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Physiology
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Physiology(/fzildi/fromAncientGreek
(physis),meaning"nature,origin",and(logia),
meaning"studyof"[1])isthescientificstudyofthenormal
functioninlivingsystems.[2]Asubdisciplineofbiology,
itsfocusisinhoworganisms,organsystems,organs,cells,
andbiomoleculescarryoutthechemicalorphysical
functionsthatexistinalivingsystem.[3]Giventhesizeof
thefield,itisdividedinto,amongothers,animal
physiology(includingthatofhumans),plantphysiology,
cellularphysiology,microbialphysiology(seemicrobial
metabolism),bacterialphysiology,andviralphysiology.[3]
TheNobelPrizeinPhysiologyorMedicineisawardedto
thosewhomakesignificantachievementsinthisdiscipline
bytheRoyalSwedishAcademyofSciences.Inmedicine,
aphysiologicstateisoneoccurringfromnormalbody
function,ratherthanpathologically,whichiscenteredon
theabnormalitiesthatoccurinanimaldiseases,including
humans.[4]

OilpaintingdepictingClaudeBernard,thefatherof
modernphysiology,withhispupils

Contents
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

History
Womeninphysiology
Timelineofdevelopments
Subdisciplines
Humanphysiology
Seealso
References
Externallinks
Bibliography
9.1 Humanphysiology
9.2 Animalphysiology
9.3 Plantphysiology
9.4 Fungiphysiology
9.5 Protistphysiology
9.6 Bacterialphysiology

History
PhysiologicalstudiesdatebacktoancientcivilizationsofIndia[5][6]andEgyptalongsideanatomicalstudiesbutdid
notutilizedissectionsandvivisectionatthattime.[7]Thestudyofhumanphysiologyasamedicalfielddatesback
toatleast420BCtothetimeofHippocrates,alsoknownasthe"fatherofmedicine."[8]Hippocratesincorporated
hisbeliefsystemcalledthetheoryofhumours,whichconsistedoffourbasicsubstance:earth,water,airandfire.
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Eachsubstanceisknownforhavingacorrespondinghumour:blackbile,phlegm,bloodandyellowbile,
respectively.Hippocratesalsonotedsomeemotionalconnectionstothefourhumours,whichClaudisGalenus
wouldlaterexpandon.ThecriticalthinkingofAristotleandhisemphasisontherelationshipbetweenstructure
andfunctionmarkedthebeginningofphysiologyinAncientGreece.LikeHippocrates,Aristotletooktothe
humoraltheoryofdisease,whichalsoconsistedoffourprimaryqualitiesinlife:hot,cold,wetanddry.[9]Claudius
Galenus(c.~130200AD),knownasGalenofPergamum,wasthefirsttouseexperimentstoprobethefunctions
ofthebody.UnlikeHippocratesthough,Galenarguedthathumoralimbalancescanbelocatedinspecificorgans,
includingtheentirebody.[10]Hismodificationofthistheorybetterequippeddoctorstomakemoreprecise
diagnoses.GalenalsoplayedoffofHippocratesideathatemotionswerealsotiedtothehumours,andaddedthe
notionoftemperaments:sanguinecorrespondswithbloodphlegmaticistiedtophlegmyellowbileisconnected
tocholericandblackbilecorrespondswithmelancholy.Galenalsosawthehumanbodyconsistingofthree
connectedsystems:thebrainandnerves,whichareresponsibleforthoughtsandsensationstheheartandarteries,
whichgivelifeandtheliverandveins,whichcanbeattributedtonutritionandgrowth.[10]Totopitoff,Galenwas
alsothefounderofexperimentalphysiology.[11]Andforthenext1,400years,Galenicphysiologywasapowerful
andinfluentialtoolinmedicine.[10]
JeanFernel(14971558),aFrenchphysician,introducedtheterm"physiology".[12]
Inthe19thcentury,physiologicalknowledgebegantoaccumulateatarapidrate,inparticularwiththe1838
appearanceoftheCelltheoryofMatthiasSchleidenandTheodorSchwann.Itradicallystatedthatorganismsare
madeupofunitscalledcells.ClaudeBernard's(18131878)furtherdiscoveriesultimatelyledtohisconceptof
milieuinterieur(internalenvironment),whichwouldlaterbetakenupandchampionedas"homeostasis"by
AmericanphysiologistWalterB.Cannonin1929.Byhomeostasis,Cannonmeant"themaintenanceofsteady
statesinthebodyandthephysiologicalprocessesthroughwhichtheyareregulated."[13]Inotherwords,thebody's
abilitytoregulateitsinternalenvironment.Itshouldbenotedthat,WilliamBeaumontwasthefirstAmericanto
utilizethepracticalapplicationofphysiology.
ThePhysiologicalSocietywasfoundedinLondonin1876asadiningclub.Themeetingsalsocontained
communicationsanddemonstrationsandtheSocietynowhasmorethan3000members.TheAmerican
PhysiologicalSociety(APS)isanonprofitdevotedtofosteringeducation,scientificresearch,anddisseminationof
informationinthephysiologicalsciences.TheSocietywasfoundedin1887with28members.APSnowhasover
10,500members.Anatomyandphysiology,whichstudy(respectively)thestructureandfunctionoforganisms,
makeanaturalpairofrelateddisciplines,andtheyareoftenstudiedtogether.

Womeninphysiology
Initially,womenwerelargelyexcludedfromofficialinvolvementinanyphysiologicalsociety.TheAmerican
PhysiologicalSociety,forexample,wasfoundedin1887andincludedonlymeninitsranks.In1902,the
AmericanPhysiologicalSocietyelectedIdaHydeasthefirstfemalememberofthesociety.Hyde,arepresentative
oftheAmericanAssociationofUniversityWomenandaglobaladvocateforgenderequalityineducation,[14]
attemptedtopromotegenderequalityineveryaspectofscienceandmedicine.
Soonthereafter,in1913,J.S.HaldaneproposedthatwomenbeallowedtoformallyjoinThePhysiologicalSociety,
whichhadbeenfoundedin1876.On3July1915,sixwomenwereofficiallyadmitted:FlorenceBuchanan,
WinifredCullis,RuthC.Skelton,SarahC.M.Sowton,ConstanceLeethamTerry,andEnidM.Tribe.[15]The
centenaryoftheelectionofwomenwascelebratedin2015withthepublicationofabook"Womenphysiologists:
centenarycelebrationsandbeyondforThePhysiologicalSocietyISBN9780993341007.
Prominentwomenphysiologistsinclude:
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GertyCori,[16]alongwithhusbandCarlCori,receivedtheNobelPrizeinPhysiologyorMedicinein1947
fortheirdiscoveryofthephosphatecontainingformofglucoseknownasglycogen,aswellasitsfunction
withineukaryoticmetabolicmechanismsforenergyproduction.Moreover,theydiscoveredtheCoricycle,
alsoknownastheLacticacidcycle,[17]whichdescribeshowmuscletissueconvertsglycogenintolacticacid
vialacticacidfermentation.
GertrudeElion,[18]alongwithGeorgeHitchingsandSirJamesBlack,receivedtheNobelPrizefor
PhysiologyorMedicinein1988fortheirdevelopmentofdrugsemployedinthetreatmentofseveralmajor
diseases,suchasleukemia,someautoimmunedisorders,gout,malaria,andviralherpes.
LindaB.Buck,[19]alongwithRichardAxel,receivedtheNobelPrizeinPhysiologyorMedicinein2004for
theirdiscoveryofodorantreceptorsandthecomplexorganizationoftheolfactorysystem.
FranoiseBarrSinoussi,[20]alongwithLucMontaginer,receivedtheNobelPrizedinPhysiologyor
Medicinein2008fortheirworkontheidentificationoftheHumanImmunodeficiencyVirus(HIV),the
causeofAcquiredImmunodeficiencySyndrome(AIDS).
ElizabethBlackburn,[21]alongwithCarolGreiderandJackSzostak,wasawardedthe2009NobelPrizefor
PhysiologyorMedicineforthediscoveryofthegeneticcompositionandfunctionoftelomeresandthe
enzymecalledtelomerase.

Timelineofdevelopments
1858JosephListerstudiedthecauseofbloodcoagulationandinflammationthatresultedafterpreviousinjuries
andsurgicalwounds.Helaterdiscoveredandimplementedantisepticsintheoperatingroom,andasaresult
decreasesdeathratefromsurgerybyasubstantialamount.[4][22]
1891IvanPavlovperformedresearchon"conditionalreflexes"thatinvolveddogs'salivaproductioninresponse
toaplethoraofsoundsandvisualstimuli.[22]
Inthe20thcentury,biologistsalsobecameinterestedinhoworganismsotherthanhumanbeingsfunction,
eventuallyspawningthefieldsofcomparativephysiologyandecophysiology.[23]Majorfiguresinthesefields
includeKnutSchmidtNielsenandGeorgeBartholomew.Mostrecently,evolutionaryphysiologyhasbecomea
distinctsubdiscipline.[24]
1910AugustKrogh,in1920wontheNobelPrizefordiscoveringhow,incapillaries,bloodflowisregulated.[22]
1954AndrewHuxleyandHughHuxley,alongsidetheirresearchteam,discoveredtheslidingfilamentsinskeletal
muscle,knowntodayastheslidingfilamenttheory.[22]
Today,andtimesbefore,physiologistscontinuouslytryingtofindanswerstoimportantquestionsconcerninghow
populationsinteract,theenvironmentonearth,andinsinglecellfunctions.[4]

Subdisciplines
Therearemanywaystocategorizethesubdiscplinesofphysiology:[25]
basedonthetaxastudied:humanphysiology,animalphysiology,plantphysiology,microbialphysiology,
viralphysiology
basedontheleveloforganization:cellphysiology,molecularphysiology,systemsphysiology,organismal
physiology,ecologicalphysiology,integrativephysiology
basedontheprocessthatcausesphysiologicalvariation:developmentalphysiology,environmental
physiology,evolutionaryphysiology
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basedontheultimategoalsoftheresearch:appliedphysiology(e.g.,medicalphysiology),nonapplied(e.g.,
comparativephysiology)

Humanphysiology
Humanphysiologyseekstounderstandthemechanismsthatworktokeep
thehumanbodyaliveandfunctioning,[3]throughscientificenquiryintothe
natureofmechanical,physical,andbiochemicalfunctionsofhumans,their
organs,andthecellsofwhichtheyarecomposed.Theprincipallevelof
focusofphysiologyisattheleveloforgansandsystemswithinsystems.
Theendocrineandnervoussystemsplaymajorrolesinthereceptionand
transmissionofsignalsthatintegratefunctioninanimals.Homeostasisisa
majoraspectwithregardtosuchinteractionswithinplantsaswellas
animals.Thebiologicalbasisofthestudyofphysiology,integrationrefers
totheoverlapofmanyfunctionsofthesystemsofthehumanbody,aswell
asitsaccompaniedform.Itisachievedthroughcommunicationthatoccurs
inavarietyofways,bothelectricalandchemical.

Thehumanskullatbirth,withits
fontanelles,presentsmanyimportant
anatomicalandphysiologicalfeatures.

Muchofthefoundationofknowledgeinhumanphysiologywasprovided
byanimalexperimentation.Physiologyisthestudyoffunctionandis
closelyrelatedtoanatomywhichisthestudyofformandstructure.Dueto
thefrequentconnectionbetweenformandfunction,physiologyandanatomyareintrinsicallylinkedandare
studiedintandemaspartofamedicalcurriculum.

Seealso
Plantphysiology
Ecophysiology
Cellphysiology
Neurophysiology
Cytoarchitecture
Appliedphysiology
Defensephysiology
Exercisephysiology
Fishphysiology
Insectphysiology
Listofphysiologists
Physiome
Metabolome
Metabolomics
Somatopsychic
Cybernetics

References
1."physiology".OnlineEtymologyDictionary.
2.Prosser,C.Ladd(1991).ComparativeAnimalPhysiology,EnvironmentalandMetabolicAnimalPhysiology(4thed.).
Hoboken,NJ:WileyLiss.pp.112.ISBN047185767X.
3.Hall,John(2011).GuytonandHalltextbookofmedicalphysiology(12thed.).Philadelphia,Pa.:Saunders/Elsevier.p.3.
ISBN9781416045748.
4."Whatisphysiology?".MedicalNewsToday.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiology

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5.D.P.BurmaMaharaniChakravorty.FromPhysiologyandChemistrytoBiochemistry.PearsonEducation.p.8.
6.FrancisZimmermann.TheJungleandtheAromaofMeats:AnEcologicalThemeinHinduMedicine.Motilal
Banarsidasspublications.p.159.
7."MedicineAcrossCultures".google.com.
8."Physiology".ScienceClarified.Advameg,Inc.Retrieved20100829.
9."EarlyMedicineandPhysiology".ship.edu.
10."GalenofPergamum".EncyclopediaBritannica.
11.Fell,C.Pearson,F.(November2007)."HistoricalPerspectivesofThoracicAnatomy".ThoracicSurgeryClinics17(4):
4438.doi:10.1016/j.thorsurg.2006.12.001.
12.WilburApplebaum.EncyclopediaoftheScientificRevolution:FromCopernicustoNewton.Routledge.p.344.
13.BrownTheodoreM.FeeElizabeth(October2002)."WalterBradfordCannon:PioneerPhysiologistofHuman
Emotions".AmericanJournalofPublicHealth92(10):15941595.doi:10.2105/ajph.92.10.1594.PMC1447286.
14."IdaHenriettaHyde".jwa.org.
15."WomeninPhysiology".physoc.org.
16."CarlCoriandGertyCori".EncyclopediaBritannica.
17."Coricycle".TheFreeDictionary.com.
18."GertrudeB.Elion".EncyclopediaBritannica.
19."TheNobelPrizeinPhysiologyorMedicine2004".nobelprize.org.
20."FrancoiseBarreSinoussibiographyFrenchvirologist".EncyclopediaBritannica.
21."ElizabethH.Blackburn".EncyclopediaBritannica.
22."MilestonesinPhysiology(18222013)"(PDF).1October2013.Retrieved20150725.
23.Feder,MEBennett,AFWW,BurggrenHuey,RB(1987).Newdirectionsinecologicalphysiology.NewYork:
CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN9780521349383.
24.Garland,Jr,TheodoreCarter,P.A.(1994)."Evolutionaryphysiology"(PDF).AnnualReviewofPhysiology56(1):579
621.doi:10.1146/annurev.ph.56.030194.003051.PMID8010752.
25.Moyes,C.D.,Schulte,P.M.PrinciplesofAnimalPhysiology,secondedition.Pearson/BenjaminCummings.Boston,
MA,2008.

Externallinks
ThePhysiologicalSociety(http://www.physoc.org/)
physiologyINFO.org(http://www.physiologyinfo.org/)public
informationsitesponsoredbyTheAmericanPhysiologicalSociety

Bibliography
Humanphysiology

Lookupphysiologyin
Wiktionary,thefree
dictionary.
Wikisourcehasoriginal
worksonthetopic:
Physiology

Widmaier,E.P.,Raff,H.,Strang,K.T.Vander'sHumanPhysiology.11thEdition,McGrawHill,2009.
Marieb,E.N.EssentialsofHumanAnatomyandPhysiology.10thEdition,BenjaminCummings,2012.

Animalphysiology
Hill,R.W.,Wyse,G.A.,Anderson,M.AnimalPhysiology,3rded.SinauerAssociates,Sunderland,2012.
Moyes,C.D.,Schulte,P.M.PrinciplesofAnimalPhysiology,secondedition.Pearson/BenjaminCummings.
Boston,MA,2008.
Randall,D.,Burggren,W.,andFrench,K.EckertAnimalPhysiology:MechanismandAdaptation,5th
Edition.W.H.FreemanandCompany,2002.
SchmidtNielsen,K.AnimalPhysiology:AdaptationandEnvironment.Cambridge&NewYork:Cambridge
UniversityPress,1997.
Withers,P.C.Comparativeanimalphysiology.SaundersCollegePublishing,NewYork,1992.

Plantphysiology
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Larcher,W.Physiologicalplantecology(4thed.).Springer,2001.
Salisbury,F.B,Ross,C.W.Plantphysiology.Brooks/ColePubCo.,1992
Taiz,L.,Zieger,E.PlantPhysiology(5thed.),Sunderland,Massachusetts:Sinauer,2010.

Fungiphysiology
Griffin,D.H.FungalPhysiology,SecondEdition.WileyLiss,NewYork,1994.

Protistphysiology
Levandowsky,M.PhysiologicalAdaptationsofProtists.In:Cellphysiologysourcebook:essentialsof
membranebiophysics.AmsterdamBoston:Elsevier/AP,2012.
Algaephysiology
Lobban,C.S.,Harrison,P.J.Seaweedecologyandphysiology.CambridgeUniversityPress,1997.
Stewart,W.D.P.(ed.).AlgalPhysiologyandBiochemistry.BlackwellScientificPublications,Oxford,1974.
Protozoaphysiology
Levandowski,M.,Hutner,S.H.(eds).Biochemistryandphysiologyofprotozoa.Volumes1,2,and3.
AcademicPress:NewYork,NY,19792nded.
LaybournParryJ.AFunctionalBiologyofFreeLivingProtozoa.Berkeley,California:Universityof
CaliforniaPress1984.

Bacterialphysiology
ElSharoud,W.(ed.).BacterialPhysiology:AMolecularApproach.SpringerVerlag,BerlinHeidelberg,
2008.ISBN9783540749202
Kim,B.H.,Gadd,M.G.BacterialPhysiologyandMetabolism.Cambridge,2008.ISBN9780521712309
Moat,A.G.,Foster,J.W.,Spector,M.P.MicrobialPhysiology,4thed.WileyLiss,Inc.NewYork,NY,2002.
ISBN9780471461197
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