DEPARTMENT

OF ENVIRONMENT
AND NATURE
CONSERVATION

A Review
of the
Freshwater
Ecosystems

in the
Northern Cape
Province

DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENT
AND NATURE CONSERVATION

A Review
of the
Freshwater
Ecosystems

in the
Northern Cape
Province
REPORT 58
COMPILED BY PP RAMOLLO
2010

Acknowledgements
I am grateful to my supervisor Ms Elsabe Swart for her assistance and creative inputs she
provided during the drafting of this document, Mr Julius Koen for editing this document, Ms
Lerato Sebuseng for the information provided, Mrs D Samson, Mr A Mabunda, Head of
Department, Mrs Mokhali, DTEC staff and management for financial support and making
these possible. I also like to extend my sincere thanks to Mr Bheki Kunene for maps
(Department of Rural Development in Kimberley), Ramogale Charles Sekwele (Department
of Water and Environmental Affairs in Pretoria), Dolamo Kabelo Stephinah (University of
Limpopo), Tumelo Dilotshohle and Iris Jonathan (John Taolo Municipality). The following people
from Department of Water Affairs in Kimberley are acknowledged for their contributions: Sam
Dywili, Boitumelo Moalusi, Noe Malise, Abe Abrahams, Debbie Sharp and Gawie Van Dyk.
Lastly, my sincere thanks to Dr WJ Luus-Powell (University of Limpopo), Prof A Jooste (University
of Limpopo) and Prof M Seaman (University of Free State) for editing this document,
information provided and unconditional support.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Introduction

2 Background

2.1 Climate
2.2 Geology and soils

3 Threats to freshwater in the Province

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5

Industries and Mining

Agriculture and sewage pollution
Canalisation and abstraction
Invasive species in the Northern Cape Province
Climate change

7
0
0
9
11
12
13
15

4 Wetlands of the Northern Cape Province

16

4.1 Definition of Wetlands

4.2 Ecological role of Wetlands
4.3 Standing Waters
4.3.1 Perennial and non-perennial Pans
4.3.2 Springs/Eyes
4.3.2.1 Dolomite Springs
4.3.2.2 Warm-Water Springs
4.4 Rivers

16
16
17
17
19

4.4.1 Perennial Rivers in the Province

4.4.1.1 Orange River
4.4.1.2 Vaal River
4.4.2 Ephemerial Rivers

19

20
21
21
21
24
24

5 Fish checklist of the Northern Cape Province

25

6 Conservation status

28

7 Summary

29

8 Recommendations

30

9 Glossary

30

10 References

32

1. Introduction
Freshwater ecosystems are aquatic systems which include lakes and ponds, rivers and
streams, reservoirs, wetlands and groundwater. Freshwater ecosystems are inhabited by
numerous organisms such as fish, amphibians, aquatic plants, water birds and invertebrates.
Rivers form an important part of our ecosystem by having the force to shape our landscape.
They are dynamic systems which have evolved over a very long time in response to South
Africas extremely variable climate. They continue to be shaped by events occurring at
different scales in time and space. There are two major factors influencing rivers and
streams namely, flow and catchment: Flow the flow pattern affect the physical form and
the ecology of a waterway and is very much driven by climate. Flow variability is a key
determinant of river shape and functioning of the biota which live in rivers. Catchment the
slope, geology, soil, vegetation and land use practices have some effect on the river
condition, either through influencing streamflows, water quality, channel features, energy
supply or riparian and floodplain vegetation.
The indicators of wetland and river health can be divided into three main categories:
biological, chemical and physical indicators. Biological indicators are numerous and are
probably the most commonly measured parameters for determining the overall ecosystem
health. Possible indicators include algae, vegetation, microbial assemblages, macroinvertebrates, fish, amphibians and bird communities. Chemical indicators of wetland and
river health include water and soil chemistry, parameters such as nutrient concentrations,
dissolved oxygen and pH. Physical indicators include measurement of water depth,
hydrology and seasonality (Wray et al. 2006). The River Health Programme in South Africa
uses biological indicators to provide quantitative and qualitative information to evaluate river
health. In making decisions on protecting and maintaining the health of rivers and their
ecological integrity, communities and government collectively need to balance the economic,
social and environmental values associated with rivers as outlined in the National
Environmental Management Act 107 of 1998. However, it is helpful to have identified what a
healthy river is to assist communities with these decisions. A healthy river is defined as a
river which retains the major ecological features and functioning of that river, and be able to
sustain these characteristics into the future.
The Northern Cape Province is predominantly semi-arid and the largest province in South
Africa. Due to low rainfall and high evaporation in the province, the freshwater, which is a
global scarce resource, is highly limited. Freshwater is not readily available in the Northern
Cape Province and there is a demand for this scarce resource due to the rapid increase of
population growth, urbanization, industrialization and agriculture. Rapid population growth in

the province together with an increase in upstream users, leads to a greater demand on and
increased pollution of the water resources in the province. Water quality in the province is
strongly influenced by the usage and management practices in the upper and middle
catchments. Although two of the largest rivers (Orange-Vaal River System) in the country
are running through the Northern Cape Province, there is a great demand for water from
upstream users. In fact, the reality is that there is no surplus water currently available in
these two rivers. Although mining, industries and agriculture play a pivotal role in the
economy of the province, they also place a demand on the availability of water and cause
the reduction in aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity.
In the Northern Cape Province the freshwater ecosystem is compromised due to poor
management and political influences. Freshwater ecosystem provides social, economic and
political benefits and makes human life both possible and worth living e.g. wetlands and
trees trap carbon dioxide that contributes to climate change. Wetlands also play a pivotal
role by filtering pollutants and reducing water floods. Rivers support life to fish which is a source
of protein to poor communities. Failure to address these problems will have long-term social
and economic costs, as well as potentially irreversible effects on biodiversity and the
availability of healthy water. This report provides a review of some of the freshwater
ecosystems in the province.
The report will concentrate on river systems to a lesser extent, wetlands and standing water,
while only mentioning that groundwater also forms part of our freshwater systems without
elaborating on it. Similarly, associated invertebrates and aquatic plants will not be discussed
in detail. The aim of this report is to give the reader a general overview of freshwater
systems in the province, highlighting some aspects that members of the public can easily
observe and relate to, rather to present a comprehensive scientific inventorying of all
elements of our provincial freshwater systems.

2. Background
2.1 Climate
The Northern Cape Province is predominantly a semi arid area with low rainfall. Climate
plays a vital role in determining the availability of water resources, the nature of the natural
landscape and vegetation types. There is variation in seasonal and daily temperatures
throughout the province. During winter, the southern areas of the province, such as
Sutherland, are extremely cold, occasionally with temperatures below -10C. In areas like
Upington, summers are harsh, dry and hot with temperatures usually between 30C and

40C, sometimes exceeding 40C. Eastern parts of the province receive summer rainfall
events associated with isolated thunderstorms. However the western parts, namely the
Succulent Karoo areas receive winter rainfall. According to Palmer & Hoffman (1997) and
Bradstock (2005) the annual rainfall varies considerably throughout the province with rainfall
ranging from 50mm in the west to 400mm in the east (Figure 1). Evaporation rate is very
high during the hot seasons, which significantly reduce the water volume in the rivers.
Potential evaporation can be as high as 3 000 mm per year, which is several times more
than the annual rainfall (DWAF 2004a).

Figure 1: Mean annual precipitation (South African Weather Service)

2.2 Geology and Soil

The rivers in the province meander through various geological structures which give rise to a
variety of soil types, with deep alluvial soils occurring along the Orange River. The province
is dominated by the Karoo Basin and consists mostly of sedimentary rocks and some
dolerite intrusions. The south and south-eastern part of the province is underlined by shale
and mudstone. The south-west of the province consists of quartzite, siltstone, sandstone and
granite whilst the west coast is dominated by the Namaqualand formations. This area is hilly
to mountainous and consists of granites and other metamorphic rocks. The central areas are

generally flat with interspersed salt pans. Kimberlite intrusions punctuate the Karoo rocks,
giving the province its most precious natural resource, namely diamonds. The eastern part of
the province comprises of sandstone and subordinate dark shale, quartzite and andesitic
lava, whilst the western part comprises mainly of granite, quartzite, limestone, shale with
subordinate mudstone and sandstone, quartzite, andesitic lava and dolomite (Figure 2). The
northern part of the province is dominated by sandstones and tillite whilst the Kuruman
region is dominated by dolomite.

Figure 2: Geology of the Northern Cape. (Map by Bheki Kunene, Department of Land Affairs

Affairs in Kimberley, 2009 based on information from AFRICON).

3. Threats to freshwater in the province

3.1 Industries and Mining
Human activities such as industrialisation, domestic and agricultural practices expose the
rivers of Northern Cape to various pollutants. The upper reaches of the Vaal River is
characterised by a large number of mining activities such as coal and semi- precious
minerals to precious minerals. In the Lower Vaal Water Management Area, the alluvial
diamond minings are rife and some operate illegally. The diggings have resulted in severe

degradation of the riparian vegetation. They have removed large quantities of topsoil and
physically destroyed the floodplain. Currently the riparian zone of the following areas are
severely degraded and looks like a desert: Schmidtsdrift (Figure A&B), Barkly West (Figure C),
Delportshoop (Figure D), Winsorton (Figure E), Gong-Gong (Figure F), Douglas and Vaalbos
Nature Reserve. After prospecting the diamond diggers dont rehabilitate the area. The areas in
Delportshoop, Gong-Gong, Windsorton and Vaalbos are not at all rehabilitated and thus pose
a threat to the safety of livestock and humans. Some sections of the river are diverted to allow
diamond in Windsorton area. During rainy seasons the silts are washed into the waterway and
cover the spawning sites of the fish (Figure 3A to F). The release of pollutants into the rivers
alter the pH of the water which increases the toxicity of the metals that severely affect fish,
frogs and macro-invertebrates. Recent studies on water quality of the Vaal River showed
high levels of pollutants especially metals and total dissolved salts mostly attributed to mining,
agricultural activities and geochemical formations.

10

Figure 3 A-F: Mining activities in the Lower Vaal River; A. & B. Alluvial mining in Schmidtsdrift; C. Illegal
mining in Barkly West; D. Delportshoop; E. DWA official checking for water use licence
in Windsorton; F. Illegal mining in Gong-Gong.

3.2 Agriculture and sewage pollution

The Jukskei/Crocodile river systems which are tributaries of the middle Vaal River contribute
to eutrophication because of the raw sewage and treated waste effluent it receives from the
Gauteng area. The return flows from agricultural activities along the banks of the Lower
Orange-Vaal River contribute to high levels of nutrients which cause algal blooms and alien
plant growth and result in depletion of oxygen. Consequently these may potentially impact
negatively on the aquatic flora and fauna. The Lower Orange-Vaal River 1 has relatively high
salinity concentrations due to irrigation return flows (agricultural activities) (Figure 4 A) and
the geological formations.
More raw sewage (nutrients) are added to the Lower Vaal River in the Warrenton area due
to poor Municipal infrastructure and maintenance of sewage treatment works, poor planning,
budgeting and management which has been continuing for years (Figure 4B&C). These
contaminants cumulate and impact in the Lower Orange River. If this kind of sewage
pollution continues the river water quality will be detrimental to indigenous fish and the water
will be unsuitable for human and animal consumption. Untreated sewage can pose a major
ecological disaster and a serious health hazard to fish, birds and humans. Sewage
contamination in the freshwater ecosystems is dangerous and can cause illnesses like
cholera, typhoid and bilharzia (Craun et al. 1998). People and livestock can be affected if
they drink this kind of water or by eating vegetables that were watered with sewage water.
Faecal pollution affects all kinds of flora and fauna which can result in the loss of

B
biodiversity.
There are lots of algae in the Lower Vaal River from Warrenton to its confluence with the
Orange River in Douglas (Figure 4D) which is as a result of cumulative impacts from the

11

upstream, agricultural practices and sewage water in the Warrenton area (Figures 4B&C). In
order to address this problem the provincial and national government should intervene with
the municipalities who fail to comply with the National Water Act 36 of 1998. However, cooperative governance is also needed between government organisations and nongovernment organisations to address these kinds of problems.

Figure 4 A-D: A. Irrigation return flows in the Orange River; B. & C. Sewage flowing in the Vaal River
in Warrenton; D. Algal blooms in Barkley West in the Lower Vaal River.

3.3 Canalisation and abstraction

These drainage techniques are prevalent throughout the Orange-Vaal River system and
result in water flow modification. Stream canalisation and water abstraction, both legal and
illegal, compromise the water quality; reduce river volume, flow and leads to the loss of
riparian vegetation (Figure 5A&B). Riparian vegetation plays a role in increasing biodiversity
1

According to Department of Water Affairs Catchment Management Areas the Lower Vaal River stretches
from Bloemhof Dam to Douglas, while the Lower Orange is from Orange-Vaal confluence to Orange River
Mouth. Lower Orange-Vaal River refers to the collective of the two aforementioned river stretches.

12

and also provides habitat for fish and macro-invertebrates. It functions as a buffer to aquatic
systems thereby reducing the negative effects from pollutants. It controls stream-bank
erosion and subsequent sedimentation, degradation of water clarity and quality, and
contributes to controlling pathogens and eutrophication (Walker 1993). Riparian vegetation
also traps carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

Figure 5 A-B: A. Water abstraction in Lower Orange River; B. Illegal water abstraction in the Lower
in the Lower Vaal River.

3.4 Invasive species in the Northern Cape Province

The Orange-Vaal River system is colonized to various extents by faunal and floral alien
species. The Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) are two
examples of alien fish found in Lower Orange-Vaal River system, while the red water fern
(Azolla filiculoides) (Figure 6A), spiked water milfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum) (Figure B) and
water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) (Figure 6C) are examples of invasive aquatic plant
species. These alien plants are widely distributed in the Lower Vaal River. They are also
found submerged in a waterbody covering the waterway and furthermore preventing sunlight
to penetrate, which results in oxygen reduction which can lead to massive fish kills. The
presence of water hyacinth in Warrenton, Warrenvale and Windsorton is a major concern as
it can spread further downstream. The spiked water milfoil has aggressively colonized the
whole of the Lower Vaal River and is further spreading in the Lower Orange River.
Severe infestation of other invasive alien plants include for e.g. sweet prickly pear (Opuntia
ficus-indica), caster oil plant (Ricinus communis), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.), wild tobacco
(Nicotiana glauca), Sponge-fruit saltbush (Atriplex lindleyi), old-man saltbush (Atriplex

13

nummularia), pink tamarisk (Tamarix ramosissima), giant reed (Arundo donax) and honey
mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa var. torreyana/velutina) are aggressive invaders of riparian
zones and are widely distributed along the rivers in the province. The alien plants are
opportunists which use more water resources than our indigenous plants. According to
DEAT (2004) mesquite may consume 200 million m 3 water per year reducing the amount of
groundwater available to farmers and rural communities.

Figure 6 A-C: A. Red water fern (Azolla filiculoides) in the Vaal River Windsorton B. Spiked water

milfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum) in the Lower Vaal River, Barkly-West; C. Water

hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) in the Lower Vaal River in Warrenvale.

14

3.5 Climate change

Climate change is the natural cycle (if not accelerated by human activities) through which the
earth and its atmosphere accommodate change in the amount of energy received from the
sun. The climate goes through warm and cold periods, taking hundreds of years to complete
one cycle. Changes in temperature also influence the rainfall but the biosphere is able to
adapt to a changing climate if these changes occur over centuries. Unfortunately, human
intervention is currently causing the climate to change too fast. The global climate system is
driven by energy from the sun. Several gases in the atmosphere act to trap the energy from
the sun, thus warming the earth (Water Wheel 2008). These gases are called greenhouse
gases and the process is the greenhouse effect. Without this there would be no life on earth.
Human activities over the last 200 years, particularly the burning of fossil fuels (oil, coal,
natural gas) and the clearing of forests, have increased the concentration of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere. This is likely to lead to more solar radiation being trapped, which in
turn will lead to the earths surface warming up the enhanced greenhouse effect.
The impact of climate change on biodiversity is difficult to assess since it depends largely on
the rate of change and the compounding effects of other pressures such as habitat loss and
fragmentation (Poff et al. 2002). While most scientists agree that the climate is changing, it is
not yet possible to distinguish human-induced change from natural climatic variations (Njau
2007). According to Poff et al. (2002) the increases in water temperatures as a result of
climate change will alter rainfall patterns, fundamental ecological processes and the
geographic distribution of aquatic species. Such impacts may be ameliorated if species
attempt to adapt by migrating to suitable habitat. However, human alteration of potential
migratory corridors may limit the ability of species to relocate, increasing the likelihood of
species extinction and loss of biodiversity. As the global climate warms, the preferred
climatic conditions for a species will shift to higher altitudes and latitudes (Poff et al. 2002).
The survival will depend on its ability to relocate quickly enough and the availability of
alternative habitats. Species most at risk are those with small population sizes and ranges
that have slow growth rates with poor dispersal and recruitment abilities. Therefore alien
species can possibly out-compete indigenous species for food and habitat (Dukes and
Mooney 1999). With the current status of the Orange-Vaal River system, alien species are
predicted to dominate the system.
According to Houghton et al. (2001) the average global surface temperatures are projected
to increase by 1.5 to 5.8C by 2100, this projected change in climate will place additional
pressure on already-stressed freshwater ecosystems. Climate change contributes to
evaporation of water in the rivers which causes the high concentrations of the total dissolved

15

salts. In the Northern Cape Province, freshwater is salty during the hot seasons but
minimally improves after rain. Furthermore rising temperatures can extend the habitats of
mosquitoes that carry the malaria parasite in the warm areas, because mosquitoes tend to
breed faster as temperatures get higher, thus shifting the boundaries of latitude and altitude
for malaria transmission (Dhiman et al. 2008). Planting trees can help to curb the problem of
climate change as they trap carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.

4. Wetlands in the Northern Cape

4.1 Definition of Wetlands
A wetland as defined by the National Water Act (Act No. 36 of 1998), refers to land which is
transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or
near the surface, or the land is periodically covered with shallow water, and which under
normal circumstances supports or would support vegetation typically adapted to life in water
saturated soil. Although, most pans show distinct zonation of vegetation at any one time,
these zones and the plant species that occupy them, vary in response to fluctuating water
levels.
The zones often relate to the topography of the pan which in turn defines the extent of open
water, the depth of the water, and the steepness of transition and boundary gradients. These
all influence what plant species may be more commonly associated with for example, the
floor, as opposed to the margins and areas upslope. Even within zones there may be a
patch of plant communities or stands of vegetation that also varies with time. The dynamic
nature of most of the pans also allows the colonisation of areas by opportunistic plant
species such as annual grasses and certain sedges which results in a considerable degree
of variability in plant species composition and richness between pans. Types of wetlands
include sponges, bogs, vleis, swamps, marshes, dams, springs and pans amongst others.

4.2 Ecological role of Wetlands

In the past, wetlands were considered wasteland, and many were drained or filled in so that
they could be farmed or built upon. Recently the values of wetlands have been recognized
and efforts have been made by the Department of Water and Environmental Affairs (DWEA)
and the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) to protect these ecosystems.
Despite the current legislation which encompasses the protection of wetlands they are still
disappearing in the Northern Cape under the pressure from agricultural activities.

16

There are lots of functions and ecosystem services that wetlands provide, amongst others
they slow down the flow of water and trap pollutants, limiting flooding and cleaning water.
Wetlands are areas rich in biodiversity, the plants are in abundance because of the nutrients
in the soil. These plants provide shelter and food for animals. There are varieties of plants
and animals that are Red Data Listed (RDL) species that depend on wetlands, and without
the habitat that wetlands provide, they would not be able to survive. According to
NWWATER (2008) wetlands lessen global warming by locking up huge amounts of carbon
(C) in peat rather than allowing carbon dioxide (CO2) to be released in the atmosphere.
Wetlands improve water quality serving as excellent water filters to remove nutrients, wastes
and sediment from runoff water before they reach an open body of water. They also facilitate
education and research, serving as valuable recreational areas for activities such as hunting,
fishing and bird watching (Palmer et al. 2002).

4.3 Standing Waters

4.3.1 Perennial and non-perennial pans
Northern Cape Province has the highest abundance of pans in South Africa, mostly
dominated by non-perennial pans that only have water after rain (Figure 7). The pans in the
vicinity of Victoria West and De Aar are extremely important for the threatened and endemic
Blue Crane. In the Kalahari region around Rietfontein there are good endorheic pans which
are of archeological importance. There are several salt pans to the west and northwest of
Brandvlei inter alia Rietfontein Pan, Commissioner's Salt Pan, Dwagga Salt Pan, Bitterputs
se Pan, Konnes se Pan. The central Karoo in the Brandvlei area is generally flat with
abundant interspersed salt pans (Figure 7) associated with the fossil rivers. When filled with
water, these pans are important to waterbirds.
Verneukpan is the largest perennial pan in the Nama Karoo and in all of South Africa with a
length of 33.5 km long and 11 km width (Lloyd and Le Roux 1985). Other major pans in this
area include Brandvlei, Flaminkvlei, Vanwyksvlei and Grootvloer pan (Figure 7). According
to Lloyd and Le Roux (1985) the perennial Grootvloer pan plays an important role in fish
migrations, allowing the free interchange of indigenous fish between the Sak and Orange
Rivers. Hamer and Rayner (1996) recorded an exceptionally high diversity of crustaceans
fauna in Grootvloer Pan. Heuningvlei is a natural saltpan found in Kuruman. It supports a
wide variety of birds. The pan is under threat from overgrazing. The two pans in the
northwest of Upington namely: Groot Witpan and Witpan are mined for salts. South of the
latter mentioned pans are two smaller pans which were mined in the past, Klein Witpan and
Lankpan. A pan which was also mined in the past is Soutpan, which lies 3,5km southwest of

17

Askham. The flamingoes are found in, amongst other pans, the Soutpan and Groot Witpan
south of Danielskuil during high rainfall years. The Kathu Pan located near Danielskull is of
major archaeological site recognized world wide for its stones. It is drained by the Gamagara
River a tributary of the Kuruman River. The Ganspan near Jan Kempdorp consist of two
permanently inundated pans. These pans are filled with water coming from the irrigation
scheme of Vaalharts. The pans support large bird populations as well as populations of the
smallmouth yellowfish (Labeobarbus aeneus) and the largemouth yellowfish (Labeobarbus
kimberleyensis). The pans are also an angling spot during the summer season.
The Platfontein Pan systems are located to the southwest of Kimberley. These pans support
populations of flamingos and other waterbirds during periods of water availability. Volstruis
Pan is located on Rooipoort west of Kimberley in the property of the De Beers Consolidated
Mines. It support habitat for mammals. Benfontein Pan also known as Alexandersfontein
Pan is located in the De Beers property southeast of Kimberley support habitat for mammal
and birds. The Kamfers Dam is found in the town of Kimberley. It is an endorheic pan of
ecological importance in Kimberley. It is permanent, shallow, saline and provides suitable
habitat for the Greater and Lesser Flamingos and Waterfowls. The dams water quality is
poor due to the sewage effluent and other pollutants entering via the stormwater (Van
Niekerk 2000). Currently the water volume of the pan is high due to sewage effluent from
Homevale sewage works. There are no fish species appearing in the pan due to high salinity
and pH. The toxic metals are very low but need further long-term monitoring. There are high
concentrations of major cations and nutrients in the pan. The pan is fairly researched in
terms of water quality, algae and invertebrates. Currently toxic cyanobacteria which are a
health hazard do not appear in the pan. This needs serious attention as it can eliminate all
the birds in the pan if there is an outbreak.
Pans are also prevalent along the Namaqualand coastline, e.g.Visagiespan and
Rietfonteinpan south of Alexander Bay. Near Port Nolloth, Aerodrome Pan is found. The site
is important for the breeding of Damara Tern, South Africas rarest coastal breeding species.
This bird is endemic to the west coast of South Africa and Namibia and ranks amongst the
worlds smallest terns. In the Kamiesberg Mountains of Namaqualand various ephemeral
wetlands are found. These wetlands contain high levels of plant and invertebrate endemism.
The wetlands are threatened by grazing, alien invasive khakibos (Inula graveolens) and
cultivation (Swarts et al. 2009).
The Orange River Mouth (ORM) is one of the important wetlands in South Africa. It was
declared a Ramsar Site in 1991, but removed to be placed on Montreax Record2 in 1995
due to the collapse of salt marshes. The site is a unique ecosystem within the bioregion and

18

together with the surrounding pans they supply habitat to fishes, resident birds and local
migrant waterbirds. It is highly degraded by adjacent alluvial mining activities and the
changes in the water flow of the Orange-Vaal River system. The Orange-Vaal River is
experiencing increasing demand for water from upstream users, and with the proposed two
dams in the system (one in the upperstream and one in Vioolsdrift) could essentially improve
the amount of water reaching the Orange River Mouth that will lead to further growth of salt
marshes. The wetland is currently under rehabilitation.

4.3.2 Springs/ Eyes

4.3.2.1 Dolomitic Springs

Dolomitic eyes are waterbodies fed by groundwater originating from fractures in the
underlying dolomite. The water from these dolomitic features is typically alkaline (pH 7.5-9.3)
having picked up magnesium and calcium carbonates through solution from the main
dolomite. The Northern Cape Province has a perennial and seasonal number of these
unique natural features most of which are classified as springs ranging from small trickles to
the perennial Eye of Kuruman. Some springs are seasonal; larger ones have big catchments
areas and are not affected by one years rainfall and some have dried up permanently and
are visible during heavy rainfall or major floods (Van Dyk 2009 Pers. Comm).
In Campbell there are few springs. In the Karoo region one spring is located in Griquatown
and is protected by the Municipality. One spring is also found in De Aar. Along the Kuruman
River are more springs of different sizes and endurance. Another spring in the Ga-Mopedi
creates a pond in winter that sustains waterfowl. The eyes along the river do not usually
provide sustained flow of water for any distance; most times the riverbed is a series of ponds
and marshes, which disappear shortly downstream, varying by season. The following areas
in Kuruman region have flowing springs: Batlharos, Bothetheletsa spring at Bothetheletsa
Nature Reserve, Bothitong, Bushy Park, Dithakong, Ditshipeng, Manyeding at Manyeding
Reserve, Maruping, Mtswetsaneng, Tsineng, Kuruman first eye and second eye, Groot
Koning is located in the south and southeastern part of Kuruman at Konong Reserve, and
Tsinineng spring at the lower Kuruman (Figure 7) (Sebuseng 2009 Pers.Comm). The
Kuruman Eye is the biggest natural fountain/spring in the Southern Hemisphere. It is
supplied by water that flows through a system of interconnected solution channels in the
dolomite, which is dammed up by a diabase dyke and forced to the surface. It provides over
20million litres of crystal-clear water everyday (Norman and Whitfield 2006). Though there
2

It is a record of Ramsar sites where changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring or are likely
to occur.

19

has never been a thorough survey of all springs in the province, some of the flowing springs
have historical water quality data since the 1950s till today.
4.3.2.2 Warm-Water Spring

A Warm-water spring is a spring with water temperature substantially higher than the air
temperature of the surrounding region. Most of the warm-water springs result from the
interaction of groundwater with magma or with solid but still-hot igneous rocks. Some,
however, are not related to volcanic activity. In such cases, deep circulation of water is
thought to carry the water to the lower parts of the Earth's crust, where the temperature of
the rocks is high. The Riemvasmaak thermal spring is the only known hot spring in the
Northern Cape Province and its water is associated with healing power. It is the only natural
source of warm water away from the course of the Orange River. It is estimated to yield
approximately 1800 litres per hour (von Backstrom 1962) and its temperature ranges
between 30-50 degree Celsius.

Figure 7: Wetlands distribution in the Northern Cape Province. (Map by Bheki Kunene, 2009 based
based on information from AFRICON).

20

4.4 Rivers
4.4.1 Perennial Rivers in the Province
4.4.1.1 Orange River

The Orange River which originates from the Maluti Mountains in Lesotho is the largest and
longest river in South Africa (SA). The river in Lesotho is known as the Senqu River. It flows
westward for 2 300 km to the Richtersveld area where it flows into the Atlantic Ocean
and it is the major water resource of the Northern Cape Province. During flood events the
Orange River flows directly into the Atlantic Ocean and sometimes has its access to the sea
blocked by sand-bars during lower rainfall events (DWAF 2004b). It is thus not a true estuary
and is called a river mouth. The tributaries of the Lower Orange River are the Brak, Seekoei,
Ongers and Hartebeest Rivers from the south in the Lower Orange River and the Fish and
Molopo Rivers from the Namibian side and (Figure 8). The Fish River is the largest
contributor to the Orange River downstream of the Orange / Vaal confluence. Although
occasional runoff occurs in the upper reaches of the Molopo River, no record exists of flow
having reached the the Orange River. Previous recordings of flow in the lower reaches of the
Molopo and / or Kuruman Rivers were in 1933 and again in the 1974/5 and 1975/76 seasons
(DWAF 2004a).
The Orange River is highly regulated by more than 29 dams (including weirs), with major
dams such as the Katse Dam (highest dam in Africa at 185m high) in Lesotho, the Gariep
Dam (88m high) in the Free State Province and the Vanderkloof Dam in the Northern Cape
having been built for irrigation, flood controlling and electricity generation (Earle et al. 2005).
These dams have been constructed to impound the surface-water runoff during rainfall, in
order to store it for later use or release downstream during the dry season for ecological
needs and irrigation purposes. The development of these dams resulted in flow regime
changes, facilitating blackfly breeding to such an extent that it negatively influenced stock
farming practices e.g. These blackflies feed on the blood of livestock, often causing
inflammatory and allergic reactions that result in stock losses.
The Gariep Dam is the largest dam in SA with a storage capacity of 5 600 million cubic
metres and the Vanderkloof Dam is the second largest in SA with a storage capacity of 3
200 million cubic metres which produce hydro-electricity (Water Wheel 2006). Amongst all
the SA Dams the Vanderkloof is the highest with a total height of 108 metres. The total
demand for water in the Lower Orange River system is 2230 million m/a. The biggest user
of water in the Lower Orange River is agriculture {(970 million m/a (43%)}, followed by
evaporation losses with {(620 million m/a (28%)}, environmental demand {(290 million m/a
(13%)}, {(Operational losses of 270 million m/a (12%)} and lastly the urban demands of 80
million m/a (4%) (Bapela 2009).

21

The Gariep and Vanderkloof hydro-electricity stations have considerably changed the flow
characteristics in the Lower Orange River. The Vanderkloof Dam is currently the last main
storage structure on the Orange River and controls the flow regime of water along the
1 400 km stretch of river between the dam and the mouth at Alexander Bay on the Atlantic
Ocean. The natural flow regime of the Orange River varies according to years, seasons and
occasional heavy floods as well as intermittent droughts. The naturally low winter flows are
further influenced by the management (release or not) of water from dams in response to
electricity generation. There is also high water evaporation and high demand of water
downstream due to irrigation purposes. These trends are experienced in spring, especially in
October and November. The reduction in water volume poses a serious threat to the integrity
of the river mouth wetland. Engineers and ecologists say that if a dam is built in the Lower
Orange River in Vioolsdrift it could improve the flow management of the lower part of the
river and ensure that sufficient amounts of water are released into the system at all times,
which would maintain the integrity of the Orange River Mouth ecosystem.
According to the survey done by Department of Water and Environmental Affairs in 2008
and 2009, the aquatic macro-invertebrates diversity indicated that the water quality of the
Lower Orange River is in a good state and there is deterioration at some sites. This can be
related to the agricultural activities and the cumulative impacts from upperstream. The
chemical analysis showed the high levels of salts throughout the system which is attributed
to extensive agricultural activities and geological formations. There are high levels of copper,
cadmium, lead, zinc and aluminium in Keimoes, Kakamas and Pella in the Orange River
which needs further investigation.
In the lower reaches of the Orange River, the toxic algae Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii was
first detected during the summer of 2000 and again in 2003 and 2005 respectively (Janse
Van Vuuren and Kriel 2008). C. raciborskii is a problem-causing cyanobacterium capable of
releasing potent toxins and has become increasingly prevalent in the lower reaches of the
Orange River. The blooms of C. raciborskii lead to several problems including taste and
odours, as well as making water treatment difficult and fish kills (Janse Van Vuuren and Kriel
2008). The Baccillariophyceae, Chlorophyceae and Cyanophyceae were found to be the
most abundant algae classes in both the Vaal and Orange Rivers (De Beer 2008).
Table 1 indicates the algae that have been recorded in different seasons in the Lower
Orange-Vaal River system by Chutter (1968), De Beer (2008), Palmer (1997) & Janse Van
Vuuren and Kriel (2008).
In terms of habitat integrity, the lower sections of the Orange River are impacted mostly by
growing infestations of mesquite (Prosopis spp), river red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis),

22

giant reed (Arundo donax) and wild tobacco (Nicotiana glauca). The alien invasive shrubs
caster oil plant (Ricinus communis) is also observed in the riparian vegetation. These woody
shrubs species are commonly found in riparian areas, and are responsible for significant
river yield losses, as well as land degradation.

Table 1: Planktonic algae recorded in the Lower Orange - Vaal River System.

Class

Genus & species

Cyanophyceae

Anabaena
circinalis
(filament)

Aphanocapsa
spp. (colony)

Cylindrospermopsis
raciborskii

Merismopedia
minima (colony)

Merismopedia
spp (colony)

Microcystis
aeruginosa
(colony)

Mi.aeruginosa
(loose cells)

Oscillatoria spp.
Filament

Cyclotella spp.
(10-20um)

Centric diatomssmall (<8um)

Cocconeis spp.

spp.
Cymbrella spp.

Diatoma spp.

Gyrosigma spp

Melosira
(=Aulacoseira
granulate (f)

Navicula spp.
(pennate)

Nitzschia spp.
gracilis (150um)

Navicula spp.
(pennate)

Pennate
diatoms (other)

Pinnularia spp.

Stephanodiscus
hantzschi

Surirella ovalis

Synedra spp.

Actinastrum
hantzchi (stacolony.)

Ankistrodesmus
spp (needle.
30um)

Carteria fornicate
(4flagellums)

Chlamydomonas
spp (15-20um)

Chorella spp.
(3-6um)

Chlorococcum
spp (12-18um)

Chlamydomonas
spp (15-20um)

Chorella spp.
(3-6um)

Cladophora
glomerata

Chodatella spp.

Closterium spp

Coealastrum
microporum (col)

Cosmarium
spp.

Crucigenia
tetrapedia (4x4)

Eudorina spp.
(colony)

Golekinia spp.
(round with
spikes)

Mesotaenium
spp

Mo.circinale
(short fat sickle)

Mo. Contortum
(S-sickle)

Monoraphidium
Micractinium sp
(col.round.spikes) arcuatum (big
sickle)
Oocystis sp
O.solitatia (loose
(colony)
cel.rugby ball)

Pediastrum
spp (colony)

Pteromonas spp
(with sheath)

Scenedesmus spp.
(colony)

Schroederia
spp. (needle)

Sphaerocystis
spp. (colony)

Staurastrum spp.

Tetrastrum spp.
(4 cells with spikes)

Tetrastrum
regulare (4-corners)

Phacus spp.

Strombomonas
spp.

Bacillariophyceae Asterionella

Chlorophyceae

Cryptophyceae

Cryptomonas
spp.

Dinophyceae

Ceratium spp

Peridinium spp.

Euglenophyceae

Euglena spp
Trachelomonas

Lepocincis spp.
(pear)

23

Pandorina
morum (colony)

4.4.1.2 Vaal River

The Vaal River is the principal perennial tributary to the Orange River within the system, with
a number of small significant tributaries along its length. It originates from the Drakensberg
escarpment near Breyten in the Mpumalanga Province, and then flows southwest to its
confluence with the Orange River near Douglas in the Northern Cape. The Vaal River is
highly regulated through canals and dams. It flows west into the Grootdraai Dam in the
Mpumalanga Province. Grootdraai dam has a total storage capacity of 350 million cubic
metres, a surface area of 39 square kilometres and an average depth of 27 metres. In the
Gauteng Province, it is regulated through the Vaal Dam (Vaal-Barrage Dam). The Vaal Dam
is the fourth largest dam in SA with a catchment area covering 38 505 square kilometres and
a capacity to hold 2575 million cubic metres of water and an average depth of 22,5m. In the
North West Province, it is controlled through the Bloemhof Dam. This dam has a surface
area of 233 square kilometres, an average depth of 18 metres and a total storage capacity of
1.26 billion cubic metres and the longest crest with a length of 4270m.
The majority of the tributaries from the Vaal Dam and downstream are in a critical state of
ecological decline impacted by sewage, industries, urbanization agriculture (DWAF 2006).
Some of the ephemeral tributaries of the Lower Vaal River in the province include the Harts
and Riet Rivers (Figure 8) with water quality of unacceptable standard. The invertebrate
fauna indicate that the ecological state of the Lower Vaal River is in a fair state and is
dominated by Simuliidae, Hydropsychidae, Baetidae, Chironomidae and Oligochaeta
respectively. The poor water quality of the Harts River emanates from the return flows from
the Vaal-Harts irrigation scheme and the irrigation downstream of the Spitskop Dam. These
contribute to the poor water quality in the Lower Vaal River. Poor water quality heightens
water treatment costs for domestic and commercial use, compromises the integrity of
aquatic ecosystems and adversely impacts upon biodiversity The riparian vegetation and
the habitat integrity of the Lower Vaal River are highly modified. The alien Prosopis
glandulosa var. torreyana/velutina and Eucalyptus camaldulensis are found along the river
banks of Lower Vaal River from Windsorton to Douglas. There is a problem with algae in the
whole of the Lower Vaal River. A long stretch of the river is affected by thick growths of
algae which cover rocks and structures in and around the waters edge.

4.4.2 Ephemeral Rivers

Except for the perennial Orange-Vaal River system, most of the rivers in the province are
dry; some have pools and run only after rains. According to Sekwele (2007) the fish species
occurring in these tributaries are the same as those in the mainstream rivers depending on
the reach at which they join the main rivers (Table 2). In the south-western part of the

24

Figure 8: Rivers of the Northern Cape Province. (Map by Bheki Kunene from Dept of Land Affairs in
Kimberley, 2009).

province the ephemeral Oorlogskloof River is found. Its present ecological state is good with
pristine riparian vegetation. The Olifants/Doring River is located in the Western Cape Province
and only a small portion of the north-eastern section falls within the Northern Cape Province (DWAF
2005). The Sak River is the longest ephemeral river in the most isolated northern and western
parts of the semi-arid Karoo region of the province. Its source lies in the higher reaches of
the Nuweveld Mountains, which falls within the Karoo National Park, north of the town of
Beaufort West. It flows into the vast panlands of Brandvlei. During rainy seasons, it flows into the
Hartbees River which originates from the Van Wyksvlei area. The river is utilized for agricultural
purposes and its banks are encroached by mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa var. torreyana/velutina).

5. Fish checklist of the Northern Cape Province

A total of 51 fish species belonging to 22 families have been recorded in the estuarine and
freshwater. (Benade 1983; Cambray 1984; DENC unpublished data 2002 - 2009; Ecosun 2005;
Harrison 2005; Naesje et al. 2007; Skelton 2001; Seaman and Van As 1998; Whitfield 1998).
Table 2 shows the fish species, status and distribution.

25

Table 2: List of fish species recorded in freshwater and estuarine water in the Northern Cape.

Family

Scientific Name

Common
Name

Anabantidae

Sandelia capensis

Cape kurper

Anguillidae

Anguilla mossambica Longfin eel

Atherinidae

Atherina breviceps

Conservation Status /
IUCN 2008

Distribution

Translocated /Data deficient

ODS

Indigenous /Not evaluated

LV, LO, ORE

Cape silverside

Peripheral /Least concern

LO, ORE

Clanwilliam
rock catfish

Indigenous /Vulnerable

ODS

Austroglanis
sclateri

Rock catfish

Indigenous, Endemic/Least
concern

LV, LO, ORE

Carangidae

Lichia amia

Leervis/Garrick

Indigenous /Not evaluated

ORE

Centrarchidae

Lepomis macrochirus Bluegill sunfish

Alien/Not evaluated

KR, OR, ODS

Austroglanidae Austroglanis gilli

Micropterus
dolomieu

Smallmouth
bass

Alien/Not evaluated

KR, ODS

Micropterus
salmoides

Largemouth
bass

Alien/Not evaluated

KR, ODS, SK

Micropterus
punctulatus

Spotted bass

Alien/Not evaluated

ODS

Oreochromis
mossambicus

Mozambique
tilapia

Translocated /Near
threatened

RR, LO, LV,

ODS, ORE

Pseudocrenilabrus
philander

Southern
Mouthbrooder

Indigenous /Least concer

RR, HR, LV,

LO, ORE

Tilapia sparmanni

Banded tilapia

Indigenous /Least concern

RR, HR, OR,

KR, LV, LO,
ODS, ORE

Clariidae

Clarias gariepinus

Sharptooth
catfish

Indigenous /Least concern

RR, HR, KR,

LV, LO, ODS,
SK, SR, ORE

Clinidae

Clinus spatulatus

Estuary klipfish

Peripheral /Endangered

ORE

Clupeidae

Gilchristella
aestuaria

Estuarine
round herring

Indigenous /Least concern

ORE

Sardinops sagax

Sardine

Peripheral /Not evaluated

ORE

Barbus anoplus

Chubbyhead
barb

Indigenous /Least concern

RR, LV, LO,

OR, ODS, SK,
SR, BR

Barbus calidus

Clanwilliam
redfin

Indigenous /Endemic,
Vulnerable

ODS

Barbus hospes

Namaqua barb

LO, ORE

Barbus paludinosus

Straightfin barb

Indigenous, Endemic /Least

concern
Indigenous /Least concern

Barbus serra

Clanwilliam sawfin Indigenous /Endangered

Cichlidae

Cyprinidae

Barbus trimaculatus Threespot barb

Labeobarbus
capensis

Clanwilliam
Yellowfish

26

RR, HR, LV,

LO, ORE,
KR, OK, ODS

Indigenous /Not evaluated

RR, LO, LV, ORE

Endemic /Vulnerable

KR, OR,
ODS

Labeo capensis

Orange River
mudfish

Endemic /Least concern

Labeo seeberi

Clanwilliam

Indigenous, Endemic
/Critically Endangered
Indigenous, Endemic /Least
concern
Indigenous, Endemic /Least
concern

sandfish

RR, HR, LV, LO,

OK, SK, ORE
KR, OR, ODS

Mesobola brevianalis River sardine

Ctenopharyngodon Grass carp
idella

Indigenous /Least concern

Alien /Not evaluated

RR, LV, LO, SK,

SR, BR, ORE
RR, HR, LV,
LO, SK, SR,
BR, ORE
RR, HR, LV,
LO, SK, SR,
ORE
RR, HR, LV,
LO, OK, SK, ORE
LO, ORE
LV

Galaxiidae

Galaxias zebratus

Indigenous /Data Deficient

ODS

Gobiidae

Caffrogobius
Barehead goby
nudiceps
Caffrogobius caffer Banded goby
Caffrogobius salthana Commafin goby

Peripheral /Not evaluated

ORE

Peripheral /Not evaluated

Peripheral /Not evaluated

ORE
ORE

Labeo umbratus

Moggel

Labeobarbus
aeneus

Vaal Orange
smallmouth
yellowfish
Vaal Orange
largemouth
Yellowfish
Carp

Labeobarbus
kimberleyensis
Cyprinus carpio

Mugilidae

Poeciliidae

Cape galaxia

Indigenous, Endemic /Near

threatened
Alien /Vulnerable

Mugil cephalus
Myxis capensis

Peripheral /Not evaluated

Southern
mullet
Peripheral /Not evaluated
Flathead mullet
Freshwater mullet Endemic /Least concern

Gambusia affinis

Mosquitofish

Liza richardsonii

Pomatomidae Pomatomus salthana Elf (Blue fish)

LO, ORE
ORE
LO, ORE

Alien /Not evaluated

RR, HR, LV, LO

Peripheral /Not evaluated

ORE

ORE

Rajidae

Raja spp.

Salmonidae

Oncorhynchus mykiss Rainbow trout

Alien /Not evaluated

ODS

Sciaenidae

Argyrosomus
inodorus
Argyrosomus
hololepidotus
Argyrosomus
coronus
Argyrosomus
japonicus

Mild meagre

Peripheral /Not evaluated

ORE

Kob

Peripheral /Endangered

LO, ORE

Kob

Peripheral /Endangered

ORE

Dusky cob

Peripheral /Not evaluated

ORE

Diplodus cervinus
hottentotus
Lithognathus
lithognathus

Zebra
seabream
White
steenbras

Peripheral /Not evaluated

ORE

Peripheral /Lower risk,

conservation dependent

ORE

Syngnathidae Syngnathus
temminckii

Longsnout
pipefish

Peripheral /Not evaluated

ORE

Triglidae

Cape gurnard

Peripheral /Not evaluated

ORE

Sparidae

Chelidonichthys
capensis

Skates

KEY: Distribution in the catchments of: LV = Lower Vaal River, LO = Lower Orange River, ORE = Orange
River Estuary, OR = Oorlogskloof River, ODS = Olifants-Doring Rivers system, SK = Seekoei River,
SR= Sak River, BR = Brak River, KR = Koebee River, RR = Riet River, HR = Harts River.

27

6. Conservation Status
The distribution of the fish populations in the Lower Orange-Vaal River system is good in
terms of the fish response assessment index and is dominated by cyprinids. Labeo capensis,
Labeobarbus aeneus, Labeobarbus kimberleyensis and Labeo umbratus are yellowfish species
in the Orange-Vaal River system. Pseudocrenilabrus philander, Tilapia sparmanni and Labeo
capensis are more abundant in the Orange-Vaal River system than Labeobarbus aeneus (Figure 9A)
The distribution of Austroglanis sclateri and L. kimberleyensis in the Orange-Vaal River system
is determined by the availability of suitable habitats and pollution conditions respectively.
A. sclateri was previously recorded as a rare species but the current ICUN evaluation lists it as
a species of least concern. The conservation status of L. kimberleyensis is currently vulnerable.
This species serves as a good indicator of water quality in the province and if the water quality
is poor they also decline in numbers (YWG 2008). Just below the Augrabies waterfalls (a
natural barrier to the movement of fish) there is a high diversity of fish species where Barbus
hospes is confined. B. hospes is endemic to the Lower Orange River below the Augrabies
Falls to Orange River Mouth. The critically endangered Labeo seeberi, endangered Barbus serra
and vulnerable Labeobarbus capensis are found in the Oorlogskloof River, Koebee River and
north-eastern part of the Olifants/Doring system which falls within the borders of the Northern
Cape (Table 1). The Koebee River, however, has alien fish species like Lepomis macrochirus,
Micropterus dolomieu and Micropterus salmoides (Table 2). A total of 51 fish species from
22 families have been recorded within the waters of Northern Cape. The Orange River
Mouth is inhabited by a total of 35 fish species from 17 families. Out of 35 fish species, 20
are peripheral to the mouth whilst 15 are freshwater fish from the Orange River.
The abundance, diversity and distribution of species of native and alien fish provide
indicators of general environmental quality (Kennard 2005). Flow regimes, modification of
vegetation, increased sediment loads, alteration of bed and banks (including desnagging)
and reduced water quality adversely affects fish populations. Furthermore artificial barriers
negatively affect fish movement, fish health, populations and distribution.

No fish species are known to have become extinct in the waters of the Northern Cape but
with increasing habitat degradation and/or interaction with introduced and alien fish species,
illegal fishing, climate change and water pollution there might be extinctions in the near
future. A survey undertaken by the Department of Water and Environmental Affairs in winter
2008 manifested that the fish in Lower Vaal River was moderately modified with a lower than
expected species richness (C category according to FRAI model) whilst in the Lower Orange
was found to be in a good state (category B according to FRAI model). An additional alien

28

fish species Mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis) was recorded in abundance the in Lower Orange
River near Good House (Unpublished data). The mosquito fish occurs throughout the Lower
Vaal River. The majority of fish species sampled in the Lower Vaal River were infested with
digenean cysts and this can be attributed to poor water quality and the presence of final
(birds) and intermediate hosts (snails and fish).

Figure 9 A-D: A.Vaal-Orange Smallmouth Yellowfish (Labeobarbus aeneus) B. Fish monitoring in the
Lower Vaal River; C. Fish monitoring in the Oorlogskloof River; D. Invertebrates identification in the Harts River.

7. Summary
The Northern Cape is a semi-arid to arid province with its freshwater sources primarily, being
impacted by human activities such as mining, agricultural return flows and urbanisation.
Climate change which is occurring at a slow rate is likely to put pressure on ecosystems
through habitat loss and fragmentation. As global warming increases, species such as
yellowfish which have small populations and slow growth rates are likely to be at high risk.
Global warming and human activities allow invasive weeds and alien species to exploit our
natural resources. The two major rivers run in the province and their fish populations are
dominated by cyprinids. The province has the highest abundance of pans, mostly dominated
by non perennial pans. Poor management of wetlands can also lead to the disappearance of
some of the invertebrates, birds, frogs and plant species.

29

8. Recommendations
Recommendations

Responsible Organisation

Develop a better understanding of Northern Cape

aquatic ecosystems and the threats to their existence.

Department of Water and

Environmental Affairs,
Department of Mineral
Resources, Department of
Agriculture and Fisheries, Local
Farmers

Strengthen and enforce legal compliance.

Department of Water and

Environmental Affairs,
Department of Mineral
Resources, Department of
Agriculture and Fisheries

Combat invasive alien species

Department of Water and

Environmental Affairs,
Department of Agriculture and
Fisheries, South African National
Biodiversity Institute

Continue educating communities about sustainable use.

Department of Water and

Environmental Affairs,
Department of Agriculture and
Fisheries, South African National
Biodiversity Institute,
Department of Education

9. Glossary or terminology
Alien: originating outside of its natural known distribution.
Biodiversity: number and variety of living organisms; includes genetic diversity, species
diversity, and ecological diversity.
Biota: the living organisms of a region or system.
Catchment: all the land from the mountain/source to the seashore, drained by a single river and
its tributaries.
Climate: the average, or typical, weather conditions observed over a long period of time for a
given area
.
Distribution: the geographic occurrence or range of an organism.
Ecosystem: complex of a community of organisms and its environment functioning as an
ecological unit.
Ephemeral: flow that is periodic.
Endemic: belonging exclusively or confined to a particular place.
Eutrophication: excess nutrient concentration in the water.

30

Fauna: collective term for the animals living in a particular area or period.
Floodplain: area that is flooded periodically by the lateral overflow of rivers.
Flora: plants considered as a group, especially the plants of a particular country, region, or time.
Geology: the scientific study of the earth, including its composition, structure, and physical and
chemical aspects.
Global Warming: the rise in temperature of the earth's atmosphere.
Indigenous: originating and living or occurring naturally in an area or environment.
Pan: a basin or depression in the earth, often containing mud or water.
Peripheral fish: are marine species which are found living in freshwater.
Pollutant: a harmful material that makes an environment less fit for the organisms to occupy it.
Population: group of organisms belonging to the same species which occupy a given area.
Riparian: pertaining to a river bank.
Spring: ground water that flows naturally out of the ground.
Translocated: a species naturally found within Southern Africa but which has been brought
either intentionally or unintentionally by man into catchments in which it was not naturally
distributed
Water quality: the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water in relationship to a
set of standards.
Wetland: an area where the soil is temporarily or permanently waterlogged.

31

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Directorate: Water Resource Planning Systems, Presentation at Symposium on the Lower
Orange Forum, Upington 18th-20th August 2009.
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Benade B (1993) Studies on Fish Populations in the Regulated Orange River System within the
Borders of the Cape Province, Unpublished MSc thesis, University of the Orange Free State,
Bloemfontein.
Bradstock A (2005) Land Reform and its Impact on Livelihoods. Policy and Research Series No
4. FARM-Africa. South Africa.
Cambray JA (1984) Fish populations in the Middle and Lower Orange River, with special
reference to the effects of stream regulation. Journal of the Limnological Society of Southern
Africa, 10: 37-49.
Chutter (1968) On the ecology of the fauna of stones in current in South African Rivers
supporting a very large of Simulium (Diptera) population. Journal of Applied Ecology,
5: 531-536.
Craun GF, Hubbs SA, Frost F, Calderon RL and Via SH (1998) Waterborne outbreaks of
cryptosporidiosis. Journal of the American Water Works Association, 90: 8191.
DEAT (2004) Northern Cape State of the Environment. Freshwater Resources Specialist Report.
30pp.
De Beer CJ (2008) Assessment of blackfly (Diptera: Simuliidae) problem status and potential
biological control agents along the Vaal and Orange Rivers in South Africa. Unpublished MSc
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Dhiman RC, Pahwa S and Dash AP (2008) Climate change and malaria in India: Interplay
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DWAF (2005) Directorate National Water Resource Planning. Internal Strategic Perspectives for
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32

Dukes JS and Mooney HA (1999) Does global change increase the success of biological
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