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INDUSTRIETECHNIK

SRI LANKA INSTITUTE of ADVANCED TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION

ELECTRICAL and ELECTRONIC


ENGINEERING
Instructor Manual

Training Unit

Electrical Measuring
Techniques 3
Theory

No: EE 077

Training Unit
Electrical Measuring Techniques 3
Theoretical Part
No.: EE 077

Edition:

2008
All Rights Reserved

Editor:

MCE Industrietechnik Linz GmbH & Co


Education and Training Systems, DM-1
Lunzerstrasse 64 P.O.Box 36, A 4031 Linz / Austria
Tel. (+ 43 / 732) 6987 3475
Fax (+ 43 / 732) 6980 4271
Website: www.mcelinz.com

ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION 1

CONTENTS
1

Page

DETERMINING THE RESISTANCE USING THE CURRENT-VOLTAGE

ERROR

METHOD .............................................................................................................................4

1.1

Voltage-error circuit..............................................................................................4

1.2

Current-error circuit ..............................................................................................5

1.3

Combined current-voltage error circuit.................................................................5

DETERMINING RESISTANCE USING CROSS-COIL INSTRUMENT ........................7


2.1

Construction and method of Operation ................................................................7

2.2

Cross-coil instrument as resistance measuring instrument..................................8

DETERMINING RESISTANCE USING MEASURING BRIDGES ..............................10


3.1

Wheatstone bridge .............................................................................................10

3.2

Slide-wire measuring bridge ..............................................................................12

3.3

Thomson bridge or Kelvin double bridge ...........................................................13

DETERMINING THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF GALVANIC BATTERIES .........15


4.1

Examples of calculations ...................................................................................18

STANDARD RESISTANCE........................................................................................25
5.1

Standard resistances for direct current ..............................................................25

5.2

Standard resistances for alternating current ......................................................26

POTENTIOMETERS ..................................................................................................27
6.1

Schematic circuit of a simple potentiometer ......................................................27

ELECTRICAL MEASURING TECHNIQUES 3

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

The student should

recognize errors of measurement due to the effect of the consumption of the


measuring instruments.

explain the construction and method of operation of a crossed-coil instrument.

explain the process of measurement using a resistance bridge.

explain schematic diagrams of the Thomson and Wheatstone bridges.

explain how to make resistance measurements.

ELECTRICAL MEASURING TECHNIQUES 3


(Resistance)

DETERMINING THE RESISTANCE USING THE CURRENT-VOLTAGE


ERROR METHOD
(Indirect measurement of resistance)

It is not possible to measure resistance directly. Therefore, one can only deduce the
resistance from parameters such as current and voltage, which can be measured. The
resistance can then be calculated using Ohm's Law.

1.1

Voltage-error circuit

The voltage drop across the ammeter is measured with a voltmeter. With the voltage-error
circuit one will only obtain the correct result if the internal resistance of the ammeter is
zero.
As this is technically impossible, one must ensure that the internal resistance of the
ammeter is very small compared to the resistance Rx to be measured.
NOTE:

The voltage-error circuit is only suitable for resistances which are appreciably
greater than the internal resistance of the ammeter.

1.2

Current-error circuit

The ammeter also measures the current through the voltmeter.


An exact measurement would only be possible if the internal resistance
of the voltmeter were infinitely great. In order to obtain an approximately exact
measurement, the internal resistance of the voltmeter must be
much greater than the resistance Rx to be measured.
NOTE:

The current-error circuit is only suitable for resistances which


are appreciably lower than the internal resistance of the voltmeter.

1.3

Combined current-voltage error circuit

The current is first measured accurately in this circuit (switch position 1) and the value
Rx1 is calculated.

Rx1

The voltage is then measured accurately in this circuit (switch position 2), and the value
Rx2 is calculated.
The required value Rx is then the arithmetic mean of the two measurements.

Rx

Rx1 + Rx2

The existing error is then half the difference between the errors of measurement of the
individual measurements. lt is, therefore, very small and can be neglected.

2.1

DETERMINING RESISTANCE USING CROSS-COIL INSTRUMENT

Construction and method of Operation

Basically the cross-coil movement resembles the moving coil instrument, the main
difference being that the cross-coil has two moving coils and a non-homogeneous air gap.
These two moving coils cross over one another, are solidly mechanically connected to
each other and are supported by a rotating spindle. The current leads are two soft metal
strips which do not affect the measurement and exert no controlling force.
The air gap is non-homogeneous (it is wider in the middle). The magnetic induction in the
air gap, therefore, is also non-homogeneous. Due to this non-homogeneous field, the
magnetic induction B depends an the angle of deflection .
The current through the two coils flow in such a way that the resulting torques M1 and M2
oppose one another. The torque (M1) of coil 1 decreases with increasing angle, while the
torque in the coil 2 (M2) increases. The torques are equal at a certain angle and the
pointer stops there.

We can express this as torque equations:


Coil 1

M1

I1 x

B1

Coil 2

M2

I2 x

B2

Where k is a constant.
Equilibrium exists when
k x I1 x B1 = k x I2 x B2
I1
I2

NOTE:

B2
B1

The angle of deflection is proportional to the ratio of the two coil currents (current
ratio).

2.2

Cross-coil instrument as resistance measuring instrument

The voltage cancels out. This means that it plays no part in the final result. The angle of
deflection is largely independent of voltage U .
If the coil resistances R1 and R2 are equal and small compared with Rx they can be
neglected. We obtain:

NOTE:

I1

I2

Rs
Rx

The angle of deflection a is a function of the measured resistance Rx . In


practice this means that the scale can be calibrated directly in ohms.
= f (Rx)

Main application
The cross-coil instrument as a resistance measuring instrument is used in cross-coil
ohmmeters, insulation resistance meters with "megger", for remote transmission of
measurements

and

for

temperature

measurements

with

electrical-resistance

thermometers for temperatures of -200 to +550C.


Great accuracy is obtained when using ratio measurements for measuring resistances.

3.1

DETERMINING RESISTANCE USING MEASURING BRIDGES

Wheatstone bridge

All bridge circuits rely an the basic principle discovered by the British physicist
Wheatstone.
Resistance measurements can be accurately carried out using these bridge circuits.
Voltage comparison using a galvanometer is
carried out in all bridge measurements.

In the Wheatstone bridge, the same voltage (points A and B) is applied to 2 resistances
connected in series ( R1 + R2 ) and 2 other resistances connected in series ( R3 + R4 ).
A sensitive galvanometer is connected between points C and D.

10

The voltage Utot is divided by resistances R1 and R2 , and by


resistances R3 and R4 connected in series. If the voltage division between R1 and R2 is
in the same ratio as that between R3 and R4 then there is no voltage between points C
and D. The bridge is then balanced.
The galvanometer shows no reading of voltage in this position.

NOTE:

In series circuits, the partial voltages are proportional to the corresponding


resistances.

(Balance condition)
From this we obtain the formula:

To calculate R1 , one only needs to know R2 and the ratio R3+ R4 This ratio is called the
bridge ratio and is changed in decades (0.1/1/10/100/1000).

Measuring process
a)

The unknown resistance Rx is estimated.

b)

The bridge ratio is set so that the estimated value of Rx is within the set decade
(e.g. Rx is estimated to be 500 ohms, bridge ratio = 100).

c)

The voltage is applied by means of a pushbutton.

d)

The smoothly adjustable resistance R2 is adjusted until the galvanometer shows 0.

e)

The value of resistance R2 is read off and is multiplied by the bridge ratio.

11

3.2

Slide-wire measuring bridge

If a slide-wire resistance is used instead of the decade resistances, one talks of a


Wheatstone slide wire bridge.

From the formula

it is seen that the ratio

is decisive but not the

absolute value of R3 , R4 .
If instead of R3 and R4 we use a calibrated slide-wire resistance, then instead of the
resistance ratio we can use the following length ratio:

Rx =

L3
L4

x R2

Range of measurement: 0.04 Ohms - 50 kohms


Sebsutivity: + 1 % of measured value
Galvanometer: 1iA per division.

P1

= galvanometer

V1,V2

= diodes in anti-parallel circuit with galvanometer*

S1

= 2-pole pushbutton

Rz

= additional resistance to extend slide-wire

Rv

= comparison resistance.

* Diodes are to protect the galvanometer against overload.

12

With this circuit, balancing is carried out using a rotary knob.


The slide-wire knob is coupled to the comparison resistance adjuster, so that after every
turn of the slide-wire a lower or higher step of the comparison resistance is selected.

3.3

Thomson bridge or Kelvin double bridge

Thomson bridges are used for measuring ohmic resistance in the range of about 10-8
ohms to 10 ohms.

A current flows through resistance Rx and the standard resistance Rs . The two voltage
drops are compared by the galvanometer in the bridge. In the balanced condition of the
bridge:

Rx =

Rs
Rc

xr

The result of the measurement is independent of the Iead resistance, as this does not
affect the result when measuring the voltage drop.

13

A comparison of measurements of some resistances using the Wheatstone and Thomson


bridges.
measured resistance

Wheatstone

14

Thompson

DETERMINING THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF GALVANIC BATTERIES

As we know, each voltage source has an internal resistance ( Ri ) , which is not


accessible from the outside and, therefore, cannot
be measured directly.
To determine Ri , we take 2 measurements:

U0 = no-load voltage or EMF (E)

Ut = terminal voltage.

Ui = internal voltage drop.


First measurement
Pushbutton S1 is opened - the no-load voltage is measured with a high-resistance
voltmeter. The internal resistance of the voltmeter is neglected.
Second measurement
Pushbutton S1 is closed - current flows through the circuit and causes voltage drops Ui
and Ut
We observe the voltmeter and see a reduction of the voltage by an amount Ui.
Ut = Uo - Ui

15

Using the measured values, Ut , Uo and current I , we can calculate Ri :

Ri =

Ui
I

U0 - Ut
I

If Ra is known, we can calculate, from Ohms Law:

I=

Ut
Ra

and
NOTE:

The EMF (E) or basic voltage Uo can only be measured at the terminals on noIoad. On load, the terminal voltage drops by the amount Ui = I x Ri . The
terminal voltage, therefore, depends on the load ( I is a function of the load
resistance).

Series and parallel connection of similar galvanic components


a) If n galvanic components are connected in series, the voltage is increased to n -times
the voltage of one component.

b) if m galvanic components are connected in parallel, the maximum current is increased


up to a maximum of m -times, of one element.

16

c) For a mixed circuit of n components in series and m components connected in parallel,


the voltage is increased n -times that of one component.

17

4.1

Examples of calculations

a)

Two batteries with the same source voltage of 1.53 V and the same internal
resistance of 0.35 ohms each are connected in series.
Calculate: 1) The total source voltage
2) The total internal resistance.

E1 = E2

= 1.53 V

Ri1 = Ri2

= 0.35

Etotal

=?

Ritotal

=?

b)

Two single cells of 1.5 V each have an internal resistance of Ri1 = 0.21 ohms
and Ri2 = 0.075 ohm respectively and are connected in series.
Calculate: 1) The total voltage an no-load
2) The total internal resistance.

E1 = E2

= 1.5 V

Ri1

= 0.21

Ri2

= 0.075

Etotal

=?

Ritotal

=?

18

c)

A bell with a resistance of 10 ohm is to be operated from 4.5 V. The internal


resistance Ri1 of a single 1.5 V cell is 0.3 ohm.
Calculate the current.

Ra

10

4.5 V

Ri1 =

0.3

d)

Six components of 1.5 V each and an internal resistance of Ri1 = 0.75 ohms each
are connected in parallel to an external resistance of Ra = 18 ohms.
Calculate the current through the external resistance.

E1

1.5 V

Ri1 =

0.75

Ra =

18

19

e)

Twelve lead batteries with a source voltage of E1 = 2.1 V and an internal


resistance of Ri1 = 0.0025 ohms each are connected in parallel.
Calculate: 1) The current with a load of 1.2 ohms (I1)
2) The current an short circuit (I2).,

E1

2.1 V

Ri1

0.0025

Ra1

1.2

Ra2

12

I1

I2

f)

The source voltage of a component is 1.5 V ( Ri1 = 0.5 ohm). The load resistance

is

0.25 ohm.
Calculate the required number of components in parallel so that a load current of 4
A can flow.

Ra

0.25

E1

1.5 V

Ri1

0.5

4A

20

g)

How many batteries have to be connected in parallel with 2 - 4.5 V batteries in


series, if a current of 7 A is to flow through a load resistance of 1 ohm ( Ri1 = 0.57
ohm) ?
n

E1

4.5 V

Ra

7A

Ri1

0.57

h)

Six single cells with a source voltage of 1.5 V each are connected according to the
figure below.
Calculate the load resistance for a current of 4 A ( Ri1 = 0.5 ohm)

Ri1

0.5

4A

E1

1.5 V

Ra

21

i)

Three galvanic components ( E1 = 1.5 V) Ri1 = 0.5 ohm are connected in series.
Two x three identical components are connected in parallel with them. The load
resistance is 75 ohms.

Calculate: 1) The voltage on no-load


2) The load current
3) The load voltage
4) The internal voltage drop across the internal resistance.

E1

1.5 V

Ri1

0.5

Ra

75

Uo

Ui

22

j)

Twelve single cells of 1.5 V each and an internal resistance of 0.35 ohm each are ^
connected so that the total voltage is 4.5 V.
Sketch the circuit and calculate:

1) The total Ri
2) The current with a load of 18 ohms
3) The short-circuit current.

Ri1

0.35

E1

1.5 V

4.5 V

Ra1

18

Ra2

Ri

I1

I2

23

k)

If three galvanic components with an internal resistance of Ri1 = 0.75 ohm each
are connected in parallel, a current of 4.5 A is required to flow through a load
resistance of Ra = 1 ohm (E1 = 1.5 V).
Calculate how many components are connected in series in each parallel circuit.

Ri1

0.75

Ra

E1

1.5 V

4.5 A

24

5.1

STANDARD RESISTANCE

Standard resistances for direct current

For particularly accurate current measurements in voltage dividers and bridge circuits,
standard resistances are used.
Standard resistances have usually values in decades which range
from 10-4 to 10-6 ohms.
Standard resistances must comply with some important conditions:
a) High degree of constancy with time
b) Low temperature co-efficient of resistance
c) Insensitivity to dampness in air
d) Insensitivity to mechanical stresses.
Manganin is usually used as a resistance, as it fulfils the above conditions, and the
thermal EMF to the copper terminals is very low. In practice standard resistances are
usually made in the form of
bars, tapes, sheets or wire windings. In order to obtain constant resistance values they
are usually aged artificially by tempering etc.

25

5.2

Standard resistances for alternating current

Standard resistances without inductance or capacitance have to be used for alternatingcurrent measurements, as otherwise there will be a phase angle between current and
voltage.
This phase angle can be avoided by special types of winding.

A double-wire loop is wound in this type of winding, so that the currents flowing oppose
one another and there is practically no coil inductance. The bifilar winding has the
disadvantage of a rather higher coil capacitance.

In this winding, the individual coil layers are wound in Opposition. Therefore, the
inductance and the capacitance can be kept relatively low.

26

POTENTIOMETERS

All indicating Instruments take current from the circuit being measured, due to the greater
or lesser internal resistance. Potentiometer circuits do not load the circuit being measured.
They are based an the principle that unknown voltage is compared with a known voltage.

6.1

Schematic circuit of a simple potentiometer

An auxiliary current Ia is set in an auxiliary circuit using an auxiliary battery Ba and


resistance Ra . Ra is adjusted until the voltage
drop at the compensating resistance r, connected as a voltage divider, is equal to that of
the opposed standard component Es The galvanometer then indicates no current. Ff an
unknown voltage
Ux is to be measured, then instead of the standard component Es , the voltage Ux is
connected to the galvanometer circuit.

27

The compensating resistance R is now adjusted until the voltage drop at R is equal to the
opposed voltage Ux. The value of R set is proportional to voltage Ux. In the balanced
condition no current is taken either from the auxiliary circuit or from the circuit being
measured.
The internal resistance of the compensator is then infinitely great.
Compensators are among the most accurate devices in measurement technology. Apart
from the quality of the components used, the accuracy depends mainly on the standard
component. A standard component of sufficient and known EMF must be used.
Apart from the measurement of currents and voltages on direct current, compensators are
used in resistance-bridge circuits. In so-called compensation measurement benches, they
are combined with other technical means for testing and calibrating measuring
Instruments.

28

EE077 - Electrical Measuring Techniques 3


Theoretical Test

29

ELECTRICAL MEASURING TECHNIQUES 3


TEST 1

QUESTIONS
1.

Is it possible to measure a resistance directly?

2.

Draw a voltage-error circuit.

3.

For what resistance range is the current-error resistance measuring method


suitable?

4.

Draw a combined current-voltage error circuit.

5.

Which one of the following resistance measuring methods is the most accurate?
a) Voltage-error method
b) Current-error method.
c) Combined current-voltage error method.

6.

Explain the determining of resistance by the current comparison method.

7.

Draw the circuit diagram of a voltage comparison method.

8.

State the main difference between crossed-coil instrument and a moving-coil


instrument.

9.

What relationship exists between the magnetic flux densities and coil currents in a
crossed-coil instrument?

10.

State the main application of crossed-coil Instruments.

30

ELECTRICAL MEASURING TECHNIQUES 3


TEST 2

QUESTIONS
1.

Draw a Wheatstone bridge circuit.

2.

State the balance condition in a Wheatstone bridge.

3.

What is the purpose of diodes V1 , V2 in the following circuits?

4.

For which range of resistance values is the Thomson bridge used?

5.

Is it possible to measure the internal resistance of a voltage source directly?

6.

Draw a circuit which makes it possible to measure the internal resistance of a


galvanic battery.

31

7.

State the current-voltage relationship for the circuit below.

8.

Six single cells with a source voltage of 1.5 V each are connected according to the
diagram below.
Calculate the load resistance for a current of 6 A

9.

Which characteristics must standard resistances have?

10.

State the disadvantage of bifilar windings.

32

ELECTRICAL MEASURING TECHNIQUES 3


(Resistance)
TEST 1
(Solution)

1.

No.

2.

Voltage-error circuit

3.

The resistances which are appreciably lower than the internal resistance of the
voltmeter.

4.

Rui>> Rx

Combined current-voltage error circuit

33

5.

Combined current-voltage error method.

6.

This method is suitable for resistances in the range 102 ohms to 106 ohms.
If Ri is very small compared with Rs and Rx , Ri can be neglected. The resistance
Rx is determined using the comparison method by
the formula.

7.

8.

The main difference being that the crossed-coil has two moving coils

and a non-homogeneous air gap.


9.

I1
I2

B2
B1

34

10.

The crossed-coil instrument as a resistance measuring instrument is used in


crossed-coil ohmmeters, insulation resistance meters (megger), for remote
transmission of measurements and for temperatures of -200 to 550C.

35

ELECTRICAL MESURING TECHNIQUES 3


(Resistance)
TEST 2
(Solution)

1.

2.

3.

To protect the galvanometer against overload.

4.

Range of about 10-8 ohms to 10 ohms.

5.

No.

6.

36

7.

8.

9.

a) High degree of constancy with time.


b) Low temperature co-efficient of resistance.
c) Insensitivity to dampness in air.
d) Insensitivity to mechanical stresses.

10. High coil capacitance.

37

KEY TO EVALUATION

PER CENT

MARK

88 100

75 87

62 74

50 61

0 49

38

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