INDUSTRIETECHNIK

SRI LANKA INSTITUTE of ADVANCED TECHNOLOGICAL

EDUCATION

ELECTRICAL and ELECTRONIC

ENGINEERING
Instructor Manual

Training Unit

Pneumatic
Theory

No: EE 051

Training Unit
Pneumatic
Theory Part

No.: EE 051

Edition:

2008
All Rights Reserved

Editor:

MCE Industrietechnik Linz GmbH & Co

Education and Training Systems, DM-1
Lunzerstrasse 64 P.O.Box 36, A 4031 Linz / Austria
Tel. (+ 43 / 732) 6987 3475
Fax (+ 43 / 732) 6980 4271
Website: www.mcelinz.com

PNEUMATIC
LIST OF CONTENTS

CONTENTS

Learning objectives

1.

INTRODUCTION TO PNEUMATIC

1.1

Definition of Pneumatics

1.2

Application of Pneumatics

1.3

Physical basic principles

1.4

Characteristics of compressed air

1.4.1

Advantages and disadvantages of compressed

1.4.2

2.

air techniques

Cost comparison with other types of energy

PNEUMATIC ELEMENTS

2.1

Working elements

2.1.1

Single-acting cylinder

2.1.2

Double-acting cylinders

12

2.1.3

Calculation of force

15

2.2

Signal and Control elements

18

2.2.1

Types of valves and their function

18

2.2.2

Directional valves

18

2.2.3

Disc seat valves (3/2-way)

23

2.2.4

Disc seat valve (4/2-way)

24

2.2.5

Horizontal spool valve

25

2.2.6

Actuation of a valve

27

2.2.7

Duration of actuation

29

2.2.8

Flow control valve

29

2.2.9

Non-return valves

30

2.2.10

Throttle relief valve

30

2.2.11

Quick-exhaust valve

31

2.2.12

Shuttle valve (or-function)

32

2.2.13

Two pressure valve (and-function)

33

2.2.14

Other types of valves

33

3.

4.

5.

6.

SYSTEM OF CONTROL

36

3.1

Circuit diagrams

36

3.1.1

Representative of circuit diagrams

36

3.1.2

Numerical notation

37

3.1.3

Drawing conventions

38

3.2

Diagrams

39

3.2.1

Travel-phase diagrams

39

3.2.2

Travel-time diagrams

41

3.2.3

Valve-phase diagrams

41

3.3

Types of control

43

3.3.1

Manual control

43

3.3.2

Travel control

44

3.3.3

Manual and travel control

44

3.3.4

Time control

45

3.3.5

Manual and time control

46

COMPRESSORS

47

4.1

Types of compressors

47

4.1.1

Positive displacement compressors

47

4.1.2

Flow compressors

48

4.1.3

Pressure and delivery volumes of compressor types

48

4.2

Regulation of compressors

49

MAINTENANCE OF PNEUMATIC INSTALLATIONS

50

5.1

Maintenance

50

5.1.1

Daily maintenance

50

5.1.2

Weekly maintenance

50

5.1.3

Monthly maintenance

51

5.1.4

Annual maintenance

51

CONSTRUCTION OF A COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM

52

PNEUMATIC
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

The participant should ...

explain the meaning of Pneumatic.
give three examples of applied Pneumatics.
list the three most important components of air.
name the measuring unit for pressure.
list three properties of compressed air.
state three advantages and three disadvantages of Pneumatics and comment on
these.
classify pneumatic elements.
give examples of cylinder applications.
distinguish between single-acting and double-acting cylinders according to their
operation and components.
distinguish between signal units and control units according to their functions.
list five types of valve and explain their operation.
describe the operation of all the control systems mentioned.
describe the general symbol for a valve.
indicate the types of actuation of valves.
explain how an adjustable throttle valve operates.
explain how a throttle relief valve operates.
explain how a quick-exhaust valve operates.
explain how an AND-valve (two pressure valve) operates.
differentiate between manual, travel and time controlled systems.
explain how a time delay valve functions.
name three types of compressed air pump.
sketch two types of compressor and explain their working principle.
state why it is necessary to regulate air pressure.
describe, with the aid of sketches, the operation of two systems of pressure regulation.
state why it is necessary to maintain pneumatic plants.
explain how a shuttle valve operates.

PNEUMATIC

1.

1.1

INTRODUCTION TO PNEUMATICS

Definition of pneumatics

Pneumatics is the science of mechanical properties of elastic fluids. In industry

Pneumatics generally refers to the use of compressed air to transmit power and/or
motion.

1.2

Application of Pneumatics

Pneumatic devices include compressed air brakes (trucks and railways); percussion
drilling and other compressed air tools (mining and construction industry); pneumatic tube
conveyor systems, compressors and turbines. Pneumatic devices include also those
which use compressed air for cooling.

1.3

Physical basic principles

In pneumatic we are dealing with compressed air. This compressed air is derived from the
atmosphere. Air is a mixture of gases with the following approximate composition by
volume:
78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% other gases i.e. carbon dioxide, hydrogen, argon, krypton,
neon, xenon and helium.

The following term and units are used:

Unit

Symbol

Standard System SI

Mass

kg (kilogram)

Time

s (second)

Length

m (metre)

Area

m2 (square metre)

Volume

m (cubic metre)

Force

N (Newton)

Rate of flow

m /s

Pressure

Pa (Pascal)

bar

Notes:

1.4

1N

= 1 kg m/ s

1 Pa

= 1 N/ m

1 bar

= 105 Pa

Characteristic of compressed air

Air is compressible.

The direction and velocity of flow of air in a system can be controlled.

Air flows from a state of high pressure to a state of lower pressure. The higher the
pressure difference between different points, the higher the resulting rate of flow.

1.4.1

Advantages and disadvantages of compressed air technique

Advantages:
-

Air is a gas mixture which is non-explosive.

Therefore, pneumatic systems are not subject to the same stringent safety precaution
as system using explosive gases. Note that compressed air is dangerous if
mishandled.

Air is available in unlimited supply.

Compressed air can be transmitted over long distances in pipelines.

Return pipelines are not necessary.

Compressed air can be stored in pressure tanks, cylinders and used as a

transportable power supply.

The working speed of pistons in pneumatic systems is in the range of 1-2 m/s; with
cylinders on which a quick exhaust valve is fitted speed up to 10 m/s can be realized.

Pneumatic systems are overload-proof. Compressed air equipment can be used up to

and beyond maximum load without creating unsafe conditions. Note the overheating
resulting from an overload condition in an electric motor.

Speed and movement can be controlled.

Compressed air is a comparatively clean and low-pollution medium and, therefore, can
be used almost everywhere e.g. in the wood, metal, leather, textile and food
industries.

Clean and dry compressed air works perfectly, even under extremes of temperature.

Disadvantages:
-

Air absorbs moisture and drying may have to be considered.

The exhaust air causes noise. Costly sound absorbers may be required.

There is a limit to the pressure which can be used in a compressed air system.

1.4.2

Cost comparison with other types of energy

Compared with electrical energy, other types of energy are generally more expensive.
Hydraulic energy may cost 8 to 10 times as much.
Pneumatic energy may cost 10 to 12 times as much.
Manual work costs about 500 times as much as the equivalent electrical energy.

2.

PNEUMATIC ELEMENTS

Pneumatic systems consist of working, signal and control elements.

The signal and control elements are termed valves.
They control the operation of working elements.
These working elements are mainly cylinders.

2.1

Working elements (cylinders)

Cylinders are working elements, which are suitable for linear movements.
They are used for various operational actions, such as tensioning, lifting, lowering, pulling,
locking, switching, discharging, braking and directing.

A distinction can be made between two types of cylinder according to their working action
a)

single-acting cylinders

b)

double-acting cylinders

a)

b)

SHOW
No.:

FOIL

A single-acting cylinder can apply pressure in one direction only.

A double-acting cylinder can apply pressure in both directions (advance stroke and return
stroke).

2.1.1

Single-acting cylinder

In the single acting cylinders, compressed air is applied only to one side of the piston.
Work can, therefore, be done in one direction only.
The working stroke is caused by the compressed air, the return stroke is usually effected
by a built-in spring.
When the cylinder is arranged vertically the piston can return to its starting position by its
own weight.
The maximum length of working stroke is about 150 mm.

2.1.1.1

Working positions of the single-acting cylinder

Starting position:
The built-in spring keeps the piston in the starting position.

SHOW FOIL No.:2

Working stroke:
The piston is moved when compressed air is applied via the compressed air connection.
The air on the piston rod side is release via the air relief hole vent. The spring is
compressed.

SHOW FOIL No.:2

Return stroke:
When compressed air no longer applied, the spring will push the piston back to the
starting position. The air which is no longer under pressure is released via the exhaust
connection. The piston rod side of the cylinder fills via the vent.

SHOW FOIL No.:2

2.1.1.2

Symbol of the single-acting cylinder

Each cylinder is represented as a rectangle

The piston is indicated symbolically.

The connection for compressed air is shown as a short line.

If the single-acting cylinder is reset by an external force or by the

weight of the piston, the relevant side of the rectangle is left open.

SHOW FOIL No.:3

10

If the return movement is effected

by a spring it will be shown by a
symbol.

2.1.1.3

Control of a single-acting cylinder

A single-acting cylinder requires:

-

a connection for compressed air.

an exhaust connection.

an air relief connection.

The 2 switching positions Open (supply of compressed air to the cylinder) and Closed
(compressed air shut-off and simultaneous exhaust flow) are sufficient for control.
A single-acting cylinder can be controlled by a 3/2-way valve (3 connections, 2 switching
positions).

11

2.1.1.4

Components of a single-acting cylinder

compressed air
connection

air relief connection

spring
piston rod
cylinder barrel
with caps

scraper ring

piston
packing
SHOW FOIL No.:4

Types of single-acting cylinders:

Piston cylinder
Diaphragm cylinder
Piston/diaphragm cylinder

2.1.2

Double-acting cylinders

Double-acting cylinders have two connections for the supply of compressed air. Work can
be performed in both directions as the advance as well as the return strokes are effected
by the compressed air.

12

2.1.2.1

Starting position

The piston is not under pressure and remains in its initial position.
Supply of compressed
air or air relief

SHOW FOIL No.:5

Working stroke 1 (advance stroke):

When compressed air is applied via the first connection, the piston is moved. The piston
rod moves out. The air on the piston rod side is vented via the second connection. When
the supply of compressed air is stopped, the piston remains in the advanced positions
until compressed air is again applied.
supply of compressed air
air venting

SHOW FOIL No.:5

Working stroke 2 (return stroke):

If compressed air is supplied again, this time via the second connection, the piston is
returned to the initial position. Air is vented via the first connection.
When the supply of compressed air is cut off, the piston remains in the start position.

13

supply of compressed air

air venting

SHOW FOIL No.:5

2.1.2.2

Symbol of the double-acting cylinder

The symbols for the double-acting cylinder shows a second connection for compressed air
(instead of a spring ).

2.1.2.3

Control of a double-acting cylinder

The working steps to be controlled are:

Starting position
Working stroke 1 (advance stroke)
Working stroke 2 (return stroke)

As there are two successive working strokes, a valve with two switching positions is
necessary, having:
-

A connection for compressed air.

Two working connections, which transfer the compressed air to the appropriate side of
the piston.

An air vent connection, which release the exhaust air through the working connection
which is not under pressure then.

14

There is a total of four connections.

The two switching positions A charged/B exhaust and B charged/A exhaust are
sufficient for control.
With a 4/2-way valve (4 connections, 2 switching positions)
A double-acting cylinder can be controlled.

2.1.2.4

Components of a double-acting controlled

working connections
piston rod

cylinder barrel
with caps

scraper ring
packing
piston
SHOW FOIL No.:4

A double-acting cylinder can be used economically up to a diameter of 500 mm. The

potential length of the stroke us unlimited.

2.1.3

2.1.3.1

Calculations of force

Calculations for the piston force

Theoretical piston force:

Fth

Area

Effective piston force:

Fn

(A

x
Area

p
Pressure

p)

-FR
Pressure-10%

Friction force

15

Advance stroke:

Fr

(A

p)

-FR

Return stroke:

Fn

(A1

p)

-FR

D x
4

A1 = Piston ring area

2.1.3.2

Advance stroke of a single-acting cylinder (distribution)

Fn = (A.p) (FR + FF)

FF = Force or return spring approximately 10 20 %

force distribution in the cylinder

the return stroke of a single-acting cylinder corresponds to the force of the return spring (=
10 to 20% of the piston force during the advance stroke), less the friction force and this
finally amounts to approximately 8 10% of the piston force during the advance stroke.

16

Sample calculation for the piston force of a cylinder:

F

Piston force (N)

Fth =

Theoretical piston force

FN =

Effective piston force

Piston area (cm2)

Operation pressure (bar)

FR =

Frictional force (10% at 6 bar)

FF =

Force of return spring (15% at 6 bar)

Note:
5
2
10 N/m = 1 bar

To calculate the effective piston force (Fn):

The frictional force at 6 bar is assumed to be 10% of the total force.

2.1.3.3

Single-acting cylinders

Piston diameter 40 mm (i.e. 4 cm)

P

= 6 bar (i.e. 6 x 10 N/m2)

= (A x P) FR - FF

D x
4 x 3,142
=
= 12,57 cm
4
4

Fth

= (A x p) = 12,57 x 60 = 754 N/cm

2.1.3.4

754 x

90
85
x
= 577 N/cm
100
100

Double-acting cylinders

Piston diameter

40 mm

Piston rod diameter

10 mm

Advance stroke:

Fth

D x
xp
4

17

Return stroke:

Advance stroke :

Fth

D _ d
x p
4

Fth

4 x 3,142
x 60
4

Fn

754 x

Fth

( 4 _ 1) x 3,142
x 60
4

Fn

= 707 x

754N/cm

Return stroke :

2.2

90
100

90
100

679 N/cm

= 707 N/cm

= 636 N/cm

Signal and control elements (valves)

Pneumatic systems include working elements (cylinders) and signal and control elements.
The signal and control elements are normally termed valves.
Valves functions:
When a valve is open, compressed air flows. When the valve is closed compressed air is
shut-off. Some valves are constructed to distribute or switch compressed air from one
connection to another.

2.2.1

Types of valves and their functions

Seat valves

Slide valves

Ball seat valve

Flat slide valve

Disc seat valve

Rotary slide valve

Piston slide valve

Functions:
Directional valves
Flow control valves
Non return valves
Pressure control valves

18

2.2.2

Directional valves

Directional valves influences the direction of flow of the compressed air.

They permit the shut-off or the by-pass of flow.
An arrow shows the direction
of the compressed air flow.

The connections are shown by

lines drawn on the outside of
the square.
SHOW FOIL No.:6

2.2.2.1

Designation of connections

Connection for compressed air P

(Supply of compressed air)

Working connections A, B, C
(connection for directing the air
flow to the working elements)

Air relief connection R, S, T

(connections for exhausting or
venting the valves and cylinders)
A T inside the square indicates
a closed connection
SHOW FOIL No.:6

The number of adjacent squares

Indicates the number of switching
Positions.
2 switching positions = 2 squares ...
SHOW FOIL No.:7

19

The starting position together with the connection is shown in the right square:

Switching position:

Starting position: ... 0

(initial or neutral position)

The starting position is shown in

the right-hand square. The connections
are only shown on the right-hand square
(starting position).
SHOW FOIL No.:7

Switching position: ... 1

This position is drawn inside the

Left-hand square.
SHOW FOIL No.:7
by switching the squares, the function
of the two switching positions will be
evident.

This example deals with a 3/2-way valve with 3 connections and 2 switching positions.

The 3/2-way valve supplies compressed air to the cylinder in the starting position.
With single-acting cylinders the piston is moved out by a spring to the starting position.

20

When compressed air is supplied to the 3/2-way valve shown, the return stroke is
effected.

If the energy fails or a control signal is received the piston is moved out again by the force
of the return spring.

The principle described is used for emergency braking systems on railways and lorries. If
the energy supply fails or an emergency signal is received, the supply of compressed air
is stopped and the brakes are applied.

21

2.2.2.2

Switching positions of directional valves

number of connections/switching positions

4/2

4/3

4/3

5/2

5/3

2/2

3/2

3/3

shut-off

flow

shut-off

zero

zero

mid

connections
position

compressed air
connections

working connection

air relief
connection

connections

switching positions

A open

ao

Open

vented

aob

Shut-off

A open

Shut-off

B open

B open

B open

A open

A open

A vented

A vented

A vented

B-S vented

B-S vented

A open

A+B

A+B

B open

Shut-off

B vented

Shut-off

Vented

A-R vented

A open

A open

B vented

B vented

A vented

Control connections (types of actuation) see page 29

Symbols:
SHOW FOIL No.:8

22

B open
A-R vented

2.2.3

Disc seat valve (3/2-way)

3/2-way valve:

3 connections:
P ... compressed air connection
A ... working connection
R ... air relief connection

2 switching positions:
off = 0, no compressed air at A
on = 1, compressed air at A
Use:
Control of single-acting cylinders
Control of remote valves

Symbol:
Sectional view of a disc seat valve with closed starting position

closed

SHOW FOIL No.:9

open

SHOW FOIL No.:9

23

Simplified sectional view of a disc seat valve (3/2-way valve) with open starting position.

open

closed

SHOW FOIL

2.2.4

No.:9

Disc seat valve (4/2-way)

4/2-way valve:
4 connections:
P ... compressed air connection
A ... 1st working connection
B ... 2nd working connection
R ... air relief connection

2 switching positions:
not actuated

: compressed air at B

actuated

: compressed air at A

24

Use:
Control of double-acting cylinders.

Symbol:
Sectional view of a 4/2-way disc seat valve

SHOW FOIL

2.2.5

No.:10

Horizontal spool valve (4/2-way valve)

25

SHOW FOIL No.:11

Switching position 1:
Y pressurized; effect working
stroke 1 (return stroke)
via connection B

SHOW FOIL No.:11

Switching position 2:
Z

pressurized; effects working

stroke 2 (return stroke)
connection A

SHOW FOIL No.:11

4 CONNECTIONS:
P ... compressed air connection
A ... 1st working connection
B ... 2nd working connection
R ... air relief connection

Pneumatic control by Y, Z.

Use:
Control of double-acting cylinders.

Either of the two switching positions can be the starting (initial) position.

26

2.2.6

Actuation of a valve

How a valve is switched over:

In the practical application of pneumatic control systems, valves may be actuated
independantly of the pneumatic system, or their action may be initiated by piston
movement.

Types of valve actuation:

Manual actuation
Mechanical actuation
Electrical actuation
Pressure actuation (direct or indirect)
Combined actuation

2.2.6.1

Manual actuation

general

by push button

by lever

by pedal

SHOW FOIL No.:12

The valve is switched over by pushing a button or lever. Resetting of the actuated valve
may also be effected by any means of actuation (e.g. by means of a return spring, by
compressed air).

27

2.2.6.2

Mechanical and electrical actuation

by roller lever

by roller lever with idle return

by return spring

by plunger

SHOW FOIL No.:12

Electrical actuation:

by solenoid

Pressure actuation-direct:

by an application of pressure

by removing the pressure

SHOW FOIL No.:13

28

Pressure actuation-indirect:

by application of pressure
to pilot valve

by performing pressure
to pilot valve

Combined actuation:

by solenoid and pilot valve

SHOW FOIL No.:13

2.2.7

Duration of actuation

Permanent actuation:
The valve is actuated permanently until reversal. The reversal is effected manually or by a
return spring.

Impulse actuation:
The valve is switched-over by an impulse and remains in this switching position until a
further impulse from another signal unit arrives.

2.2.8

Flow control valves

Flow control valves influences the rate of flow of compressed air in both directions. By
restricting the cross section the flow is throttled (throttled valve).
Its restriction can be either constant or manually adjustable.

29

Throttle valve:

constant

adjustable

SHOW FOIL No.:14

2.2.9

Non-return valves

These allow the flow of air in one direction.

The flow in the opposite direction is stopped.
Check valve:

free flow

return direction

SHOW FOIL No.:14

When compressed air flows from the return direction, the valve is closed.

2.2.10

Throttle relief valve

The throttle relief valve represents a combination of a flow control and a non-return valve.
It is included with the group of non-return valves.

throttle flow

free flow

SHOW FOIL No.:14

The throttle relief valve has an adjustable throat which controls the flow in one direction
thus regulating the control sequences.

30

Throttle relief valves are used:

-

for regulating the piston speed with single or double-acting cylinders.

for regulating the fill time of a delay valve.

2.2.11

Quick-exhaust valve

This type of valve is used to increase the piston speed.

The dotted line in the symbol indicates the control line. If pressure is applied to the ball,
connection P is closed. The air is released from A via R directly to the open air.

SHOW FOIL No.:15

31

2.2.11.1

Quick-exhaust valve with volume control reservoir

This is used for cleaning off shavings from workpieces and swarf from machine tools.

SHOW FOIL NO.:15

2.2.12

Shuttle valve (OR-function)

This used if control is to be effected from either of two geographically separated positions.
If a cylinder or control valve is to be actuated from two or several positions (e.g. by hand
or foot), a shuttle valve should be used.
The shuttle valve has a so-called OR-function (OR-valve).

SHOW
FOIL
No.:16

32

2.2.13

Two pressure valve (AND-function)

If for safety precaution interlocking controls or check functions have to be installed, the
best way for doing this is by using the two pressure valve.
For operating a press, two levers, which are at a double arms length apart, have to be
actuated simultaneously in order to prevent the operator from getting his hand caught in
the press.

SHOW FOIL No.:17

If only one of the two compressed air connections is pressurized the valve remains
closed. Compressed air does not flow to the working connection until the other
compressed air connection is also pressurized. Both positions have to be actuated
simultaneously. This valve has a so-called AND-function (AND-valve).
A two pressure valve can be replaced:
-

by two 3/2-way valves connected in sequences

by one 3/2-way valve and one 2/2-way valve via an impulse controlled 3/2-way valve.

2.2.14

Other types of valves

In additional to the valves already mentioned, there are also pressure controlled valves,
which determine the air pressure. Furthermore there are valve combinations, such as the
time delay valve.

33

Time delay valve:

This type of valve is composed of a pneumatically actuated 3/2-way valve, a throttle relief
valve and an air container.
The pilot air flows from inlet Z to the throttle relief valve and from there to the air container.
The latter is filled at a greater or lesser speed according to the throttle adjustment (usually
within 1 to 30 seconds). When the necessary control pressure has been reached the 3/2way valve switched into position 1 and P-A opens.
With the release of the control line air, the valve switches into position O owing to the
effect of the return spring.
With clean air, an accurate time of switching may be achieved, but dust has a detrimental
effect.

Time delay valves are used:

-

to limit operational sequences by time (cylinder).

for delayed switching of valves.

34

Time delay valve at closed

at open working

starting position

position

SHOW FOIL No.:18

35

SYSTEMS OF CONTROL

To facilitate the understanding of control systems, circuit diagrams and phase diagrams
are made, which describe the system and the operation briefly but exactly.

3.1

Circuit diagrams

Circuit diagrams have been standardized according to DIN 24300. This standardization
refers to the symbols as well as to the graphic representation of compete circuits.

3.1.1

Representation of circuit diagrams

The circuit diagram of a control system has to be represented in control loops:

Signal unit control unit regulating unit working unit

control elements (s)

-

working element

The direction of the flow of information (transmission of pressure signals, flow of

energy) proceeds from top to bottom. The separate units of the control system are
shown from bottom to top, starting with the signal unit up to the working unit.

All elements (cylinder, valves, maintenance unit etc.) are provided with successive
running from top to bottom.
-

Working elements (cylinder) ... 1.0, 2.0, 3.0.

Regulating units can be identified by the successive number ... 1, 1.1, 2.1, 3.1.

Signal units with even successive numbers influence in sequence the advance
movement of the working element ... 1.2, 1.4, 3.2, 3.4.

Signal units, which influence the return movement of the working element in
sequence are identified by add numbers ... 1.3, 1.5, 3.1, 3.5.

Service units start with the number 0 ... and a consecutive successive number
(maintenance unit, shut-off valve, reversing valve) ... 0.1, 0.2, 0.3.

36

Additional devices, such as throttle relief valve, throttle and quick exhaust fan are
given a zero preceding the successive number (e.g. 1.02). the prefix number
identifies the working element to be influenced (e.g. cylinder 1.0) ... 1.02, 1.03, 3.0.

3.1.2

Numerical notation

Each working element (cylinder) is given a number, e.g. 1.0 or 2.0 or 3.0.
The control element preceding the cylinder 1.0 gets the successive number 1.1. if a
further control element (control unit) precedes this control element (regulating unit), it will
be shown by the successive number 1.2, etc.
Thus control elements of the cylinder 2.0 are shown by the corresponding successive
numbers 2.1, 2.2, 2.3 etc.

Working element 1

Control elements
for the working element 1

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37

Working element 2

Control elements for working

elements 2

3.1.3

Drawing conventions

All cylinders and valves are drawn in the starting position (initial position).

Valves are shown in the horizontal position.

The actual position of the valves is indicated by lines across the piston rod, together
with the serial number of the valve to be actuated, in the case of mechanic actuation.

SHOW FOIL No.:20

38

SHOW FOIL No.:20

With each circuit diagram a travel-phase diagram, a travel-time diagram and a valvephase diagram have to be prepared.

Control lines for direct controls are shown by continuous lines

Indirect control lines are shown by interrupted lines ...

3.2

3.2.1

Diagrams

Travel-phase diagrams

If a pneumatic control system has to be designed, first determine which movements or

functions must be carried out by the working elements (cylinders). For each cylinder the
travel of the piston can be plotted in a system of coordinates to show the position of the
piston during each phase;

39

starting position (1. Switching position) ... 0

working position (2. Switching position) ... 1

the connection line from 0 to 1 indicates the advance stroke.

the line from 1 to 0 indicates the return stroke.

working element 1.0

Phase

working element 2.0

Phase

The diagram of the two working elements together result in the following:

travel

40

3.2.2

Travel-time diagrams

The travel-phase diagram gives no information about the duration of the single steps. The
travel-time diagram shows the duration (of each phase) in seconds together with the travel
(0/1).
travel

duration in sec
phases
SHOW FOIL No.:21

3.2.3

Valve-phase diagrams

The switching positions and the impulses given by the valves can also be clearly
represented in a diagram:
The switching position of the control unit are plotted for each phase (control diagram).
valve

phases

41

The best survey is obtained by showing the travel-phase and valve-phase diagram
together:

Phase

Cylinder 1.0

Cylinder 2.0

Regulating unit 1.1

Regulating unit 2.1

Regulating unit 1.2

Regulating unit 1.3

Regulating unit 2.2

Regulating unit 2.3

SHOW FOIL No.:21

42

Control system for the valve-phase and travel-phase diagram.

3.3

3.3.1

Types of control

Manual control

43

Manually actuated valves are used.

For short switching impulses valves are used with a spring return mechanism. Return
springs are not used for long impulses.

3.3.2

Travel control

Two 3/2-way valves (signal units) alternatively operate a 4/2-way valve (regulating unit).
After application of compressed air an automatic control sequence proceeds, depending
on the position of the cylinder or depending on the stroke (travel) last executed.

3.3.3

Manual and travel control

44

The advance stroke is initiated manually. When the piston has moved out fully, it
automatically gives the impulse for the return stroke.

3.3.4

Time control

Two time delay valves control, automatically and alternately, the pneumatically operated
4/2-way vale (as long as compressed air is applied). The duration of the advance and
return stroke depends on the adjustment of the two time delay valves.

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3.3.5

Manual and time control

The advance stroke is started by a manually actuated 3/2-way valve.

The return stroke is effected automatically by a time delay valve with adjustable delay.

Application of pneumatic controls:

Pneumatics are widely used in nearly all branches of industry for linear movements,
swivelling movements and rotary movements when:
Metal cutting
milling, turning, drilling, sawing, reaming.
Metal forming
bending, edging, forging, deep-drawing.
Assembling
lifting, riveting, screwing, clamping, pressing

46

4.

COMPRESSORS

Compressors of different types are used for producing compressed air.

For larger industrial plants central installations are usually built and the compressed air is
then supplied to the consumers by distribution systems. To ensure long and satisfactory
service, it is of great importance to have clean air available.

4.1

4.1.1

Types of compressors

Positive displacement compressors

Positive displacement compressors can be divided into:

reciprocating piston compressors, diaphragm compressors, rotary piston compressors,
sliding vane rotary compressors, screw compressors, roots blowers.

Piston compressors

Sliding vane rotary compressors

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47

4.1.2

Flow compressors (air flow principle)

Axial flow compressor

Radial flow compressor

Fan

Axial flow compressor

Centrifugal flow compressor

SHOW FOIL No.:23

48

4.1.3

Pressure and delivery volumes of compressor types

Piston compressor

3
up to 1000 bar and up to 10.000 m /h.

Radial flow compressors

3
up to 300 bar and up to 200.000 m /h.

Axial flow

3
up to 4 bar and up to 500.000 m /h.

Screw compressor

3
up to 25 bar and up to 50.000 m /h.

Slide vane rotary compressor

3
up to 9 bar and up to 15.000 m /h.

4.2

Regulation of compressors

No-load regulation

Exhaust regulation:
When the pressure has reached the set value the compressed air is exhaust into the
atmosphere thorough a safety valve.

Shut-off regulation:
When maximum pressure is reached the suction of the compressor is shut-off and
continues to run under vacuum.

Low-speed regulation:
Speed regulation:
When the maximum pressure is reached, the speed of the compressor is controlled
through a speed regulator either manually or automatically.

On-off regulation:
The drive motor of the compressor is switched off on reaching maximum pressure. When
the pressure has dropped to a predetermine minimum the motor is switched on again.

49

5.

MAINTENANCE OF PNEUMATIC INSTALLATIONS

Maintenance should not be limited to repair work.

Maintenance should be preventive in order to minimize possible damage to installation.
By maintaining equipment properly its working life can be prolonged and the shutdown
periods can be considerably reduced.
Maintenance manuals are issued by each supplier of pneumatic equipment for products
concerned.
They should always be carefully followed.

5.1

Maintenance

Well trained maintenance personnel are of great importance in order to keep costs for
repair work as low as possible.
Maintenance is divided into daily, weekly, monthly and annual maintenance procedures.

5.1.1

Daily maintenance

Drain the condensate.

Check the oil level in the oiler.

Check the lubricating points.

5.1.2

Weekly maintenance

Check and clean the signal units.

Check the hoses.

Check the union joints hoses for air tightness.

Check the operation of the oiler.

Check the manometer and pressure regulator.

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5.1.3

Monthly maintenance

Check all fixed screw connections for leakage.

Check valves in 0-position for air leakage.

Wash out filters.

Recheck pipe connections on cylinder and float valves.

5.1.4

Annual maintenance

Check cylinders, change worn parts, if necessary.

Check equipment components for operation and efficiency.

Replace filter and sound absorber inserts.

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6.

CONSTRUCTION OF A COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM

Maintenance unit :

filter
pressure regulator
manometer,
oiler

ring main pipeline inclined

cross pipeline

reservoir

maintenance unit

branch
pipeline
consumer
water separator

compressor
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52

Correct pressure limitation in a pneumatic system

reservoir with water separator

maintenance unit

pressure relief valve

check valve

cooler

compressor
pressure operated
electric switch

drive
motor

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53

filter

TABLE OF SYMBOLS

54

EE051 - Pneumatic

Theoretical Test

55

PNEUMATIC
TEST 1

1.

At what speed do the pistons in pneumatic cylinders normally operate?

2.

In special cases what speeds can be reached?

How is it achieved?

3.

Why is there no danger of combustive explosion in pneumatic plants?

4.

What are the three most important disadvantage of pneumatics?

5.

Which gases is air composed of?

6.

Draw a sectional view of a double-acting cylinder.

7.

Name the constructional elements differ in single and double-acting cylinders.

8.

Draw the circuit diagram for the control system of a single-acting cylinder with a 3/2way valve.

9.

Which type of valve should be used for the control of a double-acting cylinder?

10.

Draw the circuit diagram of the control system for a double-acting cylinder, fully
controlled by an appropriate valve.

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PNEUMATIC
TEST 2

1.

Calculate the effective force available for the advance stroke in a singe-acting
cylinder.
Basic date:
piston diameter :

= 50 mm

working pressure:

= 6 bar

2.

State three types of actuation.

3.

Name three types of valve actuation each, for manual and for mechanical actuation.

4.

Explain the principle of flow control valves.

5.

Draw a simplified sectional view of a throttle relief valve.

6.

What is a quick-exhaust valve used for?

7.

Explain the difference between a shuttle valve and a two pressure valve.

8.

State the elements of a daily maintenance schedule.

9.

State the elements of weekly maintenance schedule.

10.

State the elements of a annual maintenance schedule.

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PNEUMATIC
TEST 1
(Solution)

1.

The working speed of a pneumatic piston amounts to 1-2 m/sec.

2.

In special cylinders a working speed of 10 m/sec can be realised by fitting a quick

exhaust valve.

3.

The gases used (air) in pneumatic plants are not liable to explosion.

4.

The three disadvantages are:

5.

Air absorbs moisture.

The noise of the exhaust air must be reduced by sound absorbers.

The air pressure in a compressed air system is limited.

Air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, helium, argon, krypton, neon and
xenon.

6.

7.

Return spring. Sealing. Air relief hole/compressed air connection.

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8.

9.

For the control of a double-acting cylinder a 4/2-way valve is necessary.

10.

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PNEUMATIC
TEST 2
(Solution)

1.

Fn

2.

D x
x p - FR - FF
4
5 x 3,14
x 6 x 10 - 25
4

FR

= 10%

FF

= ~ 15 %

% = 883,57 N/cm

Types of actuation:
manual, mechanical, electrical, pneumatical, combined.

3.

Types of actuation:
Manual actuation:
general, push button, lever, pedal.
Mechanical actuation:
roller lever, roller lever with idle return, spring plunger.

4.

Flow control valves throttle the flow of compressed air through a restriction of the
cross section.

5.

6.

A quick exhaust valve is used

for accelerating the piston stroke.

Advance as well as return stroke can be accelerated.

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7.

A shuttle valve enables a valve to be actuated from two different positions. The valve
can be controlled either from one position or form a second position (OR-valve).
The two pressure valve has to be actuated from two different positions. Compressed
air flows through only if signals arrive at both inlets (AND-valve).

8.

Drain condensate.
Check oil-level.
Check lubrication points.

9.

Check and clean signal units.

Check hoses.
Check unions and joints for tightness.
Check the operation of the oiler.
Check the manometer and pressure regulator.

10.

Check cylinders-change worn parts.

Check operating efficiency.
Replace filters and sound absorbers/baffles.

61

KEY TO EVALUATION

PER CENT

MARK

88 100

75 87

62 74

50 61

0 49

62