Chemistry IGCSE Revision Notes

Chapter 1 The Particulate Nature of Matter

o Describe the states of matter and explain their inter conversion in terms of the kinetic
particle theory

Matter
o
Anything that has mass and occupies space (has volume)
o
Matter is composed of particles (molecules, ions, atoms)
o
Spaced apart and seen with scanning electron microscope
o
Are in constant motion attracting one another with inter-particle
forces (or cohesive)
o
Strength of inter particle force and space between particles
determines state
o

Universe matter or energy

Scientists have developed a model called the kinetic theory, which explains
the behavior of matter and their physical properties.
Kinetic means movement, and so kinetic energy means movement
energy.

The Kinetic Theory of Matter States:

Matter is made up of very small particles that are in constant motion.
Each matter has a different type of particles with different size and
mass. Particles are in continuous movement. All particles are moving
all the time in random directions (Brownian motion).
The speed of movement depends on the mass of the particle,
temperature and several other factors that you will know later on.
The higher the temperature, the faster they move (more energy)- the
higher the average energy of the particles.
Heavier particles move more slowly than lighter particles at the same
temperature.
Temperature increase weakens inter-particle forces, particles spread
apart and increase in volume/size (i.e. Expansion)
The particles also attract each other when close, but these attractions
are weakened when the particles are far apart.
Gases have greatest average energy
Solids have smallest average energy

 Average energy is measure of temperature

There are 3 states of matter: Solids, Liquids, and Gases.

Physical
State

Solid

Liquid

Gas

Example: Ice

Example: Water

Example: Water vapour

Very closely
packed and
regularly arranged
in lattice

Closely packed
and irregular
arrangement /
pattern

Very far apart and have an

very irregular or random
arrangement or say are
widely spaced
in random order

Intermolecular
Spaces

Almost none
Negligible

Minimal Tiny
spaces

Very large

Intermolecular
Forces

Strong forces of
attraction between
particles

Weaker or less
strong attractive
forces than solids

Almost no intermolecular
forces
(Non- existent)

Particles
Arrangement

Movement of
Particles

Particles move
around and slide
past each other;
that is why a liquid
can be poured.

Particles move freely,

collide with each other and
bounce away again (in all
the directions); that is why
a gas spreads.

No fixed/ definite shape depends on the container

Fixed Volume;
because the
particles cant
move closer, so
the volume does
not change.

No fixed shape
Depends on the
container
Fixed Volume;
because the
particles cant
move closer, so the
volume does not
change.

High

Moderate to high

Low

Compressibility

Cannot be
compressed

Can be hardly
compressed

Fluidity

Does not flow

Generally flows
easily

Very compressible;
because particles are far
apart and can be pushed
together
Flows easily

Diffusion

Cannot diffuse

Diffuses slowly

Shape

Volume
Increase in
volumeexpansion
Decrease in
volumecontraction
Density

Particles vibrate to
and fro, but not
move apart and
cant change
position therefore
have fixed volume
and shape.
[Vibrate around
a fixed point]
Fixed definite
shape

No fixed volume expands

to fill the container as the
particles can move a lot
closer, so the gas can be
pushed into a much
smaller volume.

Diffuses quickly

***Liquids and gases are called fluids.

Sum up:
Solids:
The particles are packed closely together. The forces between particles are
strong enough so that the particles cannot move freely but can only vibrate.

As a result, a solid has a stable, definite shape, and a definite volume. Solids
can only change their shape by force, as when broken or cut.

Liquids:
A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid which is able to conform to the shape
of its container but retains a (nearly) constant volume independent of
pressure.
Gases:
A gas is a compressible fluid. Not only will a gas conform to the shape of its
container but it will also expand to fill the container.
In a gas, the molecules have enough kinetic energy so that the effect of forces
is small, and the typical distance between neighboring molecules is much
greater than the molecular size.
A gas has no definite shape or volume, but occupies the entire container in
which it is confined.
These also show differences in how they respond to a change of pressure or
temperature:
Generally, all show an increase in volume when the temperature is increase.
They decrease in volume when their temperatures are lowered.
But they have different magnitudes of expansion:

Gases

Amount of expansion

Liquids
Solids

INCREASES UPWARDS

The kinetic theory explanation of thermal expansion:

When, for example, a steel bar is heated, its particles speed up. They
vibrate more and more, taking more space. As they do, they take up more
space, so the bar expands in all directions slightly. If the temperature falls,
the reverse happens.
They also show differences in their responds to pressure changes:

The volume of the gas at a fixed temperature can be easily reduced by

increasing the pressure on the gas. This is because the intermolecular space
between the particles is huge, and so the particles can be easily brought
together by decreasing the size of their container (applying pressure).
Liquids on the other hand can only be slightly compressed, because they
have very small intermolecular spaces between the particles.
Solids volumes are unaffected by changing atmospheric pressure on them.
Physical Changes (Change in State):

Physical changes are changes in which no new substance is formed. For

example melting and ice cube or dissolving salt in water. Physical changes
are reversible. For instance if you heat and melt and ice cube to water, you
can put it in a freezer and have it changed back to ice.
Changing the state of a matter is a physical change. And it is done by either
heating or cooling. The following diagram represents changes in state:

Melting: It is the change of state from a solid to liquid. The temperature at

which a solid turns to a liquid is called the melting point. Impurities in the
solid/liquid can decrease the melting point.

Freezing or solidification: It is the change of liquid into a solid. The

temperature at which a liquid turns into a solid is called the freezing point.
These both happen at a particular temperature called the melting/freezing
point. The melting and freezing point of any given substance are both the
same temperature such as, the melting and freezing of pure water takes
place at 0oC.
Any pure substance always melts and boils at one particular or
definite temperature only.
Boiling: Eventually, at a certain temperature, it becomes hot enough for
gas to form within the liquid and not just at the surface. Bubbles of gas
appear inside the liquid. This process is known as boiling. It takes place at a
specific temperature called a boiling point. It is the rapid change of a liquid
into a gas at a certain temperature. The boiling point of a substance
decreases if the pressure decreases. Impurities in the liquid can increase the
boiling point.
Evaporation or vaporization: The change of state from liquid to gas is
called evaporation. The temperature at which a liquid evaporates is called
the boiling point.
If a liquid is left with its surface exposed to the air, it evaporates. This fact
states that evaporation process takes place from the surface of the liquid.
The larger the surface area, the faster the liquid evaporates. Further, the
warmer the liquid is, the faster it evaporates.
Sum up of both above:
Evaporation and boiling: evaporation constantly occurs on the surface of
liquids. The high energy particles escape from the liquid, even at low
temperatures. Boiling occurs at the boiling point and then the liquid
evaporates everywhere in the liquid (not just on the surface) and is much
faster. During a change of state the temperature of the mixture does not
change.
Condensation: It is the change of the physical state of matter from gas
phase into liquid phase. It can also be defined as the change in the state of
water vapor to liquid water when in contact with any surface.
Evaporation and condensation take place over (or happen on) a range of
temperatures whereas, a boiling point takes place at a specific temperature.
Sum up of above one:

Condensation and solidification: condensation is when a gas turns back

into a liquid. When a gas is cooled, the particles lose energy. They move
more and more slowly. When they bump in to each other, they do not have
enough energy to bounce away again. They stay close together, and a liquid
forms. When a liquid cools, the particles slow down even more. Eventually
they stop moving except for vibrations and solid forms.
Sublimation:
Some substances never exist in a liquid form. If they are solid and you heat
them they turn into a gas, and if they are a gas and you cool them they turn
into a solid. In other words, substances that turns from solid to gaseous
state or from gaseous state to solid state, without changing into a liquid.
This process is called Sublimation.
A few solids like carbon dioxide (dry ice) and iodine do not melt when
heated, but change directly into a gas. This also happens at a specific
temperature.
The change in state occurs when the temperature is raised or dropped.
Melting occurs when you heat a solid because heating gives the particles
more kinetic energy making them move faster and further apart, making
the solid expand. Until at some point they have enough energy to break the
forces of attraction between them and the lattice turning into liquid. If you
keep heating the liquid, particles will gain even more kinetic energy and
start moving even faster, pushing each other away. The particles at the
surface have the highest amount of energy that they can break the forces of
attraction and escape as a gas; this is the start of evaporation. At some
point, particles will try to escape so quickly that they form bubbles of gas in
the liquid. This is the boiling point at which the pressure of the gas forming
For changing
state
of a as
substance
frompressure.
solid to liquid to gas, heating
above
the liquidthe
is the
same
atmospheric
of the substance is done.
On the other hand, cooling a gas will make its particles lose their kinetic
Whenand
a solid
is heated
its particles
are held inthe
a regular
They
energy
move
closer and
slower. Eventually
forces structure.
of attraction
will
hold
them
together
liquid
(condensation).
a liquid is
cooled,
dont
move
away, forming
but theyado
vibrate
to and fro. AsAnd
theifparticles
take
in
itsheat
particles
willthe
move
closer and
untilstronger.
the forces
of particles
attractiontake
are in
energy,
vibrations
get slower
larger and
The
strong
enough and
to hold
them
together
forming
a solidof(freezing).
heat energy
change
it tight
to kinetic
energy
(or energy
movement).So
During the actual change of the state, the temperature of the matter is
the solid expands a little. Until at some point they have enough energy
constant because any heat energy supplied is used to break the bonds. So if
to record
overcome
forces of attraction
between
the a
particles
such
that the
you
the the
temperature
change during
heating
solid, the
temperature
solid
a liquid.
will
firstmelts
rise, to
then
it will remain constant for a while (this is the melting
point) and then it will rise again.
OR
When the temperature is raised the particles gain energy and vibrate
more strongly; the particles occupy more space - this causes the solid to
expand. Eventually the particles have enough energy to break the forces
holding the lattice together, and they can move around- the solid melts.

Heating the liquid will cause particles to take in heat energy. So they move
around and as the particles will gain even more kinetic energy and start
moving even faster, pushing each other away. Some particles gain enough
energy to overcome the forces of attraction between them, and escape as a
gas. This is evaporation. Further, when at a certain point, all the remaining
particles gain enough energy to escape. The liquid boils to a gas.
OR
On heating, the particles move faster and the liquid expands. In the liquid,
some particles have enough energy to escape from the surface- evaporation
takes place. As the temperature rises, more particles have enough energy to
escape evaporation is faster at higher temperatures. At the boiling point,
the particles have enough energy to break the forces attracting them
together the particles move very fast and separate from each other the
liquid boils.
During the process of melting and boiling the temperature remain constant,
because the energy is used to break the bonds between the particles.
On the other hand, cooling a gas will make its particles lose their
kinetic energy and move closer and slower. Eventually the forces of
attraction will hold them together forming a liquid (condensation). And if a
liquid is cooled, its particles will move closer and slower until the forces of

The following figure is a heating curve of a solid. At point A the state is

solid. At point B the solid is melting; it is a mixture of solid and liquid. At
point C the state is liquid. At point D the liquid is evaporating, it is a

mixture of liquid and gas. At point E the state is gas. Temperature X is the
melting point while temperature Y is the boiling point.

Heating curve
The following figure is a cooling curve of a gas. At point A the state is gas.
At point B the gas is condensing; the state is a mixture of gas and liquid. At
point C the state is liquid. At point D the liquid is freezing, the state is a
mixture of liquid and solid. At point E the state is solid. Temperature X is
the melting point and temperature Y is the boiling point.

Cooling Curve
Some liquids evaporate extremely quickly at room temperature, they are
said to be volatile liquids.

Pure and impure substances:

A pure substance consists of one substance only. There is nothing else in it
it has no contaminating impurities. A pure substance melts and boils at
definite temperatures.
The purity of substances can be easily determined by testing its
boiling and melting points. This is because pure substances have sharp
boiling and melting points, while those of impure substances are ranging.
The values for the melting point and boiling point of a pure substance can
be used to test the purity of a sample plus, can also be used to check the
identity of an unknown substance.
A substances melting and boiling points in relation to room temperature
(taken as 20oC) determine whether it is usually seen as a solid, a liquid or a
gas. For example, if the m.p. is below 20 oC and the b.p. is above 20oC, the
substance will be liquid at room temperature.
Substanc
e

Physical
Melting
state at
point/ oC
room
temperatu
re
gas
-219

Boiling
Point/ oC

Comment: WHY

-183

Ethanol
(alcohol)

liquid

-117

78

Water

liquid

100

( 0>20oC
)

( 100>20oC
)

801

1465

If m.p. and b.p. both are

in minus sign then
definitely the substance
is a gas.
If from m.p. and b.p
anyone has a minus
sign then it will be
liquid.
If both the values are
positive then check if
the m.p. is below 20oC
and b.p. is above 20oC,
if it is so then it is a
liquid.
If all the above
conditions fail then,
undeniably the
substance is a solid.

oxygen

Sodium
chloride
(common
salt)

solid

An impure substance (that has impurities in it) like sea water has salts and
other impurities dissolved in it. This make the sea water have a lower
melting point and a higher boiling point.
In other words, the impurity can also reduce the sharpness of the melting
or boiling point. An impure substance sometimes melts or boils over a range
of temperatures, not at a particular point.
The presence of an impurity in a substance:
Lowers the melting point, and
Raises the boiling point of the substance
When a solid is melted, or a liquid is boiled, the temperature stays constant
until the process is complete. The same is true in reverse when a gas
condenses or a liquid freezes.

Describe and explain diffusion.

The process by which particles mix and spread, through random
collisions with other particles, is called diffusion.
It is basically the movement by which substances disperse themselves
spontaneously.
Two gases eventually become mixed when they are mixed
The movement of particles of fluid from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration in order to maintain a
constant concentration in the given space.
Particles travel in random zigzag motions, this is how smells spread,
solids dissolve, and dust particles travel in a random way when
suspended in air.
Brownian Motion: the apparent random movement of small particles.
Diffusion is a random process. So, the path a particle takes depends on
its collisions.
Diffusion does not take place in solids.
Diffusion in liquids is much slower than in gases.
Diffusion in liquids is also called dissolving.
It is much faster in gases than in liquids because particles move much
faster in gases. So they collide with more force, and have space to
bounce further away.
As the temperature rises, particles take in energy and move faster. So
diffusion is faster too.

Describe evidence for the movement of particles in gases and liquids (a treatment of
Brownian motion is not required)
Some evidence for particles:
Demonstrating Diffusion in Liquids:
When a potassium permanganate crystal is suspended at the bottom
of a beaker, filled with water, the permanganate crystals will tend to
disperse themselves evenly throughout the beaker. After 2 hours, a
purple solution of the same shade was observed.
Explanation: When you drop a crystal of purple potassium manganate
(VII) into water, the purple colour spreads through the water. This is
because- the particles leave the crystal. They collide with moving
water particles and bounce away again. In this way, they mix and
spread all through the liquid.
Precautions:Do not stir or shake the mixture in anyway that may aid it to mix
Provide a short distance for diffusion, in other words do not over fill the
beaker, prolonging the time taken for distribution.
Experiment could also be done through Copper (II) Sulphate crystals in
water:
A copper 2 sulphate crystal is put in water beaker. It is then left to stand. At
first the water next to the crystal becomes blue as the solid dissolves.
Particles move off the surface of the crystal. Eventually the crystal dissolves
completely and the whole solution becomes blue. The particles of the
crystal have spread out evenly in the liquid.

Demonstrating Diffusion in Gas:

A jar of dense green gas, chlorine, is put
underneath a jar of air
Because gases consist of fast-moving
particles, when the jars are exposed to
each other, molecules of air and chlorine
spread themselves between the two jars
With time, both gas jars consist of green
gas of uniform intensity
Also, an aerosol spray can be released at
the front of a room, with time the
occupants at the back of the room can
smell the spray because the gas moved
gradually to the back of the room.
Some gas jar experiment could also be done with bromine:
A gas jar of air and a gas jar of bromine are connected; the bromine
travels up the tube.
Diffusion of gases can be proved very easily. We can prove it by putting
some bromine liquid in a cylinder and sealing it, then putting another
inverted cylinder above it. When the bromine liquid evaporates, we
remove the lid between the two cylinders; the brown bromine gas will
diffuse upwards filling the available space.
Cooking smell spreads:
o The smell of cooking can travel from the kitchen all through the house.
o Explanation: A smell is due to gas particles from the food. They collide
with the gas particles in air, and bounce away again. In this way, they
spread everywhere. You smell them when they reach your nose.

Describe dependence of rate of diffusion on molecular mass (treated qualitatively)

Factors that affects the rate of diffusion:
Mass of the substance:
The lighter the substance (lower Mr or Ar) the faster it diffuses.

 Gases with larger molecules have higher densities than gases which
have small molecules. E.g. Chlorine molecules are 35.5 larger than
hydrogen molecules and chlorine is denser than hydrogen.
Heavier particles move more slowly than lighter particles at the same
temperature; larger molecules diffuse more slowly than smaller
(lighter) ones. And we can also say that, dense gases diffuse more
slowly than gases of low density.
Thus, the rate of diffusion depends on the molecular mass/density of
gas.
Rate of diffusion is inversely proportional to mass.
Particle mass decreases rate of diffusion increases and vice
versa (this is shown by the following experiment).
Temperature:
The higher the temperature, the faster a gas will diffuse.
Because particles gain energy as they are heated.
So, the more kinetic energy the particles have, the faster they move
and diffuse.
For example- When Potassium Permanganate (KMnO) crystals diffusing
in warm and cool water, respectively, are compared; it is shown that
the KMnO diffuses considerably faster in the warm water. This supports
kinetic theory in that the warmer particles have more energy, so they
can diffuse faster.
Temperature increases rate of diffusion increases
The average speed of the particles increases with an increase in
temperature.
Presence of other substance:
Diffusion is faster when it occurs in an area where there are fewer
particles of other substances present. This is why diffusion is extremely
fast in vacuums. This is because the diffusing particles have less other
particles to stand in their way.
Intermolecular spaces:
This is why gases diffuse faster than liquids and solids do not diffuse.

Note:
The pressure of gas is the result of collisions of the fast - moving
particles with the walls of the container.
Comparing the rates of diffusion for gases:
Even at the same temperature, gases do not diffuse at the same rate. Look
at this experiment.

Ammonia Solution- NH3 Hydrochloric Acid- HCl

Ammonium chloride- NH4Cl

White smoke of

If particles of ammonia gas half the mass of particles of hydrogen

chloride gas are soaked in cotton wool and placed at two ends of a
tube (corked on both sides) then; when these gases come in contact,
white smoke of Ammonium Chloride forms. Because the smoke forms
closer to the HCl, it shows that ammonia gas molecules travelled
faster in the same length of time.
Particles of ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride gas diffuse from the
opposite ends of the long glass tube. (The particles are molecules.)
When they meet, they combine to form a white cloud of ammonium
chloride. The white cloud forms closer to the right-hand end. So the
ammonia molecules have travelled faster. Thats because they are
lighter. (The relative molecular masses are: ammonia: 17; hydrogen
chloride: 36.5.)
The lower its relative molecular mass, the faster a gas will
diffuse.

Particle mass decreases rate of diffusion increases and

vice versa (this is shown by the above experiment).

Note: Dissolving (diffusion in liquids) can be speed up by

increasing temperature or stirring.