Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Training Unit
Electrical Measuring
Techniques 3
Theory
No: EE 077
Training Unit
Electrical Measuring Techniques 3
Theoretical Part
No.: EE 077
Edition:
2008
All Rights Reserved
Editor:
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION 1
CONTENTS
1
Page
ERROR
METHOD .............................................................................................................................4
1.1
Voltage-error circuit..............................................................................................4
1.2
1.3
2.2
3.2
3.3
STANDARD RESISTANCE........................................................................................25
5.1
5.2
POTENTIOMETERS ..................................................................................................27
6.1
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
It is not possible to measure resistance directly. Therefore, one can only deduce the
resistance from parameters such as current and voltage, which can be measured. The
resistance can then be calculated using Ohm's Law.
1.1
Voltage-error circuit
The voltage drop across the ammeter is measured with a voltmeter. With the voltage-error
circuit one will only obtain the correct result if the internal resistance of the ammeter is
zero.
As this is technically impossible, one must ensure that the internal resistance of the
ammeter is very small compared to the resistance Rx to be measured.
NOTE:
The voltage-error circuit is only suitable for resistances which are appreciably
greater than the internal resistance of the ammeter.
1.2
Current-error circuit
1.3
The current is first measured accurately in this circuit (switch position 1) and the value
Rx1 is calculated.
Rx1
The voltage is then measured accurately in this circuit (switch position 2), and the value
Rx2 is calculated.
The required value Rx is then the arithmetic mean of the two measurements.
Rx
Rx1 + Rx2
The existing error is then half the difference between the errors of measurement of the
individual measurements. lt is, therefore, very small and can be neglected.
2.1
Basically the cross-coil movement resembles the moving coil instrument, the main
difference being that the cross-coil has two moving coils and a non-homogeneous air gap.
These two moving coils cross over one another, are solidly mechanically connected to
each other and are supported by a rotating spindle. The current leads are two soft metal
strips which do not affect the measurement and exert no controlling force.
The air gap is non-homogeneous (it is wider in the middle). The magnetic induction in the
air gap, therefore, is also non-homogeneous. Due to this non-homogeneous field, the
magnetic induction B depends an the angle of deflection .
The current through the two coils flow in such a way that the resulting torques M1 and M2
oppose one another. The torque (M1) of coil 1 decreases with increasing angle, while the
torque in the coil 2 (M2) increases. The torques are equal at a certain angle and the
pointer stops there.
M1
I1 x
B1
Coil 2
M2
I2 x
B2
Where k is a constant.
Equilibrium exists when
k x I1 x B1 = k x I2 x B2
I1
I2
NOTE:
B2
B1
The angle of deflection is proportional to the ratio of the two coil currents (current
ratio).
2.2
The voltage cancels out. This means that it plays no part in the final result. The angle of
deflection is largely independent of voltage U .
If the coil resistances R1 and R2 are equal and small compared with Rx they can be
neglected. We obtain:
NOTE:
I1
I2
Rs
Rx
Main application
The cross-coil instrument as a resistance measuring instrument is used in cross-coil
ohmmeters, insulation resistance meters with "megger", for remote transmission of
measurements
and
for
temperature
measurements
with
electrical-resistance
3.1
Wheatstone bridge
All bridge circuits rely an the basic principle discovered by the British physicist
Wheatstone.
Resistance measurements can be accurately carried out using these bridge circuits.
Voltage comparison using a galvanometer is
carried out in all bridge measurements.
In the Wheatstone bridge, the same voltage (points A and B) is applied to 2 resistances
connected in series ( R1 + R2 ) and 2 other resistances connected in series ( R3 + R4 ).
A sensitive galvanometer is connected between points C and D.
10
NOTE:
(Balance condition)
From this we obtain the formula:
To calculate R1 , one only needs to know R2 and the ratio R3+ R4 This ratio is called the
bridge ratio and is changed in decades (0.1/1/10/100/1000).
Measuring process
a)
b)
The bridge ratio is set so that the estimated value of Rx is within the set decade
(e.g. Rx is estimated to be 500 ohms, bridge ratio = 100).
c)
d)
e)
The value of resistance R2 is read off and is multiplied by the bridge ratio.
11
3.2
absolute value of R3 , R4 .
If instead of R3 and R4 we use a calibrated slide-wire resistance, then instead of the
resistance ratio we can use the following length ratio:
Rx =
L3
L4
x R2
P1
= galvanometer
V1,V2
S1
= 2-pole pushbutton
Rz
Rv
= comparison resistance.
12
3.3
Thomson bridges are used for measuring ohmic resistance in the range of about 10-8
ohms to 10 ohms.
A current flows through resistance Rx and the standard resistance Rs . The two voltage
drops are compared by the galvanometer in the bridge. In the balanced condition of the
bridge:
Rx =
Rs
Rc
xr
The result of the measurement is independent of the Iead resistance, as this does not
affect the result when measuring the voltage drop.
13
Wheatstone
14
Thompson
Ut = terminal voltage.
15
Ri =
Ui
I
U0 - Ut
I
I=
Ut
Ra
and
NOTE:
The EMF (E) or basic voltage Uo can only be measured at the terminals on noIoad. On load, the terminal voltage drops by the amount Ui = I x Ri . The
terminal voltage, therefore, depends on the load ( I is a function of the load
resistance).
16
17
4.1
Examples of calculations
a)
Two batteries with the same source voltage of 1.53 V and the same internal
resistance of 0.35 ohms each are connected in series.
Calculate: 1) The total source voltage
2) The total internal resistance.
E1 = E2
= 1.53 V
Ri1 = Ri2
= 0.35
Etotal
=?
Ritotal
=?
b)
Two single cells of 1.5 V each have an internal resistance of Ri1 = 0.21 ohms
and Ri2 = 0.075 ohm respectively and are connected in series.
Calculate: 1) The total voltage an no-load
2) The total internal resistance.
E1 = E2
= 1.5 V
Ri1
= 0.21
Ri2
= 0.075
Etotal
=?
Ritotal
=?
18
c)
Ra
10
4.5 V
Ri1 =
0.3
d)
Six components of 1.5 V each and an internal resistance of Ri1 = 0.75 ohms each
are connected in parallel to an external resistance of Ra = 18 ohms.
Calculate the current through the external resistance.
E1
1.5 V
Ri1 =
0.75
Ra =
18
19
e)
E1
2.1 V
Ri1
0.0025
Ra1
1.2
Ra2
12
I1
I2
f)
The source voltage of a component is 1.5 V ( Ri1 = 0.5 ohm). The load resistance
is
0.25 ohm.
Calculate the required number of components in parallel so that a load current of 4
A can flow.
Ra
0.25
E1
1.5 V
Ri1
0.5
4A
20
g)
E1
4.5 V
Ra
7A
Ri1
0.57
h)
Six single cells with a source voltage of 1.5 V each are connected according to the
figure below.
Calculate the load resistance for a current of 4 A ( Ri1 = 0.5 ohm)
Ri1
0.5
4A
E1
1.5 V
Ra
21
i)
Three galvanic components ( E1 = 1.5 V) Ri1 = 0.5 ohm are connected in series.
Two x three identical components are connected in parallel with them. The load
resistance is 75 ohms.
E1
1.5 V
Ri1
0.5
Ra
75
Uo
Ui
22
j)
Twelve single cells of 1.5 V each and an internal resistance of 0.35 ohm each are ^
connected so that the total voltage is 4.5 V.
Sketch the circuit and calculate:
1) The total Ri
2) The current with a load of 18 ohms
3) The short-circuit current.
Ri1
0.35
E1
1.5 V
4.5 V
Ra1
18
Ra2
Ri
I1
I2
23
k)
If three galvanic components with an internal resistance of Ri1 = 0.75 ohm each
are connected in parallel, a current of 4.5 A is required to flow through a load
resistance of Ra = 1 ohm (E1 = 1.5 V).
Calculate how many components are connected in series in each parallel circuit.
Ri1
0.75
Ra
E1
1.5 V
4.5 A
24
5.1
STANDARD RESISTANCE
For particularly accurate current measurements in voltage dividers and bridge circuits,
standard resistances are used.
Standard resistances have usually values in decades which range
from 10-4 to 10-6 ohms.
Standard resistances must comply with some important conditions:
a) High degree of constancy with time
b) Low temperature co-efficient of resistance
c) Insensitivity to dampness in air
d) Insensitivity to mechanical stresses.
Manganin is usually used as a resistance, as it fulfils the above conditions, and the
thermal EMF to the copper terminals is very low. In practice standard resistances are
usually made in the form of
bars, tapes, sheets or wire windings. In order to obtain constant resistance values they
are usually aged artificially by tempering etc.
25
5.2
Standard resistances without inductance or capacitance have to be used for alternatingcurrent measurements, as otherwise there will be a phase angle between current and
voltage.
This phase angle can be avoided by special types of winding.
A double-wire loop is wound in this type of winding, so that the currents flowing oppose
one another and there is practically no coil inductance. The bifilar winding has the
disadvantage of a rather higher coil capacitance.
In this winding, the individual coil layers are wound in Opposition. Therefore, the
inductance and the capacitance can be kept relatively low.
26
POTENTIOMETERS
All indicating Instruments take current from the circuit being measured, due to the greater
or lesser internal resistance. Potentiometer circuits do not load the circuit being measured.
They are based an the principle that unknown voltage is compared with a known voltage.
6.1
27
The compensating resistance R is now adjusted until the voltage drop at R is equal to the
opposed voltage Ux. The value of R set is proportional to voltage Ux. In the balanced
condition no current is taken either from the auxiliary circuit or from the circuit being
measured.
The internal resistance of the compensator is then infinitely great.
Compensators are among the most accurate devices in measurement technology. Apart
from the quality of the components used, the accuracy depends mainly on the standard
component. A standard component of sufficient and known EMF must be used.
Apart from the measurement of currents and voltages on direct current, compensators are
used in resistance-bridge circuits. In so-called compensation measurement benches, they
are combined with other technical means for testing and calibrating measuring
Instruments.
28
29
QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Which one of the following resistance measuring methods is the most accurate?
a) Voltage-error method
b) Current-error method.
c) Combined current-voltage error method.
6.
7.
8.
9.
What relationship exists between the magnetic flux densities and coil currents in a
crossed-coil instrument?
10.
30
QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
31
7.
8.
Six single cells with a source voltage of 1.5 V each are connected according to the
diagram below.
Calculate the load resistance for a current of 6 A
9.
10.
32
1.
No.
2.
Voltage-error circuit
3.
The resistances which are appreciably lower than the internal resistance of the
voltmeter.
4.
Rui>> Rx
33
5.
6.
This method is suitable for resistances in the range 102 ohms to 106 ohms.
If Ri is very small compared with Rs and Rx , Ri can be neglected. The resistance
Rx is determined using the comparison method by
the formula.
7.
8.
The main difference being that the crossed-coil has two moving coils
I1
I2
B2
B1
34
10.
35
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
No.
6.
36
7.
8.
9.
37
KEY TO EVALUATION
PER CENT
MARK
88 100
75 87
62 74
50 61
0 49
38