Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Michael Arnett
4091 Millsboro Rd W
Mansfield, OH 44903
Abstract:
As the market shifts toward larger vehicles and growing concerns regarding
petroleum consumption and emissions emerge, automakers have begun to explore new
vehicle propulsion solutions. General Motors and The Department of Energy have joined
together to create the Challenge X competition to explore hybrid-electric vehicles as one
such solution. Seventeen teams across the United State will experience real-world HEV
development over the three year competition. This process begins with vehicle
architecture selection, modeling and simulation. A dynamic model of a hybrid-electric
powertrain is developed here. This model is then implemented into two Simulink based
simulators: the quasi-static cX-SIM, the dynamic cX-DYN. These simulators are used to
validate the control strategy being developed for the Challenge X vehicle. Verification
will include optimal performance in regards to fuel consumption, battery state-of-charge,
and drivability. Techniques of validating the model and simulators using a rolling chassis
are also being implemented. Preliminary data from the quasi-static simulator and the
rolling chassis is presented herein.
Acknowledgements:
I would like to thank Dr. Giorgio Rizzoni, Joe Morbitzer, Osvaldo Barbarisi,
Kerem Koprubasi, Jason Disalvo, John Neal and Christopher C. Mabry, for all of the help
and support they have given me throughout the duration of this research.
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Table Contents
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 6
1.1 MOTIVATION ....................................................................................................................................... 6
1.2 VEHICLE ARCHITECTURE ................................................................................................................... 8
1.2.1 Classifications of HEVs .............................................................................................................. 8
1.2.2 Vehicle Components.................................................................................................................. 10
1.2.3 Modes of Operation................................................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER 2: MODELING....................................................................................................................... 14
2.1 MODEL OF THE DRIVELINE .............................................................................................................. 14
2.1.1 Dynamic Equations of the Front Driveline.............................................................................. 15
2.1.2 Dynamic Equations of Rear Driveline ..................................................................................... 17
2.1.3 Dynamic Equation of the Vehicle............................................................................................. 17
2.2 DYNAMIC SIMULINK MODEL OF THE FRONT DRIVELINE ................................................................ 18
2.2.1 ICE Model ................................................................................................................................. 19
2.2.2 Clutch Model ............................................................................................................................. 19
2.2.3 Front Gearbox Model ............................................................................................................... 20
2.2.4 Transmission ............................................................................................................................. 21
2.2.5 Front Axle ................................................................................................................................. 22
2.2.6 Front Brakes ............................................................................................................................. 23
2.2.7 Front Wheels ............................................................................................................................. 24
2.3 DYNAMIC SIMULINK MODEL OF THE REAR DRIVELINE .................................................................. 25
2.3.1 Electric Motor ........................................................................................................................... 25
2.3.2 Rear Gearbox ............................................................................................................................ 26
2.3.3 Rear Axle ................................................................................................................................... 27
2.3.4 Rear Brakes ............................................................................................................................... 28
2.3.5 Rear Wheels............................................................................................................................... 29
CHAPTER 3: SIMULATION RESULTS ................................................................................................ 31
3.1 CX-SIM ............................................................................................................................................. 31
3.1.1 Driver......................................................................................................................................... 32
3.1.2 HEV Powertrain........................................................................................................................ 33
3.1.3 Vehicle ....................................................................................................................................... 34
3.2 CX-DYN ............................................................................................................................................ 34
3.3 CX GRAPHICS .................................................................................................................................... 36
3.3.1 Set Layout for Plots Driver ....................................................................................................... 37
3.3.2 Set Layout for Plots Vehicle...................................................................................................... 38
3.3.3 Set Layouts for Plots Acceleration Test.................................................................................... 39
3.3.4 Set Layout for Plots HEV Operation ........................................................................................ 40
3.3.5 Set Layout Plots for Conventional Operation .......................................................................... 41
3.3.6 Set Layout Plots for Electric Powertrain.................................................................................. 42
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS & MODEL VERIFICATION ........................................................................ 45
4.1 CX-SIM ............................................................................................................................................. 45
4.2 CX-DYN ............................................................................................................................................ 52
4.3 ROLLING CHASSIS ............................................................................................................................. 52
4.3.1 Launch Test............................................................................................................................... 53
4.3.2 Model Verification & Mapping................................................................................................. 57
4.3.3 cX Test ....................................................................................................................................... 60
CHAPTER 5: CONTROL STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT .................................................................. 62
5.1 OVERVIEW ......................................................................................................................................... 62
5.2 ECMS................................................................................................................................................ 63
5.3 BATTERY STATE-OF-CHARGE .......................................................................................................... 64
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List of Figures:
Figure 1. Ohio State Challenge X Vehicle Architecture [5]............................................. 10
Figure 2. Dynamic Model of the Driveline [8]. ................................................................ 15
Figure 3. Simulink Diagram of ICE & ISA....................................................................... 19
Figure 4. Simulink Diagram of the Clutch. ....................................................................... 20
Figure 5. Simulink Diagram of the Front Gearbox. .......................................................... 21
Figure 6. Simulink Diagram of the Automatic Transmission. .......................................... 22
Figure 7. Simulink Diagram of the Front Axle. ................................................................ 23
Figure 8. Simulink Diagram of the Front Brakes. ............................................................. 23
Figure 9. Simulink Model of the Front Wheels and Differential. ..................................... 24
Figure 10. Simulink Diagram of the Traction Motor. ....................................................... 26
Figure 11. Simulink Block Diagram of the Rear Gearbox. ............................................... 27
Figure 12. Simulink Diagram of the Rear Axle................................................................. 28
Figure 13. Simulink Diagram of the Rear Brakes. ............................................................ 29
Figure 14. Simulink Diagram of the Rear Wheels. ........................................................... 30
Figure 15. cX-SIM Top Layer. ......................................................................................... 32
Figure 16. cX-SIM Powertrain Subsystem. ...................................................................... 33
Figure 17. cX-DYN Top Layer......................................................................................... 35
Figure 18. cX-DYN Powertrain Subsystem. .................................................................... 35
Figure 19. cX Graphics Top Layer. .................................................................................. 37
Figure 20. Driver Plot Options Screen.............................................................................. 38
Figure 21. Vehicle Plot Options Screen............................................................................ 39
Figure 22. Acceleration Test Parameter Selection Screen................................................ 40
Figure 23. HEV Operation Plot Options Screen............................................................... 41
Figure 24. Conventional Powertrain Plot Options Screen. ............................................... 42
Figure 25. Electric Powertrain Plot Options Screen. ........................................................ 44
Figure 26. Actual & Desired Velocity from cX-SIM Preliminary Simulation................. 46
Figure 27. Deviation of Actual & Desired Vehicle Speed of cX-SIM Simulation........... 46
Figure 28. Total Output and Requested Torque during the cX-SIM Preliminary
Simulation. ........................................................................................................................ 47
Figure 29. Deviations Between Actual & Desired Torque of HEV Powertrain............... 48
Figure 30. ICE Operating Points during cX-SIM Preliminary Simulation....................... 49
Figure 31. Operating Points of the EM during the cX-SIM Preliminary Simulation. ...... 50
Figure 32. ISA Power during the cX-SIM Preliminary Simulation. ................................ 51
Figure 33. Battery SOC during cX-SIM Preliminary Simulation..................................... 52
Figure 34. Rolling Chassis Experimental Set-Up. ............................................................ 55
Figure 35. Launch Test EM Motor Speed -40% Torque Limit. ....................................... 55
Figure 36. Launch Test Vehicle Speed- 40% Torque Limit............................................. 56
Figure 37. Launch Test EM Motor Speed--50% Torque Limit. ....................................... 56
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Chapter 1
Introduction
The motivation for this research stems from the growing concern of energy
consumption and environmental impacts of current automobiles. These issues have lead
to the creation of Challenge X and Ohio States participation in this competition. Hybridelectric vehicle architecture is developed using the general classifications of HEVs while
considering the advantages and disadvantages of each solution. The components to drive
this architecture and various modes of operation are also defined.
1.1 Motivation
As the global economy begins to strain under the pressure of raising petroleum
prices and environmental concerns, automobile manufacturers constantly strive to
produce more fuel efficient and environmentally friendly vehicles. The primary objective
of manufacturing automobiles subject to such constraints is to ensure consumer mobility.
Given the current resources and technologies, the most feasible solution is hybrid electric
vehicles. In order to accelerate the research involved with creating these vehicles, the
General Motors Corporation and The Department of Energy have created the Challenge
X Competition. This is a three year long competition that requires 17 universities across
the United States to design, develop, and build a hybrid-electric Chevrolet Equinox sportutility vehicle. The goal of this competition is to secure consumer sustainable mobility.
The first, and current, year involves the preliminary design of the vehicle,
component selection, control strategy development, and vehicle modeling and simulation.
General Motors and The Department of Energy have created a list of goals each team is
6
to achieve with the development of their hybrid electric vehicle. These Vehicle
Technical Specifications can be seen in Table 1. The idea behind such specifications is
to maintain stock Chevrolet Equinox performance and capacity while decreasing fuel
consumption and emissions. Throughout the first year each team must develop and
simulate a hybrid electric vehicle architecture that meets, or surpasses, these goals.
Table 1. Summary of Challenge X Vehicle Technical Specifications [9, 5].
IVM 60 MPH
50 70 MPH
COMPETITION
GOAL
< 9.0 S
< 6.8 S
OHIO STATE
VTS
< 10.0 S
< 7.0 S
VEHICLE MASS
DESCRIPTION
COMBINED FUEL
ECONOMY
MPGGE
HIGHWAY RANGE
> 200 MI
PASSENGER CAP.
EMISSIONS LEVEL
TRAILERING CAP.
STARTING TIME
> 32.0
5
PASSENGERS
TIER 2, BIN 5
2500 LBS
TIER 2, BIN 5
2500 LBS
< 5.0 S
< 2.0 S
During the second and third year, each team then integrates their HEV
configuration onto the actual vehicle to compete. Upon receiving their Equinox during
the second year, each team must implement their hybrid electric architecture onto the
vehicle. Confirming the developed architecture meets competition specifications is the
objective for the second year. The actual competition involving a show room Equinox
hybrid is be held during the third year. Here each team competes against one another in
the hopes that their hybrid electric vehicle best achieves the aforementioned
specifications.
direct battery charging and electric power supply which is essential for effective hybrid
travel.
There are two additional types of HEVs when not speaking of the vehicle
architecture: charge-sustaining and grid dependent. If the HEV can sustain the charge of
the battery in every driving condition without the assistance of an outside electrical
power grid, the HEV is considered charge-sustaining. If the vehicle needs to be integrated
with an outside electrical power grid from time-to-time to recharge the battery, the
vehicle is referred to as grid-dependent [6]. Charge-sustaining HEVs, although more
complex, are more appealing to the consumer. This is due to the longer range of the HEV
over a conventional vehicle without sacrificing performance [6]. Ohio State has chosen to
develop a charge-sustaining HEV.
In order to obtain the benefits from both HEV architecture configurations, the
Ohio State Challenge X team has chosen to develop the third class of HEV: power-split.
[5]. This configuration combines both parallel and series architectures. To accomplish
this, the powertrain is divided into two independent sections. The first is the conventional
powertrain. This consists of an ICE coupled with an integrated starter/alternator (ISA)
that powers the front axle of the Equinox. An electric powertrain drives the rear wheels of
the HEV. To do this, an electric machine, with a gearbox appropriately sized for vehicle
propulsion, is used [7]. This vehicle architecture is represented in Figure 1.
Integrated Starter
Alternator
(ISA)
Traction Motor
& Gearbox
(EM)
(ICE)
(AT)
Front
Back
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The EM, referred to as the Traction Motor the Figure 1, is the electrical
propulsion unit used to the power the EV1 electric car by General Motors. This 103 kW
electric motor and gearbox is now used to drive the rear wheels of the Equinox HEV. Not
only can this unit provide power to the wheels, but it can also absorb power from the
wheels and be used as a generator. This process occurs when the driver requests stopping
torque. At this point, the EM absorbs torque from the rear axle slowing the vehicle, and
will use this torque to generate energy for the replenishment of the battery [5]. This is
another feature that classifies this HEV as charge-sustaining.
Initially, the Ohio State Challenge X team agreed to use an automated manual
transmission [7]. However, these types of transmissions are hard to acquire, so the
automatic transmission that accompanies the Fiat diesel engine is used. Automatic
transmissions are not as efficient as automated manual or manual transmissions, but they
are the most acceptable to the consumer [5].
Only one nickel-metal hydride battery pack powers both electric machines and the
vehicle accessories. As shown above, there are two separate inverters for the EM and the
ISA, as well as, a DC-to-DC converter to power 12 volt vehicle accessories (interior
lamps, radio, head lights, etc.). A switch box routes high-voltage flow [5]. One of the
main reasons for selecting a charge-sustaining HEV configuration involves current
battery technology. The market is filled with low efficiency, low energy storage capacity,
and long charge time solutions [1]. As previously stated, to cater to the desires of the
consumer, a charge-sustaining strategy eliminates these undesirable issues.
1.2.3 Modes of Operation
With the architecture depicted in Figure 1, various operating modes for the
vehicle can be achieved. These operating modes have been summarized in Table 2.
During a typical driving mission, the HEV operates in both hybrid, and conventional
modes [1]. This can be seen in the table below.
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ICE
ISA
EM
TRAN.
Idle
Off
Off
Off
Neutral
OFF
MOT.
OFF
NEUTRAL
MOT.
NEUTRAL
START
MOT.
ON
MOT. OR
GEN.
MOT. OR
GEN.
DRIVE
ON OR
OFF
GEN.
GEN.
DRIVE OR
NEUTRAL
ON
GEN. OR
OFF
MOT.
DRIVE
With each of these, the fuel efficiency increases and the emissions decrease immensely.
During the idle mode, and decelerating cases the ICE is be turned off, unless recharging
of the battery requires this to drive the ISA to provide the necessary power (series HEV).
The fuel efficiency can increase by as much as 10% simply by eliminating fuel flow to
the ICE during braking and idling situations [5]. This concept accompanies the general
rule that the EM should be used during launch and immediate power request situations
[6]. This is because electric actuators can deliver high torque at low speeds while
emitting no environmentally harmful by-products. This general rule is satisfied during
Electric Launch mode when the EM motors (MOT.) the vehicle.
After a set speed, the ICE turns on during the Engine Start mode. Once the ICE is
up to speed, the automatic transmission engages and the ICE becomes the primary
actuator for vehicle propulsion. At this point, the vehicle enters the Normal mode.
Between the Electric Launch and Normal mode, the HEV satisfies the constraints of
being a parallel HEV as previously defined. Note that during Normal mode, the EM can
be used to supply regenerative power to the battery; moreover, the EM can draw power
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from the battery and assist the ICE with motoring the vehicle during four-wheel drive
situations. The ISA shares similar options during Normal mode. Basically, the 4WD
mode is merely a derivative of the Normal mode with the EM motoring and the ISA
generating the electrical power needed (a series/parallel hybrid combination).
The vehicle enters Deceleration mode when the driver uses the brakes to slow the
vehicle. Here the concept of Regenerative braking is implemented. Regenerative
braking involves the process of using the resistance between the field and armature of the
EM to generate power to replenish the battery. As the driver applies the brake, for a set
distance of pedal travel, the mechanical braking system does not activate and the EM
absorbs torque off of the rear axle. This mechanical energy is converted to electrical
energy and sent to the battery [6].
The power-split HEV solution with a charge-sustaining focus has been selected
by the Ohio State Challenge X team. This particular configuration leads to alternate
modes of operation all of which increase the efficiency of the vehicle. With the
architecture, and components thereof, defined, modeling of the HEV can begin.
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Chapter 2
Modeling
With the vehicle architecture and components selected modeling of the Challenge
X HEV is performed. The entire driveline is first visually represented by a figure which
leads to the development of the mathematical expressions governing the behavior of the
HEV. These expressions are then configured into Simulink block diagrams for further
analysis and simulation.
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(1)
Here the inertias of the ICE and ISA are combined and have the same rotational
speed (ICE ) . This inertial force must be equivalent to the torque of the ICE (TICE) and
ISA (TISA), as well as the damping effect of the ICE (bICEICE), and torque of the pump
side of the torque converter (TTC_P). When the torque converter is not locked, the
dynamic behavior of each component from the turbine side of the torque converter to the
wheels can be modeled as:
15
J TR&TR =
x
k F TR VEH
rF
TR ( g )
TTC _ T
vVEH
bF TR
rF
(2)
The rotational inertia of the transmission accelerates ( J TR&TR ) as a result of the excitation
imposed by the following quantities. Torque from the transmission depends on the gear
ratio (TR (g)), which in turn depends on the current gear (g). Each gear results in a
different torque on the turbine side of the torque converter (TTC_T). Coming off of the
transmission are the spring (k F ) and damping (bF ) dynamic effects introduced by the
front axles (half shafts). These quantities are functions the transmission rotational speed
(TR) and angular position (TR). Vehicle speed (vVEH) and vehicle position (xVEH) are
manipulated by the wheel radius (rF) to be used here as well. Note the dynamic effects of
the front brakes have been ignored, and are only considered as a torque (TB_F). This
torque is zero until the driver begins to demand stopping power. When this occurs,
equation (2) becomes:
J TR&TR =
x
k F TR VEH
R (g)
rF
TTC _ T
vVEH
bF TR
rF
TB _ F
(3)
The above equations are derived assuming that the torque converter is not locked.
When the torque converter is locked, the fluid coupler becomes a rigid link connecting
the ICE and ISA inertia directly to the inertia of the automatic transmission through the
gears. This also means that the torque the pump side and turbine side are equal (TTC), or:
(4)\
However, the specific dynamic equations for the driveline when the torque converter is
locked have yet not been developed. Currently, the Ohio State Challenge X Team is not
concerned with such a model. This concludes the development of the dynamic equations
for the conventional (front) driveline.
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x
J EM & EM = TEM bEM EM GB k R EM GB VEH
rR
vVEH
+ bR EM GB
rR
(4)
Again, the dynamics of the rear brakes are disregarded and their effect is represented by a
torque (TB_R). This torque is zero until the driver commands otherwise. If the brakes are
being applied, then (4) becomes:
x
J EM & EM = TEM bEM EM GB k R EM GB VEH
rR
vVEH
+ bR EM GB
TB _ R
rR
(5)
(6)
(7)
FDRAG =
1
AIR Cd Af vVEH 2
2
(8)
17
(9)
The rolling resistance is the product of the vehicle mass (mVEH), the gravitational
acceleration due to gravity (g), the rolling resistance coefficient (Cr) and the cosine of the
grade angle of the road measured from the horizontal plane (). Air drag on the vehicle is
represented by the standard drag equation that includes the density of air (AIR), the drag
coefficient of the vehicle (Cd), the frontal area of the vehicle (Af) and the vehicle velocity
(vVEH). Finally, the force resulting from the grade of the road is merely a product of the
mass of the vehicle, the acceleration due to gravity, and the sine of the grade angle [6].
With all of the dynamic equations derived for the entire driveline, models can be created
in Simulink for further analysis and simulation.
18
serves as the input of the next component in the driveline. This process continues until
torque is delivered to the wheels, and vehicle speed is fed back to the driver. The driver
is ultimately represented by a Simulink subsystem that can be seen in Figure 15.
2.2.1 ICE Model
The Simulink block diagram of the ICE can be seen in Figure 3 along with the
dynamic equation that governs this model. Note that the inertia of both the ICE and ISA
are lumped together into one variable ( J F = J ICE + J EM ) as seen in the diagram. The first
two inputs represent the torque command for the ICE (TICE) and ISA (TISA). The third
input is the opposing torque coming from the clutch of the manual transmission (Tc). This
torque is subtracted from the other input torques. The output from the inertia gain is
integrated twice: once for speed ( ICE ), and the other for position ( ICE ) . The value of the
ICE speed is sent to the clutch, but the value of ICE position is used only for observation
purposes. The dynamic equation is as follows:
(10)
damping ( bc ) and stiffness (kc ) intrinsic to the clutch and are represented in the
respective gain blocks of Figure 4. The input, , is a command sent to the clutch by the
driver that either engages, or disengages, the clutch. This value can either be 0 to
represent the clutch being disengaged, or 1 to represent the clutch being engaged. If the
driver is shifting and has the clutch disengaged, the product will be zero, and no torque
passes through the clutch. When the driver has the clutch engaged, the speeds will be
multiplied by 1 with the product block and the torque flows through this device and onto
the gearbox. The clutch speed (c ) is an input here and is sent from the gearbox as a
feedback. The governing equation of the clutch is:
Tc = bC (ICE C ) + kC ( ICE C )
(11)
20
The ratios for each gear are contained within the look-up table and provide the
appropriate constants for accurate speed reduction and torque increase. To ensure ideal
operation, a switch allows torque to pass through the clutch if the clutch command is 1
(engaged). Otherwise, the switch will force the output torque to be zero. Torque, speed,
and position are calculated as follows:
TC @T =
TC
TR ( g )
(12)
C = TR ( g ) T
(13)
C = TR ( g ) T
(14)
21
and sent on to the front axle. The dynamic equation for this process is represented in (15)
below.
JT &T = TC @T + TX 1 b f T
(15)
TX 1 = bX 1 ( f t ) + k X 1 ( f t )
(16)
22
TBF = bBF F
(17)
23
diff RF
(18)
F =
diff
xF
RF
(19)
F =
diff
vF
RF
(20)
24
Simulink that is utilized to simplify the appearance of the system model seen in Figure 15.
The dynamic equation for this component is (21).
(21)
25
TRGB = GBTRAxle
(22)
RGB =
EM
GB
(23)
RGB =
EM
GB
(24)
26
(25)
27
TRBrakes = RBrakesTRAxle
(26)
28
FRWheel =
TRBrakes
rRWheel
(27)
(28)
29
(29)
30
Chapter 3
Simulation Results
With all of the modeling complete, two comprehensive HEV simulators are
created. One is a quasi-static simulator that is effective for monitoring energy
consumption. The other is a dynamic simulator for the evaluation of the drivability of the
HEV. Both work together in conjunction with a graphics program that is developed here.
These three items give the Ohio State Challenge X team extensive capability to study of
all aspects of HEV operation.
3.1 cX-SIM
The first simulator is called cX-SIM and the top layer of this Simulink model can
be seen in Figure 15. This is a quasi-static HEV simulator, meaning the dominant
dynamics of the system are solely the vehicle. The vehicle reacts much slower than every
other component in the system thus the time constant of the vehicle is quite large. This
fact allows for the time constants of all other components to be assumed zero [6].
However, there is one caveat; the inertia of the ICE is included to ensure proper operation
of the dynamic model of the torque converter. With only these two dynamic
characteristics included, this simulator is computationally inexpensive and the results are
acquired in a rather timely fashion. This is ideal for monitoring fuel consumption and
energy usage. Since the models of the previous chapter result in a convoluted system
when integrated together, they are each converted into a subsystem. This collects of the
31
various parts of the aforementioned models into one block. These are the subsystems seen
in cX-SIM.
32
33
3.1.3 Vehicle
The final subsystem in cX-SIM is the Vehicle. The contents of this subsystem are
merely the Simulink block representations of equations 6-9. Forces due to air drag,
vehicle rolling resistance, and road grade are subtracted from the total tractive force given
to the vehicle from the powertrain. Also, the inertia of the vehicle is included to give cXSIM the quasi-static classification previously defined. Once all of the force effects on the
vehicle have been calculated, and output vehicle speed is sent from this subsystem back
to driver. This entire process then repeats throughout the predetermined driving cycle.
3.2 cX-DYN
A quasi-static simulator cannot effectively analyze vehicle dynamics, particularly
drivability. So a second HEV simulator is created to accomplish this. The second
simulator is called cX-DYN and is used primarily to analyze the drivability of the
vehicle. Drivability refers to the vibrations felt by the operator. In order to maintain
consumer favorability and fulfill one of the competition goals, this detail must be
precisely controlled. cX-DYN allows for this type of control, as well as the ability to
monitor all dynamic responses of the vehicle.
The construction of cX-DYN resembles that of cX-SIM. As can be seen in Figure
17, there are three main parts: Driver, HEV Powertrain, and Vehicle. The functions of the
driver and vehicle subsystems are exactly the same as those in the quasi-static
counterpart. However, the HEV Powertrain includes additional components to make the
simulator more dynamic. Mainly the dynamics of the axles and inertias of the EM and
AT are included. Figure 18 displays the HEV Powertrain of cX-DYN with these
additional components included.
34
35
One main disadvantage to cX-DYN is that the included vehicle dynamics make
this simulator computationally more expensive. Therefore, this simulator must be run in
Simulinks Accelerator mode in order to obtain results in a more time efficient manner.
Both cX-SIM and cX-DYN have their advantages and disadvantages, but they are used
together to analyze all aspects of HEV operation.
3.3 cX Graphics
In order to obtain visual knowledge of the functions of the Challenge X Equinox
after running one of the aforementioned simulators, a graphical user interface program is
developed. The interface of this program is shown in Figure 19. Appropriately named cX
Graphics, this program can monitor every quantity of the HEV and visually represent
them. Moreover, the user has the option of selecting which exactly quantities to view.
This is done by dividing the data into the Set layout for plots categories as seen in
Figure 19: Driver, Vehicle, Acceleration, HEV Operation, Conventional Powertrain, and
Electric Powertrain. Statistical information of some of the quantities within these
categories can be viewed as well. A key feature of cX Graphics is that the user can select
to view their particular quantity is English, or SI units. This is done to increase the
versatility of this program; as well as, to enhance the Challenge X simulation analysis
experience by giving the users of cX-SIM, or cX-DYN, a detailed visual link between the
simulated operation of the HEV and the occurrences therein.
36
37
38
39
40
41
the first quadrant of the torque, speed, and efficiency/fuel consumption map is shown
when this option is selected (see Figure 30).
here is that of only the EM, the angular speed seen at the half shafts is this value divided
by the gearbox ratio of 10.946. As previously stated, the EM is capable motoring the
vehicle and absorbing kinetic energy from the vehicle to replenish the battery. Thus, both
positive and negative torque, as well as power, is seen here throughout any given driving
cycle (see Figure 31).
The final set of options includes presenting the quantities produced by the ISA.
However, the efficiency map of the ISA does not currently exist since the Ohio State
Challenge X team has not yet received the actual device. The operating data of this
component is a modified version of a similar ISA that has been analyzed by others. Once
the actual ISA is been received and examined, the appropriate changes will be made in
cX-SIM and cX-DYN, as well as cX Graphics, to reflect this. Nonetheless, the delivered
torque and torque request can be viewed along with the statistics that quantify their
differences. The efficiency and power of this component are also display options. Keep in
mind that this component, just like the EM, can deliver torque (positive power) and
absorb torque (negative power) to recharge the battery. Therefore, both positive and
negative torque and power values will appear here.
43
44
Chapter 4
Results & Model Verification
4.1 cX-SIM
Only the Idle, Launch, Engine Start and Deceleration modes of operation are
functional when the preliminary results from cX-SIM are obtained. cX Graphics is then
used to create the figures seen below. Using a Federal Urban Driving Cycle (FUDS), a
simulation was performed for approximately the first 3 minutes of the cycle. Figure 26
shows the actual and desired velocity curves. In a perfect system, the two curves would
lay precisely on top one another; however, since this system design mimics the behavior
of an actual driver, the discrepancy seen in Figure 26 is very realistic. Nonetheless, the
deviation between the desired and actual velocity is not that outlandish. Figure 27 shows
the screen shot of the statistical data created by cX Graphics. The rms deviation is only
~2.0 kph-- an acceptable value given the nature of this simulation.
45
Figure 26. Actual & Desired Velocity from cX-SIM Preliminary Simulation.
Figure 27. Deviation of Actual & Desired Vehicle Speed of cX-SIM Simulation.
Using the Set Layout Plots HEV Operation option of cX Graphics the sum of the
total torque desired from the powertrain (ICE, ISA and EM combined) as well as the total
torque delivered from the powertrain is visually represented in Figure 28. The total torque
request can never be negative because the control strategy lacks the appropriate
algorithms for this case. In order for negative torque to be requested from the powertrain,
46
the battery state-of-charge must be approaching the acceptable lower bound. Since no
state-of-charge control is effectively implemented to date, the control strategy never
requests torque to replenish the battery. However, this does not mean that the powertrain
cannot deliver negative torque. As the vehicle slows down, the EM and ISA, as seen by
the resulting output torque curve of Figure 28, absorb the kinetic energy of the vehicle.
This results in the rather high deviations between total torque request and total torque
output seen in Figure 29.
Figure 28. Total Output and Requested Torque during the cX-SIM Preliminary
Simulation.
47
Figure 29. Deviations Between Actual & Desired Torque of HEV Powertrain.
The operating points of the ICE as selected by the current control strategy can be
viewed in Figure 30. Keep in mind that these are not necessarily sequential, and the
control strategy selects the operating points of the ICE based only one of the three control
strategy objectives (See Chapter 5). Further more, the appearance of this figure will be
different once the complete control strategy is integrated into cX-SIM. However, the Fiat
ICE proves to be an efficient choice. As long as the torque of the ICE remains above ~50
Nm, the efficiency of this device never decreases below 33%-- a favorable result for the
Ohio State Challenge X team. However, as the torque demand increases the efficiency
reaches values in the upwards of 41%-- a good value for ICEs.
48
49
Figure 31. Operating Points of the EM during the cX-SIM Preliminary Simulation.
Since no efficiency map of the ISA exists to date, the power of the ISA is shown
below. Note that the ISA power is zero, until the control strategy moves from Launch
mode into Engine Start mode. At this point, the power will spike as seen at ~15 seconds
into the drive cycle. Here, the ISA turns ON in order to start the ICE. The negative power
seen in Figure 32 represents the ISA being driven by the ICE in order to generate
electrical power. As previously aforementioned, this figure will also look differently once
the complete control strategy is implemented.
50
51
4.2 cX-DYN
No preliminary results for cX-DYN have been acquired to date. Since cX-SIM is
a more efficient simulator, computationally speaking, for optimizing two of the main
parts of the control strategy, the primary focus has been directed toward completing the
quasi-static simulator. Key deadlines for the Challenge X competition (reports and Year 1
competition) have also shifted the focus on gaining full functionally of cX-SIM prior to
cX-DYN. However, once cX-SIM is fully operational, the changes to be made in order to
make cX-DYN operational will be trivial.
platform on which all of the components described in Chapter 1 will be mounted for
initial testing. Once all of the actuators are assembled and the control strategy hardware
and software is installed, the complete verification process will begin. This will not only
verify the simulators, but also the ability for each of the aforementioned components to
be integrated together and behave according to the desired vehicle architecture.
4.3.1 Launch Test
Currently, only the EM is ready for testing and validation. The EM is attached to
the rolling chassis, and placed on a dynamometer as seen in Figure 34. Tests have been
conducted to analyze the effectiveness of the EM during electric launch. The figures that
follow show speed data from one such test. The pedals of the rolling chassis are used to
accelerate and decelerate the EM on the dynamometer. This approach accurately
resembles the accelerator pedal positions during the launch of the actual vehicle. With the
inertial and frictional values of the Equinox programmed into the dynamometer, the
accelerator pedal is pushed to the maximum position to generate a replication of a vehicle
launch.
In order to preserve the mechanical integrity of each device involved, there is a
torque request limit placed on the system. One of the tests has a limit of 40% torque
request. The second has a limit of 50%. This means that when the accelerator pedal is
completely depressed, only 40% of the total torque capacity of the EM is available for
delivery to the dynamometer. Figure 35 shows the EM motor speed during the 40%
limited test. Figure 36 displays the vehicle speed generated throughout the duration of
this test. The vehicle reaches a speed of ~24 kph (~15mph) in just under 10 seconds. The
launch is also performed with the torque output limit of 50%. Figure 37 and 38 show the
EM motor speed and vehicle speed, respectively, for this experiment. The vehicle reaches
a speed of approximately 37kph (~23 mph) in approximately 15 seconds. Recall that the
EM only provides motoring torque during launch for a short period of time (Launch
Mode), and then the ICE is started (Engine Start Mode) and then reigns as the primary
motoring device (Normal Mode). Considering the output of the EM is limited, initial
observations would suggest this actuator is capable of being a part of the system to meet
the goals specified in Table 1.
53
There are a few factors that exist which alter the data seen below. The most
prominent involves the experimental set-up. Doing a repeated launch test is very taxing to
the battery, so a power supply is used. However, the DC output of this power supply
fluctuates immensely. In order to stabilize this output, the power supply is connected in
parallel to a lead-acid battery pack. The pack serves as an electrical shock absorber, or
large capacitor. This configuration stabilizes the voltage going into the EM at rest;
however, when the launch is performed, the power oscillates slightly. This oscillation is
reflected in the speed figures seen below. The torque request is constant, but the speed
fluctuates due to a changing power input. Since the pack can respond more rapidly than
the power supply, as the launch initially begins the battery pack supplies the electrical
energy until the power supply catches up. Once the power supply is up to speed, it
provides more than the requested power in order to charge the battery, as well as run the
EM. The battery absorbs this overshoot and the power supply then decreases output to
the point where the battery once again supplies power. The power supply detects this
drop in the battery and once again provides an overshoot of energy. This process would
repeat until a steady-state supply environment is reached between the two sources.
However, the launch test is not performed for this length of time.
54
Lead-Acid
Battery Pack
EV1 Motor
& Inverter
Rolling
Chassis
Chassis
Dynamometer
Figure 34. Rolling Chassis Experimental Set-Up.
55
56
57
coefficients that make up the total load that is placed on the vehicle. However, these
coefficients are represented by the horsepower at 50 miles per hour and require some
manipulation to be used for this mapping. The general expression of the dynamometer
load is:
Friction = A + B + C
(30)
where A is the rolling resistance, B is the intrinsic friction, and C is the air drag. The
variable of interest is the friction coefficient, B. Each of these variables has units of
HP@50 mph [10]. Knowing this fact we can relate this horsepower at a rated speed to
the force of the dynamometer, Fdyno (N):
Fdyno =
B
vSS
(31)
In this expression, represents all of the conversion factors necessary and vSS is the found
steady-state speed (mph). This force, along with the wheel radius, rwheel, is used to find
the torque at the wheel, Twheel:
(32)
Using the gear ratio, GB, the torque of the EM (TEM :) can be found.
TEM =
Twheel
GB
(33)
Figure 39 represents the vehicle speed of one such test. Notice how the vehicle reaches a
steady-state speed of approximately 8 kph (~5mph). To ensure this is in fact the steadystate speed the derivative of this curve, acceleration, is found. In order to do this, a
second order polynomial was fit to the speed data and is shown in Figure 39. The
derivative of this curve is shown in Figure 40. The derivative approaches zero toward the
58
end of the test, meaning the vehicle speed has reached a quasi-steady state value that can
be used in the aforementioned calculations. The result of this particular test is an EM
torque of 313.9 Nm.
59
60
61
Chapter 5
Control Strategy Development
Future work includes performing the mapping and verification described in the
previous chapter, as well as developing a fully functional control strategy. With cX-SIM
nearing completion, and cX-DYN soon to follow, a suitable control strategy must be
implemented so the verification process can continue. The basics of the currently
considered control strategy are presented here. The ultimate design and fabrication of the
controllers necessary is left for future work on this project.
5.1 Overview
The primary focus of this research is modeling and simulation of the rear
driveline of the Ohio State Challenge X Equinox. Development of the control strategy is
a task being pursued by other members of the OSU Challenge X team. However, the
literature has been investigated in regards to control of HEVs and the author has
participated in the development of the control strategy for the Hybrid Equinox. Therefore,
a brief summary of the control strategy is presented here.
The main objective of the control strategy is to reduce fuel consumption and
emissions while maximizing drivability by taking advantage of the multiple vehicle
modes. This is achieved by the potential energy recovery during braking, as well as the
availability of the additional degrees of freedom with respect to the power split to satisfy
62
driver demand [7]. The control strategy being developed for the Ohio State Challenge X
Equinox is divided into two parts: primary control and secondary control. The primary
control strategy commands the drivetrain components in real time as dependent on driver
requests, the state of each component, and of course the control strategy algorithm. The
secondary control monitors the state of each component, such as temperature, to ensure
safe operation [5]. The focus here is on the primary control strategy.
This control signal is decomposed into three decoupled signals: ECMS, Battery
State-of-charge, and Drivability [2, 5]. Each are considered independently and then
summed together to create the final control signal. The process for obtaining the ultimate
control signal is described by Figure 43 below.
5.2 ECMS
The first factor considered by the control strategy is fuel consumption. Compliant
with the goals of Challenge X, the objective is to minimize this quantity. To accomplish
this, Ohio State chooses to use the Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy
(ECMS). The basis of ECMS is that all energy consumed by the vehicle comes from the
fuel tank [2]. In the case of HEVs, two fuel tanks are considered. The first is the
conventional fuel storage tank and the second is the battery, or some other energy storage
device. For ECMS purposes, the battery is modeled as a reversible fuel tank that can exist
in two states. First, the battery could be recharging, so fuel must be consumed, or kinetic
energy absorbed, to replenish this electrical energy. The second state is the battery could
63
be using electrical energy to alleviate some of the load from the ICE to save fuel [4]. The
governing equation for ECMS is as follows:
m& * ( xi ,u j ) =
xi u j
* ( xi ,u j ) QLHV
(34)
where m& * ( xi ,u j ) is the mass flow of fuel for component *, * ( xi ,u j ) is the efficiency of
component *, and QLHV is known as the low-heating value of fuel. The quantity xi is a
state vector that includes the speeds of the ICE, AT, EM, and vehicle, as well as, the
positions of the AT, EM and vehicle. The control vector ui contains the torque of each of
the three actuators [2]. At any time during vehicle operation, the entire range of operating
points for ICE, ISA, and EM will be examined and equivalent flows will be found [4].
The point which minimizes the total equivalent fuel consumptionthe sum of each
SOC ( t + t ) = 1
USEDCAP ( t + t )
CAP ( t + t )
(35))
Here, USEDCAP represents the energy used (Ah) and CAP is the total capacity of the
battery (Ah) [1]. Keeping this value within a certain range not only preserves battery life,
but also allow for additional room to absorb excess power and deliver additional power
when necessary. The acceptable range varies according to the type of battery being used.
64
Ohio State is currently investigating this range for the Nickel Metal-hydride batteries to
be used for Challenge X.
In Figure 26, ECMS and SOC control are grouped together. This is due to the fact
that ECMS and SOC control cannot be completely decoupled from one another. The
battery state-of-charge has a large impact on ECMS because if the SOC falls too low,
diesel fuel would need to be consumed in order to replenish the battery. Built into ECMS
is a penalty function that shifts the optimal power split up or down according to the actual
SOC and the SOC range. This penalty function shifts the power split according to three
possible SOC cases. The first requires that the SOC is within the range and the selected
power split operating point is valid. The second case involves the SOC being too high,
thus the power split is shifted to promote discharging of the battery. Finally, the SOC
could be too low and the operating point is shifted to emphasize battery recharging.
Others have stated that in a charge sustaining control strategy the net consumption of
electrical power is zero [4]. This is not true due to the set range of battery SOC. For
example, a given drive cycle begins with a SOC of 75% and the acceptable range is
between 60% and 80% SOC. The drive cycle could easily end with the battery SOC
being 63%, meaning more electrical power was consumed, rather than replenished, over
the cycle. Hence, the net consumption of electrical power over this drive cycle is not
zero. Since the control strategy keeps the SOC within a range, the net consumption of the
electrical power over a given driving cycle does not necessarily have to be zero and most
likely will not be.
5.4 Drivability
Drivability refers to the smooth operation of the vehicle. In this case, the control
strategy maximizes drivability by ensuring the shift from one operating mode to another
does not result in any undesirable vibrations or jerks. Such anomalies are also minimized
as the vehicle shifts gears. Drivability is to be evaluated by cX-DYN; however, no
drivability control has been implemented at this point.
Fuel consumption minimization and emissions reduction are two of the primary
goals of Challenge X. Drivability is also a primary goal being considered. All three of
65
these aspects of the HEV Equinox will be controlled to meet the standards of the
competition, as well as consumer standards.
Many unforeseen technical difficulties hindered the progress of this research.
However, once all of these issues have been resolved and the experiments detailed herein
are conducted, the model of the Ohio State Challenge X HEV will prove to be valid and
accurate. Moreover, both simulators will also be validated using the rolling chassis once
the control strategy is in place.
66
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
67
Appendix
Table 3. Nomenclature.
Abbreviation
HEV
ICE
EM
MG
ISA
AT
MOT
4WD
JICE
JISA
JTR
JEM
TICE
TISA
TTC_P
TTC_T
TTC
TF, TX1
TB_F
TEM
TR, TRAxle
TB_R, TRbrakes
TC
TC@T
TRGB
Twheel
Jf
& ICE
&TR
& EM
ICE
TR, t
F
EM
R
C
Description
Hybrid Electric Vehicle
Internal Combustion Engine
Electric Machine
Motor/Generator
Integrated Starter/Alternator
Automatic Transmission
Motoring, or providing propulsion power
Four Wheel Drive
Inertia of the ICE
Inertia of the ISA
Inertia of the AT
Inertia of the EM
Torque of the ICE
Torque of the ISA
Torque on Pump Side of Torque Converter
Torque on Turbine Side of Torque Converter
Torque of Torque Converter (locked case only)
Torque of Front Axle
Torque of Front Brakes
Torque of the EM
Torque of Rear Axles
Torque of Rear Brakes
Torque of the Clutch
Torque at Manual Transmission
Torque of Rear Gearbox
Torque of Wheel on Dynamometer
JICE + JISA
Angular Acceleration of the ICE
Angular Acceleration of the AT
Angular Acceleration of the EM
Rotational Speed of the ICE
Rotational Speed of the AT
Rotational Speed of Front Axle
Rotational Speed of the EM
Rotational Speed of the Rear Axle
Rotational Speed of the Clutch
68
RGB
Rbrakes
Rwheel
wheel
bICE
bF, bX1
bEM
bR, bRaxle
bC
kF, kX1
kR, kRaxle
kC
TR(g)
GB
rF, Rf
rR, rRwheel
mVEH
vVEH,, vf
FRD
FRR
FDRAG
F
Ff
FRwheel
Fdyno
TR, t
EM
ICE
F
C
RGB
Rbrakes
Rwheel
xVEH, xf
&x&VEH
g
Cr
AIR
Cd
Af
69
Rbrakes
diff
cX-SIM
cX-DYN
cX Graphics
cX-Test
PID
ECMS
SOC
FUDS
FHDs
Friction
A
B
C
vSS
m& * ( xi , u j )
B
xi
uj
* ( xi , u j )
Efficiency of component *
QLHV
CAP
USEDCAP
t
t
70