at
home including sanskrit learning. But in general the evils like sati, child marriage, devdasis, no education
for women held ground. Sati was prevalent mostly in the military class and was considered a virtuous
act. But state used to exempt widow remarriages from the marriage tax.
Slavery
1. Slavery was prevalent in Vijaynagar kingdom and slaves were transacted freely. Additionally if
someone couldn't repay a loan then he could be enslaved.

Education
1. There was no active state involvement in education. Unlike the Cholas and Pallavas, the Vijaynagar
kings didn't establish schools and universities. But indirectly they encouraged it as the maths and
temples continued to be exempted from taxes. Education used to be imparted in temples, math and
agraharas by eminent brahmans.
Role of State in Social Life
1. Generally the caste community itself used to decide on social matters. But when there were issues
between two or more different castes or which could not be resolved at the community level there was
a provision of interference by the state. Thus the nayaks and the gaurs (town administrators) could hear
such cases and decide on them. Then we have one instance when due to high rates of dowry some
brahmans went ahead and declared it illegal. The state interfered from their side and chose to give it
state sanction. Anybody who would give or take a dowry would be liable for punishment by the
king. State could also interfere in the affairs of the small artisan or craftsmen communities. Thus we find
inscriptions telling us about a royal order where the state asked the village residents not to ill treat the
carpenters, ironsmiths and goldsmiths.
2. The state also used to interfere in matters of communal harmony. Thus we find inscription from
Sravenbenagola where in a dispute between the Jains and Vaisnavs the state interfered and protected
the Jain community.
3. Similarly if the community decided to deprive a person of his land then it had to take the permission of
the state. Then in other crimes such as sabotaging temple property, incest etc. too the state could
punish a person.