2 - Engineering Geology and Soil Mechanics - Chapter 3 - Soil Density and Compaction

SOIL MECGANICS
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SOIL DENSIY AND COMPACTION
34
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY AND SOIL MECHANICS

Sept 2009
CHAPTER
4 3
CHAPTER
SOIL DENSITY AND COMPACTION
Density of a soil provides a measure of the quantity of materials (mass) it contains

related to the amount of space (volume) the materials occupy. The volume here refers
to the volume of soil solid grains plus the volume of voids between grains.
[Refer to
Chapter 2 for various states of soil density and the related equations (i.e. bulk density
( ), dry density ( ), saturated density ( ), submerged density ( )].
b
sat
sub
In general, the higher its density value, the denser or more compacted the soil is.
3.1
4.1
Relative Density
The actual void ratio of a soil lies somewhere between the possible minimum and
maximum values, i.e. emin and emax. In the case of soils without fines (sometimes
referred to as cohesionless, i.e., sands and gravels), a more convenient measure of the
state of compaction is provided by indicating the relationship between the actual void
ratio, e and the two extremes emin and emax that these soils can attain. Such an
indication is termed the Density Index (Id) or sometimes referred to as Relative
Density (D ).
R
Id =
emax e
emax emin
where e is the current voids ratio,

emax, emin are the maximum and minimum voids ratios measured in the laboratory from
Standard Tests. (See appendix 1 for determination of emax and emin.)
Note that if
e = emin, Id = 1 and the soil is in its densest state

e = emax, Id = 0 and the soil is in its loosest state
Table 3.1 Relative Compaction States for cohesionless soils
Density
0-15
Index (%)
State of
Very loose
Compaction
15-35
35-65
65-85
85-100
Loose
Medium
Dense
Very Dense
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The expression for Density Index can also be written in terms of the dry density associated
with the various voids ratios. From the definitions we have
Refer to Chapter 2, page 9/19
e=
Gs w
and hence
1
Id =
min
min
y
1
d ( d d )
max
d ( d
min
max
d min )
max
Note that you cannot determine the density from knowing Id. This is because the values of the
maximum and minimum dry densities (void ratios) can vary significantly. They depend on
soil type (mineralogy), the particle grading, and the angularity.
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Pour soil into

the mould
Appendix 1
Determination of emax and emin

Determination of e
max
place a mould (mass = M1 and volume = V1) under water and quickly pour soil into
it from just above the top
strike off level the soil surface and determine the mass of mould+water+soil (M2)
sat (min) =
M2 - M1
V1
e max =
G s w - sat (min)
sat (min) - w
Determination of e
(G s + e max ) w
1 + e max
and
e max
1 + e max
n max =
min
place a standard compaction mould (mass = M3 and volume =V3) under water
place the soil in the mould in three layers of approximately equal thickness, each of
the layer is compacted using a vibrating hammer
strike off level the soil surface and determine the mass of mould+soil+water (M4)
sat (max) =
M4 - M3
V3
e min =
G s w - sat (max)
sat (max) - w
(G s + e min ) w
1 + e min
and
n min =
e min
1 + e min
Compact the soil in the

mould in three layers
using a vibrating hammer
3
2
1
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3.2
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Field Measurement of Soil Density
3.2.1 Sand Replacement

4.2.1
Rreplacement Method (Sand Pouring Cylinder Method)
For cohesionless soils, the Sand Replacement Method is used Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1 Sand Pouring Cylinder
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Equipment (see Figure 4.1):
A pouring cylinder filled to within 15 mm of the top with uniform fine standard
sand with diameter of grains between 0.3 mm to 0.6 mm. (The cylinder should
have a shutter to allow the sand to fall through into the cone-shaped space.)
Tool for excavating holes in ground, consisting of a steel dipper and spoon, and a
scraper for making the ground level.
A metal tray about 300 mm square with a hole in the centre, 100 mm in diameter
A glass plate
A calibrating container 100 mm in diameter and 150 mm deep
Synopsis
The procedures involves digging a hole in the ground and removing a known mass of
soil from the hole, and filling the hole with standard sand of known density. The
volume of the hole can then be calculated from the mass of the replacing standard sand
used (since the sand density is known). Knowing the volume of the hole and the mass
of soil removed, the bulk density can be calculated. The dry density can also be
calculated after obtaining the water content.
Test Procedures
Detailed test details are described below:
Calibration of Density of Standard Sand

Step 1:
Determine the mass of the cone of sand formed on the glass plate (Figure 4.2).
Make several determinations and take the mean value.
Determine the volume of the calibrating container (Vc) by measuring its dimension,
or by filling it with water (the volume of the container is equal to the mass of water
required to fill the container divided by the density of water).
Figure 4.2 Measuring Mass of Sand Cone on Glass Plate

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Step2:
Fill the calibrating container with sand from the pouring cylinder (Figure 4.3). The
mass of sand filling the container is found by subtracting the mass of sand in the
cone. This calibration is repeated several times and the mean value is taken.
From the mass of sand filling the calibrating container and the volume of the
calibrating container, the density of the standard sand is determined.
Figure 4.3 Filling the Calibrating Cylinder
Field Test
Step 3:
The test area is scraped level and the metal tray with the central hole is placed on
the levelled area.
A hole in the ground with the same diameter as the hole in the tray is dug to a
depth of 150 mm. The excavated soil is placed in a sealed container immediately
and is taken to the laboratory where it is weighed and the moisture contained
determined.
The pouring cylinder, which is filled to within 15 mm of the top with standard sand,
is placed on the template over the excavated hole. The shutter is opened and the
sand is allowed to fill the excavated hole (Figure 4.4). By difference, the mass of
standard sand filling the excavated hole can be found.
m4-m5
Figure 4.4 Filling Excavated Hole in Soil

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Calculation:
(a)
mass of sand to fill calibrating cylinder (ma):
ma
m1 - m2 - m3
where m1 = mass of cylinder and sand before pouring into calibration container
m2 = mass of sand in the cone
m3 = mass of the cylinder and sand after pouring into the calibration container
(b)
the bulk density of the standard sand (sand) is calculated by:
sand =
ma / Va
where Va = the volume of the calibrating container

(c)
the mass of sand required to fill the excavated hole (mb) is calculated by:
mb
m4 - m5 - m2
where m4 = mass of cylinder and sand before pouring into the excavated hole
m5 = mass of cylinder and sand after pouring into the excavated hole
(d)
the bulk density of the soil (b) is calculated by:
(mt/mb) x sand
where mt = mass of soil (total mass) excavated

mb = mass of sand required to fill the excavated hole
(e)
the dry density ( ) is calculated by:

d
b / (1 + w)
or
(md/ mb) x sand
where w = moisture content

md = mass of dry soil excavated
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Ans: sand=1258 kg/m3
CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER 3
Ans: bulk density of soil specimen=1134 kg/m3 ; w = 34.4%
d = 844 kg/m3
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Ans: sand=1259 kg/m3
Not to be included in
the notes for Students
CHAPTER 4
Ans: bulk density of soil specimen=1374 kg/m3 ; w = 34.4%

= 1022 kg/m3
d
Mass of soil excavated from hole
w = Mw/Ms = (2.03-1.51)/1.51 x 100%

=34.4%
d = b / (1+w)
= 1374/(1 + 34.4%)
= 1022 kg/m3
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4.2.2 Cone
Core Cutter Method
Sept 2009
For cohesive soils, the Cone

Core cutter method is used (Figure 4.5).
drive a steel cylinder (of known weight and volume), with a hardened
cutting edge, into the ground using a steel rammer and protective dolly
dug out the cutter and trim the soil flush at each end
weigh the whole cylinder with soil to determine the mass of the soil and its
bulk density
if the water content is also determined, the dry density can also be calculated
Figure 4.6 Cone

Core Cutter
Cutter
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4.2.3
Nuclear Method
Sept 2009
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In this method, both the bulk density and water content may be determined
simultaneously. The method is quick and non-destructive. There are variations in this
method depending on the depth of the soil to be measured. The apparatus (Figure 4.7)
consists of a portable box with two radio-active sources at its base. One source emits
gamma rays for density measurement and the other emits fast-moving neutrons
for
moisture content measurement. Dense soil absorbs more radiation than loose soil and
the readings reflect overall density. Water content can also be read, all within a few
minutes.
Nuclear Gauge Moisture

and Density testing
Method
Figure 4.7 Nuclear Meter
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Procedures
Measuring Density
Position the box well seated on ground to minimize air gaps at the soil interface.
Emitted gamma rays penetrate the soil and are reflected back (back scatter). The
intensity of the back scatter varies directly with the density of the soil.
Geiger-Muller tubes detect the scatter and translate the count-rate or intensity of
detected radiation into a direct reading showing the soil density in kg/m3. (Using
standard blocks, the Geiger-Muller tubes are precalibrated, the typical range
covered by the meter is 1,100 to 2,700 kg/m3.)
The meter is calibrated in the laboratory by using several materials, such as
limestone and granite grains, which are made into blocks with different densities
that fall within the ranges expected for the soil to be tested. The meter is adjusted
so that the density reading corresponding with the known density of the standard
blocks.
Measuring Moisture Content

Fast-moving neutrons from a source at the base of the instrument penetrate the soil.
Collision of the fast-moving neutrons with the hydrogen ions in soil water has the
effect of slowing the neutrons down more effectively than collision with heavier
atoms in the soil.
The intensity of the back scatter of slow-moving neutrons is directly related to the
hydrogen concentration and therefore the water content of the soil.
A boron-trifluoride-coated tube, which is a slow neutron detector, is used to detect

the reflected neutrons.
The neutron count-rate is translated directly by the meter into water content in
kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3) over a range usually of 0 - 800 kg/m3.
The instrument is pre-calibrated with samples of known water content.
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CHAPTER
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COMPACTION OF SOIL
4.3.1 What is compaction?

A simple ground improvement technique, where the soil is made dense through
external mechanical compactive effort.
Compactive
Effort
+ WATER =
What are done to the soil in compaction?
Solid gains are brought closer together, therefore, soil is denser

Decrease in air void volume only
No change in water volume
air
air
water
water
soil
solid
soil
solid
Before
Addition of
Compactive
Effort
After
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4.3.2 Why is compaction done? (Purposes)
To increase the shear strength and therefore the bearing capacity of the soil.
To make the soil less susceptible to subsequent volume changes and therefore
less settlement under load or under the influence of vibration.
To reduce the void ratio of the soil such that the soil will absorb less water
(water is no good to fine-grained soil).
Reduction in the void ratio also decreases the permeability of the soil (water
not easy to go through).
Compaction can prevent the build up of large water pressures that cause soil
to liquefy during earthquakes
4.3.3 How is compaction done?

By Pressure (adding load on the soil)

By Vibration (shaking the soil)
By Impact (pounding the soil)
Dynamic Compaction (dropping heavy weights onto the soil)

Vibroflotation
4.3.4 What factors affect the effectiveness of compaction?
the nature and type of soil (i.e., sand or clay, uniform or well graded, plastic or
non-plastic)
the moisture content at the time of placing of soil
the type of compaction plant used
the maximum possible state of compaction attainable for the soil
the maximum amount of compaction effort attainable under field conditions
4.3.5 Laboratory compaction tests

The laboratory compaction test is done to:

assess the suitability of the soil for the proposed purposes

assess the acceptability of field compaction work (as a field compaction control)
There are several types of test which can be used to study the compactive properties of
soils. Because of the importance of compaction in most earth works standard
procedures have been developed. These generally involve compacting soil into a
mould at various moisture contents. One of the three standard laboratory tests shown
in Table 4.2 is used for this purpose (the most common one is the Proctor test).
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Table 4.2 Standard Laboratory Compaction Tests
Sept 2009
Proctor Test Modified AASHTO Test

BS Desigation
2.5 kg method
4.5 kg method
Soil: quantity
5 kg
5 kg
Size
20 mm
20 mm
Hammer:(Mass)
2.5 kg
4.5 kg
(Face dia.) 50 mm
50 mm
(Drop)
300 mm
450 mm
Mould: (Volume) 1000 cm3
1000 cm3
(Internal dia.) 105 mm
105 mm
(Height) 115.5 mm
115.5 mm
No. of layers:
3
5
No. of blows:
27
27
Energy/Force
600 kN/m3
2700 kN/m3
Vibrating Hammer
Vibrating Hammer
25 kg
37.5 mm
---2305 cm3
152 mm
127 mm
3
Vibrated for 60 s
300-400 N
Handle
collar (mould
extension)
Metal guide to control
drop of hammer
Cylindrical
soil mould
Hammer for
compacting soil
Base plate
Mould
Figure 4.8 Standard Proctor Mold
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4.3.6 Presentation of laboratory compaction test results
To assess the degree of compaction it is important to use the dry density, , because
we are interested in the mass of solid soil particles in a given volume, not the total
mass per unit volume (which is the bulk density). From the relationships derived
previously we have:
d
b=
d=
Hence,
M T M S + M w M S + wM S M S (1 + w)
+ w)
=
=
=
= d (1 =
VT
VT
VT
VT
b
(1 + w) where the water content w is in actual value (not %)
This allows us to plot the variation of dry density with water content, giving the typical
response shown in Figure 4.9 below. From this graph we can determine the optimum
water content, w , for the maximum dry density, ( ) .
opt
d max
Dry unit weight
Dry Density d
Bulk
density
(dry
)
d(max)
max
wopt
m
opt
Moisture
content
Water Content,
w
Figure 4.9 Typical Compaction Test Result
If the soil were to contain a constant percentage, A, of voids containing air where
Av =
Va
(AV in actual value, not %)
Vt
writing V as V - V - V we obtain
a
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1 AV =
V w +V s
Vt
then a theoretical relationship between and w for a given value of A can be derived
as follows
d
d =
Va
water
Mw
soil particles
Gs=2.65
Ms
M
WSs ++W
WS ++W
MW
MwW ((M
w ))(1 AV )
= s
1+ w VT (1+ w)
(V s +V w )(1+ w)
Now V s =
Ms
and
Gs w
Vw =
Mw
wM s
Gs w
(1 AV )
1 + wG s
Hence d =
If the percentage of air voids is zero, that is, the soil is totally saturated, then this
equation becomes
Gs w
1 + wG s
d =
1.
From this equation we see that there is a limiting dry density for any water content and
this occurs when the voids are full of water. Increasing the water content for a
saturated soil will result in a reduction in dry density. The relation between the water
content and dry density for saturated soil is shown on the Figure 4.10. This line is
2.
known as the zero air voids line.
ze
r
Dry Density
Dry unit
weightd
Vt
air
oa ir
-v
oi
ds
lin
e
M oisture
content
Water Content,
w
Figure 4.10 Typical compaction curve showing zero-air-voids line
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4.3.7 Effects of water content on compaction

As water is added to a soil (at low water content) it becomes easier for the particles to
move past one another during the application of the compacting forces. As the soil
compacts the voids are reduced and this causes the dry density to increase. Initially, as
the water content increases so does the dry density. However, the increase cannot
occur indefinitely because the soil state approaches the zero air voids line which gives
the maximum dry density for a given water content. Thus as the state approaches the
zero air voids line further water content increases must result in a reduction in dry
density. As the state approaches the zero air voids line a maximum dry density is
reached and the water content at this maximum dry density is called the optimum
water content.
4.3.8 Effects of increasing compactive effort
Dry Density d
Dry unit
weight
Increased compactive effort enables greater dry density to be achieved and because of
the shape of the zero air voids line this must occur at a lower optimum water content.
The effect of increasing compactive energy can be seen in Figure 4.11. It should be
noted that for water contents greater than the optimum the use of heavier compaction
machinery will have only a small effect on increasing dry density. For this reason it is
important to have good control over water content during compaction of soil layers in
the field.
inc re a s ing c o m p a c tiv e

e ne rg y
ze
ro
-
ai
r-v
oi
ds
lin
e
Little Increase in the

dry density at the wet
sides even though
increasing the
compactive effort
M oisture
content
Water Content,
w
Figure 4.11 Effects of compactive effort on compaction curves
It can be seen from this figure that the compaction curve is not a unique soil
characteristic. It depends on the compaction energy. For this reason it is important that
other than
then giving the values of ( ) and w it is important to also specify the
compaction procedure (for example, standard or modified).
d max
opt
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4.3.9 Effects of soil type

Table 4.3 below shows typical values for the different soil types obtained from the
Standard Compaction Test.
Table 4.3
Typical compaction results on different soil types.

Typical Values
w (%)
( ) (kN/m )
22
7
3
Well graded sand

SW
Sandy clay
SWC
Poorly graded sand
SP
Low plasticity clay
CL
Non plastic silt
ML
High plasticity clay
CH
max
opt
19
12
18
15
18
15
17
17
15
25
It can be seen that compaction is more effective on well-graded soils (compared with
poorly graded) and coarse-grained soils (compared with fine-grained soils).
4.3.10 Field Compression
Compaction by Pressure
This method is used in the field on construction sites and consists of moving heavy
vehicles and plants over loosely-dumped soil to close its void spaces. Different types
of rolling equipment are used in the field according to the nature of the soil and the
weight of plant deemed necessary.
Smooth-wheel roller
Pneumatic-tyred roller
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Sheeps-foot roller
Grid-roller
Compaction by Vibration
Compaction by vibrating the soil is usually used in loose granular soils such as sands
and gravels. As the compaction plant vibrated under pressure, the soil densifies and
its void spaces decrease. Various vibratory plants are available, e.g., vibration plate,
vibratory roller, vibratory compactor, vibrotamper.
Vibration plate
Vibratory roller
Compaction by Impact
The ground is pounded by a heavy rammer.
Rammer
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Impact Roller
.
Dynamic Compaction
- pounding the ground by a heavy weight

Suitable for granular soils, land fills
and karst terrain with sink holes.
Pounder (Tamper)
solution cavities in
limestone
Crater created by the impact

(to be backfilled)
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Pounder (Tamper)
Mass = 5-30 tonne
Drop = 10-30 m
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Vibroflotation
vibrator makes
a hole in the
weak ground
hole
backfilled
with sand
..and
compacted
..backfilling and
compaction
repeated until
hole is filled
Practiced in several forms:

vibrocompaction
stone columns
vibro-replacement
Vibroflot (vibrating unit)

Length = 2 3 m
Diameter = 0.3 0.5 m
Mass = 2 tonnes
(lowered into the ground
and vibrated)
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Forming the hole.
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Backfilling with sand and compact.
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Repeat until hole is filled.
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4.3.11 Field specifications

To control the soil properties of earthwork (e.g. dams, roads) it is usual to specify that
the soil must be compacted to some pre-determined dry unit weight. This specification
is usually that a certain percentage of the maximum dry density, as found from a
laboratory test (Standard or Modified) must be achieved.
For example we could specify that field dry densities must be greater than 98% of the
maximum dry unit weight as determined from the Standard Compaction Test and that
the water content must be a certain amount above or below the optimum. It is then up
to the Contractor to select machinery, the thickness of each lift (layer of soil added)
and to control water contents in order to achieve the specified amount of compaction.
say, 95 or 98% of the Relative Compaction, RC
Accept
Accept
Dry unit weight
Dry unit weight
Reject
Moisture content
Reject
Moisture content
(a) more stingent
(b)
Figure 4.12 Possible field specifications for compaction

The dry density achieved in the field after compaction then must be compared with the
maximum value obtained in the laboratory in order to assess the specified standard.
The required standard may be specified in terms of the relative compaction:
Relative Compaction (RC) =
achieved d(field)
maximum d ( lab )
x 100%
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Further Worked Examples
It is desirable to have a measure of the spread of values which make up the .. c.

sample, and this is the basis of part (b) of the specification.
,_ .. -,-_.,--
-",
'_"
~~"-\",
The coefficient of variation of it balch is

""'"".,.
-''', C = standard deviation of crushing strengths s
v
'.
average crushing strength 1
''-"
'The st~dard
deviation s
~,
= ~E(X tI -
1)2
. (S-.ll) '-:
(8.9)
where x = the c~ing strength of a sample

1 = the avera~rushing strength of a batch
n = the number of~amples in a batch
For the given data;
~,
"-
Sample
1
2
3
4
5
406
416
2800
2760
2820
2760
2760
444
488
483
~,
c;
14.5% ',",210.2
15.1%
~8.0
15.7%
24'&5
17.6%
309.11'-,_"
17.5%
1:1300.7
3062
..
Root mean square of C.
~"""",
1300.7
= ~ --5= 16.13%
.... ...... ....

~
8.12 Optimum water

content of a soil
sample using the
standard compaction
test
-.~
Describe the standard compaction test, stating its object.

In a standard compaction [est on a soil (G, = 2.70), the following
results were obtained:
Waler comem
Bulk densily
(%)
(Mg/m J)
5
8
10
12
15
20
1.89
2.13
2.20
2.21
2.16
2.08
Show these results plotted as dry density against water content. On the
same axes, show the zero air voids (saturation) line for the soil.
What are the values of void ratio, porosity and degree of saturation
for the soil at its condition of optimum water content?
IN-SITU TESTS AND THE IMPROVEMENT OF SOIL PROPERTIES
245
Page 28 of 35
CHAPTER 3 Further Worked Examples
VT
Page 29 of 35
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY AND

SOIL MECHANICS
\-
2.10
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
AND SOIL MECHANICS
2 00 Mg/m J
:::.:.~::'
I
Optimum water
,_,--
Vs
0.2
02
Vw==--=
. mJ
1.0
V.1
e
Pw' G,
IV
= 0.10
M w = 0.10 x 2.00 = 0.2 Mg/m J
content:= 10%
V -
Vv
Vw -
Vs
When [he soil is saturated. A r = 0 and the line is known as the zero air voids
line or saturation line.
I +
M,
Figure 8.15
Pd -
2.00
== 0.74 mJ
1.00 X 2.7
w == M
w (%)
Masses
2.00 Mg/m 3
Ms
1.7010L-----!:----~10;-----715<---~20
.. ~- __~ __--J
M,('P d )
for V"" 1
Using these values, the zero air voids line has been plotted on Fig. 8.15, from
J
which Pd.ma. == 2.00 Mg/m and the optimum water content == 0.10.
3
Consider I m of the soil in this condition.
I
J
Figure 8.16
+~
Volumes
:! \++~
1.80
M A "-0
Mw
1.90
A
W
V-l
~~ _---+~\
2.00
VA
V
Vv
V
Sr
Vw
Vv
V,
I - 0.2 - 0.74
0.79
+ Vw = 0.26 = 0.35
Vs
0.26
1.00
0.74
= 0.06 m3
~
= 0,26
(8.12)
G,
For the given soil. if A r = 0, since P",
1.0 Mg/m 3
= 0.20 = 0.77
0.26
2.7
Pd
2.7w
Substituting values of
IV
gives the corresponding values of Pd:

W
0.100
0.125
0.150
0.175
0.200
248
Pd
(Mg/m J)
8.13 Comparison of
optimum water
content obtaiiiable
in the laboratory
and in the field
2.13
2.02
1.92
1.84
1.75
The following are the results of a standard compaction test on a sandi

cement mixture having an equivalent grain specific gravity of 2.70:
Water Content (%)
CO:ilpacted dry densiry (Mg/m J)
10
12.5
16
20
1.64 1.78 1.85 1.89 1.84

1.73
Plot these results and on the same axes plot the zero air voids line.
What percentage of air voids (A r %) exists in the sample at optimum
water content?
SOLVING PROBLEMS IN SOIL MECHANICS
Page 30 of 35
IN-SII'U TESTS ANO THE IMPROVEMENT OF SOIL PROPERTIES
245

SOIL MECHANICS
6.4% Air Voids
(5) bulk (in-situ density) with adequate

sampling to GS
Page 31 of 35

SOIL MECHANICS
1.676 Mg/m3
Mb
Md
Small
Samples
unit weight
Page 32 of 35

SOIL MECHANICS
useful or not to achieve a higher RC%
Page 33 of 35
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
AND SOIL MECHANICS

/5% Air voids line
\,
2.08
2.06
2.04
M
E
01
:;
2.02
;:-
.;;;
2.00
'\ +\
'\1
1.98
1.98
1.94
)~t+
Optimum
water
~=>/ I \X\'~'
,
;;
~
\
Enhancing the
compaction effort can
increase the dry
density obtainable
given the water content
w at 10%.
'0
\'(zero air voids line
I.
.+
1.92
10
\\ \ \
\
11
I?
';
13
15
14
Water content w(%)
Figure 8.21
~oblems
~ plate bearing tests were carried out on a medium sand. Settlement
observ~~s
were subsequently made on two of the actual foundations

at the site ~ich were loaded to the same intensity as the plates. The
records of the'-bservations were:
Sefllemenr, P (mm)
0.32
(Eo)
0.64
1.6
4.8
2.5
(Po)
4.5
95
175
Plot the settlement ratio p/Po ag,lim;'Njle breadth ratio B/Bo and compare
them with the Terzaghi expression
Comment on the result.

2 The readings obtained in a pressure meter test at
in a clay are shown below. Plot Do V against cell pn:sSIJre\?flO
256
SOLVING PROBLEMS IN SOIL MECHANICS
Page 34 of 35
Chapter 34 Soil
Soil Density
Density and
and Compaction
Compaction
Chapter
Engineering Geology & Soil Mechanics
Chapter
Chapter34 Soil Density and Compaction
Class Practice
Q.1
The maximum and minimum volumes of 1.72 kg of a dry medium sand were
determined in a measuring cup to be 1.21 litres and 0.94 litres respectively. The
specific gravity of solid grains, Gs, was 2.70 and the density of water was 1000
kg/m3.
(i)
(ii)
Q.2
Calculate the maximum and minimum dry densities and the void ratio of the
sand at each density state.
(5 Marks)
Determine the dry density of this sand in the field if its relative density was
0.62?
(4 Marks)
A sand replacement test was performed to determine the in-situ density of the
compacted soil of a fill slope. The test results are summarized below:
Mass of sand in the cone
Mass of soil removed from the hole
Mass of dry soil after drying completely in the oven
Mass of sand and pouring cylinder before filling the hole
Mass of sand and pouring cylinder after filling the hole
Density of sand in cylinder
= 0.41 kg
= 1.98 kg
= 1.73 kg
= 8.9 kg
= 6.82 kg
= 1540 kg/m3
(i) Find the bulk density and dry density of the compacted soil. (3 marks)
(ii) Determine the in-situ moisture content of the compacted soil. (1 mark)
(iii) If 95% relative compaction is needed and the maximum dry density of the
(2 marks)
soil is 1675 kg/m3, will the compaction pass?
Soil Mechanics_Chapter 4_Class Practice_2014
Chapter
Chapter 34 Soil
Soil Density
Density and
and Compaction
Compaction
Engineering Geology & Soil Mechanics
Chapter 4 Soil Density and Compaction

Class Practice
Q3. A Standard Proctor compaction tests carried out on a sample of sandy clay and the
following results was obtained:
Bulk Density 2038
(kg/m3)
Moisture
8.5
Content (%)
2148
2198
2228
2213
2132
10.2
11.3
12.6
14.0
15.5
Determine the followings if specific gravity of soil is 2.7:

(i) Tabulate and plot the curve of dry density against moisture content curve.
(13 marks)
(ii)
Find the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content.
(iii) Find the air void content at its maximum dry density.
(2 marks)
(iv) What range of moisture content should be specified in the field for soil
compaction if the required Relative Density is specified to be at least
95%?
(2 marks)
Q.4
To investigate the likelihood of liquefaction of a fill slope, the density of the fill soils
was determined. A liquefaction potential was said to exist if the fill failed to attain a
relative compaction of 85%. Standard Proctor Test was carried out on samples of the
fill soils excavated from the slope. Results of the tests were tabulated in the following
table.
Bulk Density (kg/m3)
Water Content (%)
Gs = 2.70
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
1905
11.3
2012
12.5
2132
14.0
2152
15.5
2132
16.8
Calculate the dry density for each test and plot the dry density versus water
content of the fill. On the same graph, plot the dry density/water content curve
for zero air voids ratio.
(8 Marks)
Determine the maximum dry density, optimum water content and the
corresponding air void ratio of the fill.
(5 Marks)
3
Bulk density of the in-situ fill was 1780 kg/m with a water content of 13.5%.
Determine whether the fill slope has a liquefaction potential and provide reasons
for the answer.
(3 Marks)
Soil Mechanics_Chapter 4_Class Practice_2014
Chapter 3 Soil Density

and Compaction
Sept 2009
Dr. Paul Ho
SOIL MECHANICS AND

GEOLOGY& SOIL MECHANICS
ENGINEERING
GEOLOGY
TUTORIAL
1
Class Practice
Q.4
Q.5
Soil Density &
Compaction
You are given the following laboratory and field test results for a fill.
Laboratory Measurement
Compaction (Proctor) test of the borrowed fill:
Test No.
Moisture content m or w (%)
1
12
2
13
3
14
4
16
Bulk density b (kg/m3)

1836
1935
2019
2084
Specific gravity G of soil solid grains of borrowed fill = 2.65
5
18
2041
Maximum and Minimum void ratios:

Maximum void ratio emax = 0.87
Minimum void ratio emin = 0.40
Field Measurement
Field density test results of the borrowed fill after compaction:
Field dry density, d:
Field water content, w:
1730 kg/m3
14.5 %
Field Compaction Control Requirements

Relative Compaction RC > 95%
w of compacted fill must be within 2 % of wopt
Do the following:
From results of laboratory measurement:
(i) Plot dry density d against w and determine the maximum dry density
d(max) and optimum water content wopt
From results of field measurement:
(ii)
The Density Index ID
(iii) The Relative Compaction RC
(iv)
Determine if the field dry density satisfies the compaction

requirements.
Page 4 of 4
SOIL
AND GEOLOGY
GEOLOGY
SOIL MECHANICS
MECGANICS AND

Sept 2009
CHAPTER
4 3
CHAPTER
Home Exercise
A British Standard compaction test (Proctor test) was conducted on a fill soil
and the following data were collected:
GS = 2.70
Water Content (%)
Bulk Density (kg/m3)
5
8
10
13
16
19
1870 2040 2130 2200 2160 2090
Dry Density (kg/m3)

Dry Density (kg/m3, AV = 0%)
(a)
Calculate the dry density for each test and plot the graph of dry density
against water content, and from it determine the maximum dry density
and optimum moisture content. Ans: w=12%, d =1950kg/m3
(b)
On the same graph, draw the dry density/water content curve for zero air
voids. Also determine the air void ratio at the maximum dry density. Ans: Ar=4.6%
(c)
The fill was then compacted to form a road embankment. A Sand

Pouring Cylinder test was then conducted to measure the dry density of
the compacted fill with data as follow:
Mass of compacted fill removed from the hole

1.914 kg
Mass of compacted fill after oven drying
1.664 kg
Mass of sand-pouring cylinder before filling the hole with sand 3.426 kg
Mass of sand-pouring cylinder after filling the hole with sand 1.594 kg
Density of pouring sand
1450 kg/m3
Mass of sand in the cone of the sand-pouring cylinder
0.248 kg
The specifications require that the water content may vary above and below the
optimum value by 3 % only and that a Relative Compaction of 97% must be
achieved.
Determine therefore if the field compaction satisfied the
specifications. Ans: No
Page 26
35 of
Page
of 35
27

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SOIL MECGANICS

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY AND SOIL MECHANICS

SOIL DENSITY AND COMPACTION

Density of a soil provides a measure of the quantity of materials (mass) it contains

where e is the current voids ratio,

e = emin, Id = 1 and the soil is in its densest state

Table 3.1 Relative Compaction States for cohesionless soils

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY AND SOIL MECHANICS

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY AND SOIL MECHANICS

Pour soil into

Determination of emax and emin

Compact the soil in the

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY AND SOIL MECHANICS

Field Measurement of Soil Density

3.2.1 Sand Replacement

Figure 4.1 Sand Pouring Cylinder

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY ANDSept

Equipment (see Figure 4.1):

Calibration of Density of Standard Sand

Figure 4.2 Measuring Mass of Sand Cone on Glass Plate

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY AND SOIL MECHANICS

Figure 4.3 Filling the Calibrating Cylinder

Figure 4.4 Filling Excavated Hole in Soil

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY AND SOIL MECHANICS

mass of sand to fill calibrating cylinder (ma):

the bulk density of the standard sand (sand) is calculated by:

where Va = the volume of the calibrating container

the bulk density of the soil (b) is calculated by:

where mt = mass of soil (total mass) excavated

the dry density ( ) is calculated by:

(md/ mb) x sand

where w = moisture content

SOIL MECHANICS AND GEOLOGY

Ans: sand=1258 kg/m3

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY AND SOIL MECHANICS

Ans: bulk density of soil specimen=1134 kg/m3 ; w = 34.4%

SOIL MECHANICS AND GEOLOGY

Ans: sand=1259 kg/m3

Ans: bulk density of soil specimen=1374 kg/m3 ; w = 34.4%

Mass of soil excavated from hole

w = Mw/Ms = (2.03-1.51)/1.51 x 100%

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY AND SOIL MECHANICS

For cohesive soils, the Cone

Figure 4.6 Cone

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY AND SOIL MECHANICS

Nuclear Gauge Moisture

Figure 4.7 Nuclear Meter

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY AND SOIL MECHANICS

Measuring Moisture Content

A boron-trifluoride-coated tube, which is a slow neutron detector, is used to detect

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY AND SOIL MECHANICS

4.3.1 What is compaction?

What are done to the soil in compaction?

Solid gains are brought closer together, therefore, soil is denser

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY AND SOIL MECHANICS

4.3.2 Why is compaction done? (Purposes)

4.3.3 How is compaction done?

By Pressure (adding load on the soil)

Dynamic Compaction (dropping heavy weights onto the soil)

4.3.4 What factors affect the effectiveness of compaction?

4.3.5 Laboratory compaction tests

assess the suitability of the soil for the proposed purposes

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY AND SOIL MECHANICS