Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
H A P T E R
288
Specifications Restricting
Halogen Content of Liquid
Penetrant Testing
Materials
The continued incidence of stress
corrosion cracking in austenitic stainless
steels has focused increased attention on
the halogen and sulfur content in liquid
penetrant materials used for
nondestructive testing. Restrictions are
placed on the halogen and sulfur
concentrations allowed in liquid
penetrant materials intended for use on
austenitic stainless steels.
Influence of Sampling
Procedures on
Contamination
Measurements
It is important to recognize that, because
of the nature of certain liquid penetrant
materials, the sampling procedures can
often influence the results of a given way
of measuring chloride concentration.
When fluorocarbon propellants and
Significance of
Postcleaning of Test
Objects
The purpose of the final postcleaning step
in a liquid penetrant examination is to
remove, as thoroughly as possible, all
liquid penetrant materials applied during
the test process. Thus, simple knowledge
of the halogen content in liquid
penetrant materials provides little useful
information relative to the amount of
halogen remaining on the part after liquid
penetrant testing. On the other hand,
even if all traces of halogen or sulfur
bearing liquid penetrant materials are
removed from the smooth surfaces of the
part, the possibility of retaining damaging
quantities of these compounds in macro
(mechanical) or micro (intergranular)
crevices should not be ignored.
Metallurgical Conditioning of
AISI 304 Stainless Steel Specimens
Test specimens for each of the following
metallurgical conditions were used in the
evaluation: (1) solution annealed,
(2) sensitized and (3) sensitized and
etched. The solution annealed specimens
were included because AISI 304 stainless
steel in this metallurgical condition is
much less susceptible to halogen induced
stress corrosion cracking than material in
the sensitized condition. Specimens that
289
290
(b)
291
Specifying Liquid
Penetrant Materials to
Avoid Induced Stress
Corrosion Cracking1
It should be recognized that the cause of
the stress corrosion cracking observed in
the preceding tests is not actually known.
These tests were designed only to examine
the potential for liquid penetrant induced
stress corrosion cracking under a specific
set of exposure conditions and were not
intended to isolate the cause of an attack
that might be observed. Liquid penetrant
materials that induced the observed stress
corrosion cracking would qualify as
acceptable materials in accordance with
the halogen restrictions specified in
applicable United States standards in
effect from 1971 through 1981.
It thus appears that restrictions on
contaminant concentrations might be
more appropriately specified for whole
samples (including volatiles) instead of
only for the residue, as is the prevalent
practice. It also seems significant that,
although most specifications restrict total
halogens, none of the methods normally
used to verify compliance (including
those discussed herein) respond to
fluoride. Thus, in actual practice, the most
reactive of the halogen elements was
tacitly ignored until 1981.
292
Specification Restrictions
on Sulfur Content of
Liquid Penetrant and Leak
Testing Materials
For years, most new standards have
included an upper limit for total sulfur
impurities in expendable materials such as
liquid penetrants, cleaners and developers;
leak test fluids; coatings; adhesives;
lubricants; and ultrasonic couplants. In
contrast to the effect of halogens, sulfur
and its compounds were not found to be
significantly corrosive nor otherwise
damaging to austenitic stainless steels at
ambient temperatures. However, stress
cracking does take place on high yield
strength ferritic and austenitic steels when
sulfides exist in the aqueous phase and on
nickel and its alloys when sulfides are
present during elevated temperature
processing.
Like halogens, sulfides have been
related to the tendency toward hydrogen
embrittlement. Investigators agree that
minimizing residual amounts of sulfur in
materials applied to iron base and nickel
base alloys will reduce the likelihood of
stress corrosion or sulfide stress cracking.
Selection should be based on which
product has the lowest sulfur content, as
well as the lowest halogen content. The
following information describes the
action of sulfur compounds on different
classes of structural materials.
293
Environmental Conditions
Affecting Intergranular
Attack
Intergranular attack by sulfur has been
reported only for nickel base alloys
subjected to elevated temperatures.
However, it seems probable that austenitic
stainless steels could also be adversely
affected by exposure to sulfur or its
compounds in its sensitizing temperature
range of 590 to 650 C (1100 to 1200 F).
At temperatures below 150 C (300 F),
steels with a maximum yield strength of
520 MPa (75 000 lbfin.2) should not be
subject to sulfide stress cracking. The
tendency for hydrogen absorption and
embrittlement is reduced by raising the
pH of the environment to 6 or greater.
High yield strength austenitic such as
17 percent chromium, 7 percent nickel
alloys should not be susceptible to
cracking if the sulfide content of the
environment is kept well below
1000 gg1.
294
Mechanisms of Stress
Corrosion Cracking of
Austenitic Stainless Steels
Austenitic stainless steels can fail by stress
corrosion cracking, a brittle failure in
ductile material which occurs as a result
of the combined action of tensile stress
and corrosion. Tensile stress may be
externally applied or residual but it must
be sustained or static. Where allowable,
shot peening to alleviate surface tensile
stresses will reduce the tendency for
cracking. Although the minimum stress to
initiate stress corrosion cracking will vary
with the environment and with steel
composition differences, stresses
reportedly as low as 14 MPa
(2000 lbfin.2) have resulted in stress
corrosion cracking of AISI 347 austenitic
stainless steel. It would seem that
significant stress concentrators would
have to be operating to bring about such
low stress failure in AISI 347 surrounded
by vapors at 200 C (400 F) containing
50 gg1 of chloride.
Other Mechanisms of
Cracking of Austenitic
Stainless Steels
Not all cracking occurring in fabrication
or service is halide induced. Three other
modes of failure exist that can take place
at stress levels below the yield strength of
austenitic stainless steel in a noncorrosive
environment.
1. Fatigue failure may be induced
thermally, mechanically or by
vibration during operation.
2. Long time, elevated temperature stress
rupture may occur.
3. Differences in coefficient of expansion
and in thermal conductivity between
cladding and base metal may lead to
failure.
In boiling water reactors, nonstress
corrosion cracks were found to be
longitudinal in cold worked tube and
circumferential in solution annealed
tubing. Although all potential causes
should be considered in a failure
investigation, good design should
minimize the likelihood of cracking from
mechanisms other than stress corrosion.
295
296
Electrochemical/Mechanical
Theory of Crack Propagation
The electrochemical/mechanical theory of
stress corrosion presupposes a two stage
repeating cycle consisting of a short
period of chemical attack, which advances
the crack very little but which triggers a
sudden mechanical fracture over a longer
distance and which is stopped apparently
by a soft slip plane. Once a crack is
initiated, it is not permanently arrested by
contact with grain boundaries, twin
planes, or inclusions, nor is its
propagation influenced by changes in
applied stress or by changes in the nature
of the medium.
At a low stress level, cracking occurs
only in the area of the highest stress.
Studies indicate that cracks extend in
short bursts at average rates up to
4 mmh1 in the condensing vapors above
an 875 gg1 sodium chloride solution at
204 C (400 F) or up to 10 mmh1, in a
boiling magnesium chloride environment.
Some investigators have recorded acoustic
emission, suggesting association with
crack extension. Other investigators were
unable to detect acoustic emission during
crack propagation.
These observations suggest that very
little acoustic emission activity
accompanies intergranular stress corrosion
cracking whereas the opposite is indicated
for transgranular stress corrosion cracking.
Perhaps high stacking fault energy,
indicating tangled dislocations and easy
cross slips in an alloy, inhibits cracking.
Rapid stress corrosion crack propagation
occurs in alloys having highly oriented
dislocations (low stacking fault energies)
and restricted slip.
297
Effect of Cathodic
Protection on Stress
Corrosion Cracking
A small amount of cathodic protection
may inhibit stress corrosion cracking
whereas a large amount may induce it.
Arrangement of anodes in reactors, piping
and heat exchangers for sufficient
protection is frequently impossible and
sacrificial anodes may be undesirable
because of the corrosion products
introduced into the coolant. Where the
highly stressed component is the cathode,
stress corrosion cracking may be stopped
or restarted at will by applying an
external potential.
Conditions Conductive to
Stress Corrosion Cracking
Wherever combinations of high residual
stress, crevices for entrapment of halides
or hydroxides, heat transfer, evaporation
and concentration occur, stress corrosion
cracking is likely. Chlorides can also
concentrate in aluminum corrosion
products by an ion exchange mechanism.
Thus, fabricated stainless steel parts that
have been tested with liquid penetrants or
cleaned by chlorinated solvents are prime
targets for stress corrosion.
298
General Attack
pitting
nil
heavy
heavy
nil
heavy
pitting
pitting
nil
Stress Corrosion
slow (long exposure)
rapid
nil
nil
rapid
nil
slow (long exposure)
slow (long exposure)
rapid
Corrosive Environments
The rate of corrosive attack on stressed
stainless steel by various chlorides is
essentially inversely proportional to their
rate of attack on unstressed stainless.
Information on the comparative effect of
specific chlorides on stressed versus
unstressed AISI 300 series stainless steels is
given in Table 1.
It would appear that stress corrosion
requires selective localized attack, which
can only be provided by corrodents that
do not affect the pure alloy.
Chloride Removal
Following Liquid Penetrant
Testing of Stainless Steels
Stainless steel components should be as
free as possible of surface residual
chlorides after cleaning or liquid
penetrant testing, particularly before heat
treatment, welding or long term storage.
A quantitative chloride determination will
be required to establish the accuracy of a
given flushing procedure. Acid treatment
should be avoided to ensure that no
intergranular corrosion produces a site for
liquid sodium attack in a breeder reactor
or for stress concentration. Final flushing
after liquid penetrant testing of AISI 304
stainless steel can be done with alcohol,
acetone or an aromatic hydrocarbon
solvent such as benzene or toluene. The
latter should provide effective removal of
adsorbed and entrapped chlorides.
However, all are highly flammable.
Conclusions on Control of
Stress Corrosion Cracking
As long as the ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code3 limits total halogens in liquid
materials for nondestructive testing
methods to one percent, materials for use
on austenitic stainless steel components
should be selected for minimum halide
content consistent with effectiveness and
cost. The lower the halide residual
concentration in the environment, the
lower the possibility of stress corrosion.
Thorough cleaning for removal of halide
containing materials after their use will
effectively eliminate any potential for
stress corrosion.
Stainless steels containing a nominal
8 percent nickel such as AISI 304,
AISI 316 and AISI 347 have maximum
sensitivity to chloride stress corrosion
cracking. Attainment of minimum stress
levels in stainless steel components is
therefore desirable. Thermal, vibrational
or peening stress relief can reduce residual
stresses. Residual and/or applied tensile
stresses as low as 14 MPa (2000 lbfin.2)
in combination with 74 C (165 F) or
higher fluid environments containing 1 to
50 gg1 or less of certain chlorides and 1
299
Specifications Limiting
Sulfur and Halogen in
Liquid Penetrant Testing
Materials
Because of these findings, limits have
been placed on the amount of sulfur and
halogen that may be present in liquid
penetrant testing materials used on high
nickel alloys, stainless steel and titanium,
particularly in components of nuclear
power plants. The specifications have
usually been for total sulfur content and
total halogen content. Here it was
assumed that the worst possible case
would be where the liquid penetrant
testing materials are not cleaned off the
part after inspection and the test part is
heated to temperature that will
decompose the test materials, releasing
the elements present for reaction with the
metal of the part.
Impurity Level
Requirements for Liquid
Penetrant Testing
Materials
Impurity level requirements for liquid
penetrant testing materials are restricted
by the ASME Boiler Code, Section V,
Article 6.3 This code limits maximum
residual to 1 percent total sulfur and
1 percent total halogens as determined by
ASTM D 1295 and ASTM D 8086 analytical
300
Significance of Ionizable
Compounds of Sulfur or Halogens
Still other specification writers feel that
there is a difference between ionizable
and nonionizable sulfur or halogen.
Actually, no attack on or reaction with
metal can occur unless the element can
ionize. Then it can leave the compound
in which it was originally bound and
produce new bonds with the metal. Sulfur
and the halogens are normally found in
both inorganic and organic forms. The
inorganic forms of sulfur and the
halogens usually ionize fairly easily and so
are readily available for reaction with the
metal. The organic forms of sulfur and the
halogens usually are very tightly bound.
As long as the organic compounds
containing sulfur and halogen are stable,
these elements may be quite harmless to
metal. For this reason, some specifications
require tests of aqueous extractions of the
test materials. Ionizable contaminants
that could attack parts are then detected
whereas nonionizable contaminants are
ignored.
301
Coulometric Measurement
Instrumentation is available that burns
the sample in a stream of oxygen and
inert gas (helium or argon). This converts
the sulfur to sulfur dioxide, which flows
into a titration cell where it reacts with an
iodine solution. An electric current is run
through the cell to regenerate the iodine
and the current required is a measure of
the sulfur content.
This test operates best with liquids but
can be adapted to solids as well. The
equipment for this test requires
substantial investment.
Ion Chromatography
Still another method for sulfur testing is
ion chromatography. After the sample is
prepared by bomb combustion, a filtered
aliquot is injected into a stream of
carbonate/bicarbonate eluant and passes
through a series of ion exchangers. The
302
Bomb Decomposition
Potentiometric Analysis for
Chlorine
Another method for measuring chlorine is
the bomb decomposition potentiometric
titration method. This method
decomposes the sample in an oxygen
bomb as in ASTM D 808.6 Analysis is done
by potentiometric titration of the metallic
sodium method described above.
This method is sensitive, detecting
chlorine in samples down to 3 gg1. The
method, in common with many others,
actually measures bromides and iodides
along with the chlorides. This method is
described in detail in Annex A2 of
ASTM E 165.4
303
Fluorine Contamination of
Liquid Penetrant Materials
Fluorine is the most active of the
halogens, so it can cause all the problems
ascribed to the other halogens plus some
of its own. However, until 1981, most
specifications did not test for or limit
fluorine content, because adequate tests
did not exist and sufficient work to
determine valid limits was not done.
Fluorine can exist in either organic or
inorganic compounds. Only the ionizable
inorganics are likely to be reactive but the
organics can be converted to inorganics
by the application of heat, so the safest
course is to test for total fluoride rather
than just readily ionizable fluoride. For
this reason, it is normally necessary to
decompose the test material, thus
liberating the fluorides to inorganic,
ionizable form. This is best accomplished
by oxygen bomb decomposition. (See
Annex 3 and Annex 4 of ASTM E 165.4)
304
305
306
Treatment Processes
Applicable to Liquid
Penetrant Effluents
The actual effluent arising from a liquid
penetrant process generally consists of a
dilute emulsion formed by direct
emulsification of the liquid penetrant
with water, in the case of water washable
liquid penetrants. Similar dilute emulsions
can be formed by the action of an
auxiliary emulsifier or liquid penetrant
remover in the case of postemulsifiable
liquid penetrants. The auxiliary
emulsifying agents may contain
constituents broadly similar to those of
the liquid penetrants themselves and the
surfactant system may be either lipophilic
or hydrophilic in nature. The effluent
emulsion generally contains less than one
percent by weight of nonaqueous matter
and is usually fairly stable. Conventional
treatment can be designed to break the
Avoidance of Environmental
Water Contamination by Liquid
Penetrants
Where local regulations allow some oil to
be present in the plant effluent, the liquid
penetrant rinsings, combined with other
nonoily waste streams from within the
plant, may happen to yield a total
effluent within the acceptable range. In
most cases, though, the situation is not
this simple. Then something must be
done with the liquid penetrant removal
operation to lower the oil content of the
effluent.
Worldwide, many attempts have been
made to manage liquid penetrant removal
without contaminating the environment.
Some of these techniques use liquid
penetrant compositions that meet
prevailing pollution control regulations.
Other control techniques alter the process
so that the wastes never leave the test
area. Still other techniques treat the
rinsings to concentrate the oily
contaminants for easy disposal.
Compositions of Liquid
Penetrant Materials to
Avoid Pollution
One approach to the pollution problem is
to alter the liquid penetrants composition
so that the rinsings are less objectionable.
For instance, formulating a liquid
penetrant to be completely water soluble
would avoid the formation of turbidity
and oil slicks.13 Such rinsings might pass
all tests, even though the rinse water
would still be contaminated. However,
complete solubility makes effluent
treatment more difficult. Liquid
penetrants that are completely water
soluble have been available since 1953.
307
Biodegradable Liquid
Penetrants to Reduce
Pollution
Another way to alter a liquid penetrants
composition is to make it biodegradable.
Such a liquid penetrant need not be water
soluble, yet it can have the same removal
properties as oily liquid penetrants. The
rinsings consist of the same sort of fine
emulsion but with an important
difference. Within a few days, the oily
liquid penetrant is almost completely
decomposed by organisms in the water.
The liquid penetrant decomposition will
use up a large amount of free oxygen
from the stream that contains the oily
wastes. This behavior limits the locations
where such a liquid penetrant can be
legally used.
It would be objectionable if liquid
penetrant effluents were emptied directly
into natural bodies of water where the
oxygen depletion could harm the
environment. Oily waste processed in a
sewage treatment plant in the presence of
ample oxygen and a large population of
hungry microorganisms will disappear
without harmful effects. This will increase
the work load of the sewage treatment
plant and perhaps might result in
increased sewer charges. Biodegradable
types of liquid penetrant testing materials
are commercially available for use in
situations where suitable treatment plants
are available.
Recent Developments in
Liquid Penetrant Waste
Water Disposal
The increasing regulatory restrictions on
water pollution brought greater scrutiny
of liquid penetrant materials getting into
waste water.14 Tests were conducted to
develop a better understanding of waste
water characteristics resulting from liquid
penetrant materials introduced around
1990.15 The focus was on two distinct
formulation approaches compositions
based on petroleum distillates and those
based on surface active agents (surfactants),
more commonly referred to as
biodegradable liquid penetrant. The study
investigated the treatability of waste water
generated in the normal course of
fluorescent liquid penetrant testing.
The popular theory at the time was
that surfactant based liquid penetrants,
because they were oilfree, were more
biodegradable than the traditional oil
based formulations.16 Hence making them
more drain disposable. However, the study
came to the conclusion that the popular
308
Drain Disposability
Drain disposability is a term loosely used
to denote the environmental friendliness
of a particular waste when it is put in a
sewer system. In the case of activated
sludge systems, drain disposability would
mean that the waste water can be treated
without hurting the microorganisms,
within the capability of the air supply
system (aeration) and within the
treatment time (detention time). Drain
disposability largely depends on the
Techniques of
Posttreatment of Liquid
Penetrant Rinsings for
Pollution Control
Several liquid penetrant waste purification
processes result in water pure enough to
reuse in the rinsing step. Most of these
processes rely on posttreatment of the
rinsings. Posttreatment processes for
liquid penetrant rinsings can be placed
into four groups: (1) chemical destruction
of the emulsion; (2) molecular filtration,
such as reverse osmosis; (3) absorption of
the emulsion onto a suitable substrate;
and (4) a remover that forms an unstable
emulsion that separates easily. Each of
these techniques of pollution control is
described in detail below.
309
Stage
Initial
1
2
3
50
75
110
Filtration
There are a variety of membrane materials
and configurations. Membranes are made
from polymers, stainless steel and
ceramics. Membrane selection is based on
the size of the particles to be separated
and the chemistry of the effluent stream
as it relates to the chemistry of the
membrane.
The standard membrane delivery
system is a dead end filtration, so called
because the feed fluid flow is directed at a
right angle to the membrane without any
attempt to control the thickness of the
concentrate boundary layer at the filters
surface. Rapid buildup of retained solids
to the membrane surface and continuous
buildup of materials severely limit the
flow and separation of the effluent. The
most widely used dead end filters are the
cartridge filters. Generally the cartridge
filters are limited to feed streams of low
viscosity and solid content. Once the filter
flow rate has dropped off to an
unaccepted level, the cartridge filter must
be discarded.
To achieve relief from the
accumulation of rejected effluent
materials and the increasing pressure
drop, filtration systems have been
developed to flow the effluent stream
parallel to the membranes surface in cross
flow filtration, or tangential flow filtration.
In tangential flow filtration, the effluent
feed is pumped at a high velocity in an
attempt to shear away the concentration
polarization layer and minimize its effect
on the separation. Turbulent flow designs
FIGURE 7. Schematic cross section drawing of permeator showing membrane used to pass oil
free water radially outward and retain oily contaminants in tubular enclosure.
Membrane
Dilute
oil feed
Oil concentrate
Oil
free
water
Ultrafiltration process
310
311
312
Adsorption of Surfactants
onto Carbon
Certain types of carbon are capable of
removing surfactants. However, it was
discovered that types of carbon that
remove surfactants have no decolorizing
properties with respect to the type of dye
generally used in fluorescent liquid
penetrants. Therefore, one has to adopt a
sandwich arrangement of the two types of
carbon, separated by a perforated plate,
set up so that the effluent water passes
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Economic Feasibility of
Liquid Penetrant Waste
Water Clarification
In many localities, effluents from
nonprewash liquid penetrant processes
cannot go directly to the sewer. They
require extensive treatment (1) to break
the emulsion, (2) to separate the organics
and (3) to clarify the water. Although
water may be reclaimed after expensive
processing, the separated liquid penetrant
and emulsifier oils will be chemically
altered and the economics of reclaiming
these materials might be questioned. If
the effluent is not an emulsion, then
treatment costs are reduced. A
nonemulsified effluent separates by
gravity. Whether the pollutants float to
the top of the tank or sink to the bottom
depends on their specific gravity. In either
case, separation takes place without
expensive filtration or chemical addition.
Therefore, a nonemulsified effluent can
minimize water clarification cost.
Principles of Operation of
Hydrophilic Liquid
Penetrant Systems
Prewashing with plain water physically
removes from the surface all but a trace of
the liquid penetrant. How completely the
liquid penetrant is removed depends on
factors such as (1) surface roughness,
(2) water pressure and scrubbing action,
(3) duration of the wash and (4) liquid
penetrant characteristics such as viscosity
and adhesive properties. On a typical
turbine blade, for example, a nonwater
washable fluorescent liquid penetrant
with balanced adhesive and cohesive
properties and relatively low viscosity will
be removed from the surface with a water
wash so that the remaining liquid
penetrant is only a microscopic film, as
315
Example of Hydrophilic
Treatment of Jet Engine
Turbine Blades
For demonstration purposes, the white
light photograph of Fig. 9 shows the three
316
Evaluation of Hydrophilic
Technique on Liquid
Penetrant System Monitor
Panel
Figure 10 is a composite ultraviolet
radiation photograph that again illustrates
the three stages of the process. The test
piece is a liquid penetrant system monitor
panel. This stainless steel panel has a
chrome strip with five induced crack
centers of varying magnitude whereas the
balance of the panel has been sand
blasted. The panel facilitates simultaneous
sensitivity and washability evaluation. At
317
Function of Detergents in
Oil Phase Liquid
Penetrants
The function of the detergent ingredient
in oil phase liquid penetrants is to render
the oil constituent of the material
emulsifiable in water. The detergent acts
to combine with the oily liquid penetrant
and when test parts coated with the liquid
penetrant/detergent mixture are washed
with water, the liquid penetrant oil is
flushed from the test surfaces and is
emulsified and partially solubilized.
The mechanics of oil emulsification
imply that water added to an emulsifiable
oil mixture forms molecular clusters
known as micelles. These micelles become
enlarged as water is added, until a point is
318
Effects of Detergent
Contamination of Lakes
and Streams
Modern detergents, both industrial and
household, have presented tremendous
problems of water pollution. Several years
ago, the detergent manufacturers were
seeking commercially acceptable detergent
products that were readily biodegradable.
The idea was that all would be well if
effluent waters containing such
compounds would readily decompose or
be eaten up by biological organisms.
Unfortunately, the idea of enhancing
biodegradability of detergents did not
solve the pollution problem. Some lakes
and streams have such high concentration
of detergent contaminants that thick
layers of foam or suds remain and act to
choke off oxygen from marine life. In
certain cases of high biodegradability,
algae proliferate to the point where the
algae consume all the nutrients in the
water. Then the algae die and create
further damage by exhausting the water
of dissolved oxygen through the process
of decay and decomposition called
eutrophication. It is becoming more and
more evident that the only permanent
solution to the problem of detergent
pollution of water is to remove the
detergent contaminants before the waste
water is discharged into outfall sewers or
into waterways.
Some detergents contain nonionic
surfactants that are easily biodegradable.
However, the issue of oxygen depletion by
these surfactants has necessitated
regulatory controls for waste water
disposal.
319
320
Water
Solvent
Process
Liquid
penetrant
Parts
Skim
Solvent
extraction
Distillation
Inspect
321
322
References
323