Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Female Genital
Mutilation/Cutting
Neyah McNab
Independent Study-Based Unit
Mr. Toole
13 May 2016
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents........................................................................................................... 2
Preface......................................................................................................................... 3
Summary of Research Methods......................................................................................... 7
Background................................................................................................................... 8
Expert........................................................................................................................ 13
Role of Control............................................................................................................ 15
Logic of Evil................................................................................................................ 17
Case Study: Colombia................................................................................................... 20
Case Study: Malaysia.................................................................................................... 23
Case Study: Somalia..................................................................................................... 26
International Organizations........................................................................................... 32
Canadian Connection.................................................................................................... 38
Solutions..................................................................................................................... 41
Bibliography............................................................................................................... 45
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Preface
Number one: She did not see Gods axe.
Number two: No, she was blind like us then. She did not see it.
Number three: God struck the blow that made her Queen!
Number four: Beautiful enough for him to fuck.
Number one: God liked it fighting!
(Laughter)
Number two: God liked it tight!
Number three: God like to remember what He had done, and how it felt before it got
loose. Number four: God is wise. That is why He created the tsunga [traditional birth
assistant].
All: With her sharpened stone and bag of thorns!
Number one: With her needle and thread.
Number two: Because He liked it tight!
Number three: God likes to feel big
Number four: What man does not?
(Laughter)
Number one: Let us eat this food, and drink to the Queen who is beautiful, and whose
body has been given to us to be our sustenance forever (Walker, 1992).
Society has a long history of dominance and control over the female body and feminine
sexuality. This dominance and control can be attributed to patriarchy. Patriarchy is the social
structure of society based on the father having responsibility for the security of and jurisdiction
over their families. However, the true scope of patriarchy outstretches the familial domain.
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mutilation degrading, or that it could presuppose that parents or practitioners perform this
procedure maliciously (UNFPA, 2015). To accommodate the variance of terminology, this report
will refer to the practice as female genital mutilation/cutting or FGM/C.
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Cultural,
psychosexual, sociological, as well as socioeconomic, aesthetics and hygiene have been reason
to justify the practice of FGM/C (UNFPA, 2015); these will be further discussed in the Logic of
Evil.
FGM/C and early marriage are greatly connected. They share the same social factors and
sometimes are requirements of one another.
environments resulting in value systems that classify girls and women beneath boys and men.
FGM/C and early marriage are entrenched in powerful and extensively supported beliefs and
norms, which place expectations on families to comply with certain attitudes. If a large segment
of the community is marrying their daughters early to practice FGM/C, other families may feel
pressured to do the same.
conforming. The practice of FGM/C and early marriage allows communities to exact dominance
over girls and women, specifically their ability to reproduce and sexual behaviour (World Vision
UK, 2016).
FGM/C is a global concern because it violates, a series of well-established human rights
principles, norms and standards, including the principles of equality and non-discrimination on
the basis of sex, the right to life when the procedure results in death, and the right to freedom
from torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, (WHO, 2016).
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Background
A concrete historical origin of FGM/C is uncertain, however it is known that it originally
had no relation to any religion and commenced long before the rise of Christianity and Islam.
The term infibulation derives from Ancient Rome from the piercing of female slaves labia with
fibulae (brooches) to oppress their sexual activity and prevent pregnancies. However, it is
generally believed that FGM/C originated in Egyptian culture (Discover News, 2012). While the
practice of male circumcision is evident in the Old Kingdom Egypt, there is none for female.
Salima Ikram, a professor of Egyptology at the American University in Cairo, told Discovery
News, This was not common practice in ancient Egypt. There is no physical evidence in
mummies, neither there is anything in the art or literature. It probably originated in sub-Saharan
Africa, and was adopted here later on. A common name for the infibulation is Pharaonic
circumcision and the Somali name for this practice is Gudniin Fircooni, which means remove
according to the Egypt Pharaoh, (Discovery News, 2012). In addition, many of the ancient
Egypt medical doctors were Nubians. This leads to the idea that the Nubians brought the
practice of circumcision with them (Global Alliance Against Female Genital Mutilation). The
Greek geographer Strabo, who visited Egypt around 25 B.C., first wrote about the male and
female circumcision. In his 17-volume work Geographica, he wrote, One of the customs most
zealously observed among the Egyptians is this, that they rear every child that is born, and
circumcise the males, and excise the females, (Discovery News, 2012).
There are multiple theories surrounding the reason for the circumcision. According to the
6th century A.D. Greek physician Aetios, the cutting was necessary in the presence of a large
clitorism, which was seen as a deformity and a source of shame, The clitoris was also said to
produce irritation while rubbing against clothing thus, stimulating the appetite for sexual
intercourse. In The Gynaecology and Obstetrics of the Sixth Century A.D, Aetios wrote, On
this account, it seemed proper to the Egyptians to remove it before it became greatly enlarged,
especially at that time when the girls were about to be married, (Discover News, 2012). Another
theory is the pharaohs believed that the gods were androgynous and therefore, every human must
have a male and female part. The female part of the man was located in his prepuce and the male
part of the woman in her clitoris. The pharaohs believed everyone needed to be circumcised to
become a full part of the male or female society. Some even believe circumcision was used to
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medicalization of male circumcision. The last record of clitoridectomy performed for one of
these reasons was conducted in Kentucky in 1953 (Wright, 2006).
Commencing in the 1990s, FGM/C has been acknowledged worldwide as a human rights
violation of girls and women. Discovery New states:
Sweden was the first Western country to outlaw FGM/C, followed in 1985 by the UK. In
the United States it became illegal in 1997. FGM/C has been condemned by numerous
international and regional bodies, including the United Nations Commission on Human
Rights, the United Nations International Children Emergency Fund (UNICEF), the
Organization of African Unity and the World Medical Association (Discovery News,
2012).
Even though today the practice is recognized as a criminal offence in almost 30 countries, it is
still practiced illegally (Center for Reproductive Rights, 2012).
In February 2008, a joint statement was made by the United Nations Agencies and it
indicates (...) that female genital mutilation is a manifestation of unequal relations between
women and men with roots in deeply entrenched social, economic and political conventions,
(UNAIDS, 2008). Not only are there human rights and health concerns associated with FGM/C,
it is also gender-specific inequity akin to the historical suppression of females that is specific to
children and women (UNAIDS, 2008).
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conditional in that they do not override the fundamental rights and freedom of others. Hence,
social and cultural claims cannot be used to defend FGM/C (International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights, Article 18.3; UNESCO, 2001, Article 4; WHO, 2008).
Human rights laws specifically protect children due to their dependence on others for
care and support. The best interest of the child is the leading principle and consideration that
came out of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (WHO, 2008). Parents who subject their
daughters to FGM/C believe the gains obtained from this practice exceed the risks. This view
cannot be used to condone an everlasting and life altering procedure that promotes violence
against girls and the encroachment of fundamental human rights. Legal action geared at the
defence of childrens rights pointedly calls for the elimination of traditional customs that are
discriminatory to their health and lives. The United Nations Human Rights Treaty Monitoring
Bodies and the Committee on the Rights of the Child have regularly raised FGM/C as an
infringement on human rights, asking State Parties to take all necessary actions to eliminate the
practice (WHO, 2008).
The call for a worldwide ban on FGM/C was advanced on December 18, 2014, when the
United Nations General Assembly adopted the Resolution [A/69/150], which was also
cosponsored by the Group of African States and an additional 71 Member States, and was
adopted by consensus by all UN members. Preceding Resolution [A/69/150], the United Nations
General Assembly had already taken a strong position on wiping out FGM/C by adopting
Resolution [A/RES/76/146], which was approved by the coalition of African and European
NGOs Ban FGM campaign (No Peace Without Justice, 2014). These resolutions called on
countries to denounce all harmful customs that impact women and girls, mainly FGM/C by
taking any action necessary, such as enforcing laws or aid, aimed at protecting women and girls
as well as boosting awareness and holding violators accountable for their actions. Advancing
womens rights and universal efforts for eradicating FGM/C were important milestones taken by
the 194 UN Member States when they approved five General Assembly Resolutions (No Peace
Without Justice, 2014). Many more countries are advocating the Resolution, which signifies the
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Expert
Kakenya Ntaiya is a Kenyan activist and an educator. She is the founder and director of
the Kakenya Center for Excellence. She is also a member of the Vital Voices Global Leadership
Network (CNN, 2013).
Recounting her experience, Ntaiya said, I really liked going to school. I knew that once
I went through the cutting, I was going to be married off. And my dream of becoming a teacher
was going to end, (CNN, 2013). Ntaiya was engaged by the age of five, and her dream of going
to school was not the norm for little girls from Enoosaen, a little village in western Kenya. Like
all little girls in her village, Ntaiya spent her childhood acquiring the skills she would need to
become a worthy Maasai wife. She said, Everything I had to do from that moment was to
prepare me to be the perfect woman by age 12, (CNN, 2013). In her village, girls were raised to
be mothers and boys were raised to become warriors. With the support of her mother, Ntaiya
was encouraged to aim for a better life and she did. She delayed her eventual destiny of FGM/C
for as long as she could. She made a deal with her father, a trade-off for going through her rite of
passage to womanhood, which included clitoral circumcision in her community. She asked that
after FGM/C, could she go back to school to continue her studies. Ntaiya wanted to become a
teacher, and her courageous question was advantageous, because her father agreed to her request.
As a teen, she won a scholarship to attend college in the United States. Ntaiya, also won the
support of her Maasai community, they came together to raise the funds she needed for airfare.
Ntaiya became the first girl to leave Enoosaen and she vowed to not only come back, but also
give back. Eventually, she kept her promise and created a safe place for girls to realize their
dreams, the first primary school for girls in her community. Throughout the next decade, she
received her doctorate in education and worked for the UN. (CNN, 2013; TED, 2013)
Ntaiya opened the Kakenya Center for Excellence in 2009. It commenced as a traditional
day school, but it has become the home for girls between the fourth and eighth grade. This
eliminates their daily walk for miles to and from school and it reduces the risk of being sexually
assaulted in the process, a prevalent issue in rural African communities. Living at the school also
cuts down on the girls time spent doing household chores. The Kakenya Center for Excellence
provides opportunities and education to the girls that Ntaiya sacrificed to access:
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Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation Act ensures that anyone caught assisting in cutting or
removing girls from the country to have the procedure done is held accountable (ABC News
Australia, 2015). Aimed at protecting girls and preventing lifelong pain, the law also makes it a
crime to disgrace women and girls whom have not been cut:
We need to encourage parents and communities to respect it, and we need police and
government officials to enforce it. Cutting limits girls potential and denies them the
possibility to achieve their dreams. When daughters and mothers learn the truth about
cutting, they put a stop to it. Today, all around the world, men and women, girls and boys
are coming together to say no to cutting (ABC News Australia, 2015).
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Role of Control
The perpetuation or discontinuation of an issue is attributed to whomever is in control.
Most often than not, the party in control does not have good intentions and this is why the issue
remains.
FGM/C procedures are normally carried out by older female tribal leaders and
midwives. Women, because of their nurturing role in society, are expected to protect their
children from all harm and are ultimately responsible for their well-being. Despite this reality,
the men in these societies determine the meaning of virtuosity and allowable female image. Due
the female dependence on their fathers and husbands for protection and financial well-being,
women reconcile this rite of passage as imperative. Women also comply silently with this
tradition to improve their standing in society and be seen as acceptable for marriage (Monaghan,
2010).
A father from Ivory Coast told the New York Times, If your daughter has not been
excised. No man in the village will marry her. It is an obligation. We have done it, we do it, and
we will continue to do it. () She has no choice. I decide. Her viewpoint is not important
(Poggioli, French Activists Fight Female Genital Mutilation, 2009).
decision of FGM/C for a girl rests with the fathers family. It does not matter if her parents
disagree with the practice. (Monaghan, 2010).
No gender is immune from humiliation and dishonour. It is experienced by both women
and men. However for women, shame means feeling lesser and recognizing that they are
different, but not in an acceptable way (Bartly). Women alone bear the responsibility of shame
in this patriarchal society because of their husband and fathers failure to control her sexuality.
Shame and dishonour brought by a male in the family cannot compare to that brought on by
female sexuality. Should a father choose to defy tradition and not allow his daughter to undergo
FGM/C, he becomes an outcast in society and his daughter brings dishonour to the whole family
(Bartly; Monagan, 2010).
Ayaan Jirsi Ali narrates her experience as woman in a patriarchal society:
I was a Somali woman, and therefore my sexuality belonged to the owner of my family:
my father or my uncles. It was obvious that I absolutely had to be a virgin at marriage;
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Logic of Evil
It is difficult to discuss FGM/C without considering the sides of both the challengers and
supporters of the practice. For the mutilation of innocent girls to occur for centuries, the
supporters must have logic supporting their actions. Procedures are normally performed by older
female tribal leaders and midwives. Women inflict these pains upon their daughters or other
young girls, even though women are expected to protect their children from all harm and are
ultimately responsible for their well-being because of their nurturing role in society. Fathers may
force their daughter into having the procedure completed (Monagan, 2010). Many girls willingly
partake in the practice. It is important to understand why they are all active participants in this
practice, when there are such grave physical disadvantages. According to the UNFPA, FGM/C is
practiced generally because of psychosexual reasons, sociological and cultural reasons, hygiene
and aesthetic reasons and socioeconomic factors (UNFPA, 2015).
The legacy of tradition and absence of choice leave girls no other option but to accept
FGM/C and its rationales as being natural and necessary.
acceptance and financial and physical security, it is paramount for women to accept the custom.
The emphasis placed on marriageability also plays a significant role in women's acceptance of
FGM/C, considering in some cultures, a womans very existence depends on being suitable for
marriage. Without it, they would have little to no access to education and finance. In many
communities, circumcision is mandatory before marriage. In fact, in Somalia, a prospective
husbands family has the authority to verify the brides body pre marriage. In addition, her
mother will often ensure the stitching is still there and remains closed. For parents, early
marriage and infibulation are the keys to ensuring their daughters virtue and worthiness of the
bride price. Other reasons for circumcisions have also been linked to maintaining a girls
virginity (UNFPA, 2015; WHO, 2000).
The traditional excisor perpetuates the practice for a couple of reasons: personal interest
and tradition. Due to her job, she is well known and a respected member of her community.
FGM/C may also be her only source of income. She also believes the procedure is a rite of
passage and helps girls into womanhood (WHO, 2000).
primary reasons embraced by many girls for the continuation of FGM\C. However, other
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Columbia adds to the discussion of FGM/C because the indigenous group practising it
was outed in 2007. They are also the only known group practicing the procedure in Latin
America. The practice has been taboo in this community and has only recently become known.
After a newborn Ember girl died due to complications in Pueblo Rico, unlike in many cases, the
doctor who treated her decided to report it. The story was covered by national news and
Colombia was added to the list of countries practicing FGM/C.
shocked the majority of Colombia, including the Ember people. Due to the hushed nature of
FGM/C, the men in Ember society are said to be oblivious of the practice and completely
unaware of its occurrence. Not to mention, the women despite experiencing FGM/C, say they
have no memory of it until the birth of their first daughter. There are no official statistics on
FGM/C in Colombia due to silence surrounding the practice. Dana Barn of the UNFPA in
Bogot, Colombia said, We dont know the magnitude of the problem in the country, () Girls
can die and are buried quietly, and no one finds out, (UNFPA, 2016).
dispersed in the rural areas of the province of Risaralda. Approximately, 250,000 Ember live in
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The exposure of the practice prompted the formation of the Ember Wera (Ember
Women) movement.
community and eradicate the practice. The slogan of the campaign: I am a woman, I am
an Ember and I do not practice female genital mutilation! The Ember Wera initiative is
supported by the Colombian government and the UNFPA, and works with indigenous authorities
and community members. It is part of the joint United Nations programme Integral strategy for
the prevention and awareness of all forms of gender-based violence in Colombia, financed by
the MDG-Fund worldwide to achieve the Millennium Development Goals of poverty reduction
(MDG Fund, 2013). With a five-year campaign, the Ember-Chami realized FGM/C has no
health or cultural benefits.
Miriam Negarabe, an Ember, recognizes that the indigenous women of Ember were
known to be undervalued in their community. Moreover, due to historical views and the sense of
being lesser than in the community, talk about FGM/C and other forbidden topics in the public
was difficult.
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commenced with trained Ember nurses teaching women about their general anatomy. However,
when the nurses began teaching about the genital areas, the women in one community became
extremely angry and forced them to leave. They went as far as warning other communities not to
permit the nurses to talk to the women (UNFPA, 2016).
The funding for the educational workshops dwindled in 2011. Despite the lack of
continued funding, Columbian public health officials maintained their stance to eliminate
FGM/C. Nevertheless, these programs were void of meaningful support and did not completely
get off the ground and the programs can be deemed as unsuccessful. They ended and not all the
communities the projects intended to reach materialized. By 2012, the leaders of Ember
officially prohibited FGM/C by signing an agreement (UNFPA, 2016). Undeterred, FGM/C
persists in the more remote communities. Those performing the cutting have learned to sterilize
their devices and themselves with herbs, which appears to have reduced the mortality rates of the
girls being cut. The year of 2015 brought about the anti-FGM/C intervention, which was
instituted in eight other communities. Additionally, it has been reported by the indigenous
leaders that women whom have learned about their rights through intervention began to feel
legitimized to speak out against other issues between women, including gender-based violence
(Brodzinsky, 2015).
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The presence of Islam in Malaysia, as well as the compliance of the girls makes Malaysia
an ideal case to study when discussing FGM/C. Islam spread to Southeast Asia in the 13th century
and many scholars believe the practice was introduced at the same time. Even though there is a
lack of literature on the outset of FGM/C in the area, the past faiths (Hinduism and Buddhism)
that predate Islam reject both male and female circumcision (Taha, 2013).
FGM/C is prevalent among the Malay people, which is an ethnic group of the Malay
Peninsula and adjacent island in Southeast Asia. The peninsula comprises southeastern
Myanmar (Burma), southwestern Thailand, Peninsular (or West) Malaysia and Singapore. This
region shares many cultural and linguistic similarities, however this study will focus on
Malaysia. The Malay religion is Sunni Islam, which follow the Shafii school of law that declare
female circumcision (sunat perempuan) as a wajib meaning any religious duty commanded by
Allah (Britannica, 2016; Taha, 2013). In contrast, the other three Islam schools of law consider
female circumcision a sunnah or a recommended act (Taha, 2013). To enforce the practice as
a wajib, in 2009, the Fatwa Committee of Malaysias National Council of Islamic Religious
Affairs ruled that real circumcision was, obligatory for Muslims but if harmful must be
avoided, (Taha, 2013). On the contrary, there is no authentic text, in which the Prophet
Mohammed required or recommended female circumcision.
increasingly conservative interpretation of Islam. Previously it was a cultural practice, but now,
because of Islamization, people just relate everything to Islam. And when you link something to
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In this study, Dahlui also discovered that female circumcision is increasingly performed
by trained medical professionals in private clinics, instead of by a mak bidan or midwife (Taha,
2013). The institutionalizations and medicalization on is a growing trend in Malaysia. Female
circumcision became more acceptable among the population when the Ministry of Health
announced it was, developing guidelines to reclassify the procedure as medical, (Kasztelan,
2015). This reclassification and medicalization of the procedure misleads people into thinking
the procedure is medically sound, despite it having no medical benefits. The medicalization of
FGM/C was recently described as a new disturbing trend by the UNFPA, UNICEF, the
International Confederation of Midwives and the International Federation of Gynaecology and
Obstetrics. Abdul Khan Rashid, a professor at Penang Medical College said, The problem with
the West is that it's just so judgmental. Who the hell are you to tell us what to practice and what
not to practice? A lot of women now do it in private clinics in safe conditions, but if youre
going to make it illegal, the practice will just go underground, (Kasztelan, 2015). He is not
alone in believing that international organizations such as the aforementioned should not be
determining how they live. Malaysian medical practitioners also defend the practice by passing
judgment onto other countries. Dr. Ariza Mohamed, an obstetrician and gynaecologist at KPJ
Ampang Puteri Specialist Hospital said, We are very much against what is going on in other
countries like Sudan, () That is very different from what we practice in Malaysia, () And
there is a big difference between circumcision and female genital mutilation, (Kasztelan, 2015).
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Female circumcision is not illegal in Malaysia, even though the practice is only permitted
in private Muslim clinics. Due to the acceptance of the procedure, there are not any active
campaigns against the practice. However, studies are being done and research centres such
as the Womens Development Research Centre of University of Science, Malaysia (USM) and
womens rights organizations, such as Sisters In Islam are hosting public talks about FGM/C.
The Sisters In Islam, particular, is a local womens rights group against FGM/C and other
violence against women. They fight these injustices by advocating the Islamic principles of
gender equality, justice, freedom and dignity and womens empowerment (Sister In Islam, 2016).
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as problems with childbirth, infertility, problems with urination, infections, cysts, and the
potential for death of a new born. The cultural expectation to undergo FGM/C is about marriage
and sex. Girls that have not undergone the procedure are deemed unclean because men have an
expectation to marry virgins. Many Somalis still practice FGM/C because they are God fearing.
They have the saying, Caado la anyone, Carra Allay Leedaha, which means, stopping a
tradition brings the anger of God, (World Bank, 2004).
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The most common type of FGM/C practiced in Somalia was type III, commonly known
as the Pharaonic circumcision. 80 percent of procedures consisted of this type, which is the most
damaging. The less severe is type I, commonly known as the sunna, is practiced mainly in the
towns of Mogadishu, Brava, Merca and Kismayu (U.S. Department of State, 2001). Asha
Moalim Ahmed, a practising TBA, says, Pharaonic is going down, and people now ask for
sunna. I myself do not like Pharaonic. My father told me long ago that it is against religion and
I should only perform sunna. Even though the use of Pharaonic circumcision has decreased,
many parents still choose it for their daughters. I discourage parents. But some insist, because
they think Pharaonic is more beautiful, she says (UNICEF, 2016). Today, female circumcision
occurs between the ages of five and eight and in the privacy of peoples homes. However, it used
to be something the community was proud of and spectators were encouraged. Below is a
recount of someone who bore witness to the procedure:
With the Somalis, the circumcision of girls takes place in the home among women
relatives and neighbours. The grandmother or an older woman officiates. At each
occasion, usually only one little girl or at times two sisters are operated; but all girls,
without exception, must undergo this mutilation as it is a requirement for marriage. The
operation itself is not accompanied by any ceremony or ritual. The child, completely
naked, is made to sit on a low stool. Several women take hold of her and open her legs
wide.
After separating her outer and inner lips, the operator, usually a woman
experienced in this procedure, sits down facing the child. With her kitchen knife, the
operator first pierces and slices open the hood of the clitoris. Then she begins to cut it
out. While another woman wipes off the blood with a rag, the operator digs with her
sharp fingernail a hole the length of the clitoris to detach and pull out the organ. The
little girl, held down by the women helpers, screams in extreme pain; but no one pays the
slightest attention. The operator finishes this job by entirely pulling out the clitoris,
cutting it to the bone with her knife. Her helpers again wipe off the spurting blood with a
rag. The operator then removes the remaining flesh, digging with her finger to remove
any remnant of the clitoris among the flowing blood. The neighbour women are then
invited to plunge their fingers into the bloody hole to verify that every piece of the clitoris
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During
interviews with members of the Professional Nursing Association in Mogadishu, the members
disclosed, almost all the association's members carry out a milder form of circumcision for a
fee, (World Bank, 2004).
professionals, trained traditional birth attendants and nurses who perform the desired type of
FGM/C because of the complication, which emerge from the traditional procedure.
The medicalization of FGM/C commenced in Somalia at the beginning of the countrys
independence. A Lebanese medical professional started circumcising girls in Martini Hospital in
Mogadishu under anesthesia and sterile conditions. He professed to reduce the damage and
dangers related to FGM/C. Other health providers imitated him and distributed their services to
Mogadishu's affluent (VOA, 2015).
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We
encouraged her to attend more meetings on the topic, particularly with religious leaders,
and also offered to provide her with training on how to be a Traditional Birth Attendant.
Six months later, she started work as a Traditional Birth Attendant (UNICEF, 2016).
Across Somalia, leaders of Islam and Muslim scholars possess a great influence on their
congregations, maybe even more than any other authority. Their support has the potential to
increase efforts considerably to eliminate FGM/C. In Puntland, advancements were made in the
struggle in a conference between religious leaders.
estimated 100,000 followers, religious leaders including Sheikh Abdirizak Isse, a well-known
Muslim leader in Bosaso and teacher who led the discussion, gathered to declare they were
against all forms of the practice. FGM/C has continued because there is a perception that this is
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International Organizations
The fight to end FGM/C is now global, with international agencies, such as the United
Nations Childrens Fund and the World Health Organization in command. Governments such as
that of the United Kingdom and nongovernmental organizations are also strongly supporting the
eradication of the practice (WHO, 2014). Campaigns against FGM/C at grassroots, national and
international levels exist and all play a role in the fight to end the practice.
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traditional practices with the African Union, the Economic Commission for Africa, UNFPA,
UNICEF, and the African Committee of Experts on the Rights and Welfare of the Child. The
IAC has formed regional and national networks of religious leaders, parliamentarians, media
professionals, health professionals and youth.
volunteers in all the countries in Africa and around the world who participate in their work. The
IAC major achievements are:
demystification of FGM/C , inclusion of FGM/C in the programmes of Governments and
regional and international organizations, mobilization of African communities,
involvement of various socio-professional groups, i.e. creation of networks of religious
leaders, youth, media professionals, health professionals and parliamentarians; creation of
alternative income-generating activities for former excisors, assistance to victims
of FGM/C, participation in the conception and adoption of the Protocol to the African
Charter on Human and Peoples Rights, on the Rights of Women, proposition and
advocacy resulting in the adoption of February 6th as the International Day of Zero
Tolerance to FGM/C and proposition and advocacy resulting of the United Nations
General Assembly Resolution on the elimination of FGM/C (IAC, 2016).
The Former First Lady of Burkina Faso and Goodwill Ambassador of the Inter-African
Committee, Madame Chantal Compaor, have made monumental efforts in Africa and around
the world endorsing, especially to the Heads of State, governments, international institutions,
other development partners and communities against FGM/C. Since 2000, the IAC initiated the
creation of an African Regional Network of Youth for the elimination of FGM/C. This network
was created by young people from its 29 member countries in 2000. The second meeting of this
network was held in November 2006, in Addis Ababa, and it resulted in the creation of a youth
programme for both national and regional levels. For all of the Inter-African Committees
amazing work, it was awarded by UNFPA with the prestigious United Nations Population Award
in 1995 (IAC, 2016).
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towards total elimination of FGM/C, child marriages and other manifestations of violence
against women and girls. In 1998, the non-governmental organization was founded by women
human rights activists in Kilimanjaro. NAFGEM is legally registered in Tanzania under the
Society Ordinance Act of 1954 on February 4, 1999. They envision "a society without harmful
traditional practices notably FGM/C, child marriage and other types of GBV [gender based
violence] against women and girls, and their mission is "community sensitization and awareness
creation on effects of harmful traditional practices for the protection and restoration of women
and girls dignity," (IAC, 2016). The experience NAFGEM has acquired form working in
Kilimanjaro allows the organization to expand to other parts of Tanzania where FGM/C, child
marriage and other harmful traditional practices occur.
knowledge of the prevalence of FGM/C and its effects on health, development and the dignity of
women and girls through its programs. The organization also works to have an impact on
patriarchal mindsets, which are detrimental to enacting change, as well as women and girls.
NAFGEM has been engaging communities and other stakeholders in Kilimanjaro
and Manyara regions to contribute in the elimination of the FGM/C practice since its
establishment. They have created awareness for many on the practice through meetings,
community campaigns and posters with anti-FGM/C messages and its effects and have
challenged them to quit and support the initiatives of NAFGEM. NAFGEM has organized
meetings, workshops and trainings for various social groups including traditional leaders,
religious leaders, government leaders, women, men, youths, teachers, schoolchildren, police,
traditional birth attendants, health professionals and the circumcisers. They have created youth
programs where in and out of school youths are trained and challenged to say no to FGM/C
and other forms of GBV. They also have an anti-FGM/C radio program where anti-FGM/GBV
messages are spread through local radios and other media groups to have the community
constantly reached. NAFGEM collaborates with the local government, institutions and the
communities they operate in and is a member of the National Coalition Against Female Genital
Mutilation made up of eight organizations with similar missions. The other members include
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2004/2005 according to the Tanzania Demographic Health Survey Report (TDHR) and in
2010, the rate is at 21.7%. In Manyara region when NAFGEM launched anti- FGM/C
interventions in 2007, the prevalence rate of FGM/C was 81%. In 2010 the prevalence
rate is 70.8%; showing some achievements towards total elimination of the
practice (NAFGEM, 2016).
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audiences to feel connected to their performances because they are regarded as the children,
brothers, sisters and friends of their target audiences (S.A.F.E. Kenya, 2014).
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Canadian Connection
To explain the Canadian connection in FGM/C, it is important to understand the laws
concerning the procedure in Canada. FGM/C is against the law in Canada. The Criminal Code
categorizes it as aggravated assault, except in situations exempted under section 268.3:
Aggravated Assault
268. (1) Every one commits an aggravated assault who wounds, maims,
disfigures or endangers the life of the complainant.
Punishment
(2) Every one who commits an aggravated assault is guilty of an indictable offence and
liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding fourteen years.
Excision
(3) For greater certainty, in this section, wounds or maims includes to excise,
infibulate or mutilate, in whole or in part, the labia majora, labia minora or clitoris of a
person, except where
(a) a surgical procedure is performed, by a person duly qualified by provincial law to
practise medicine, for the benefit of the physical health of the person or for the purpose of
that person having normal reproductive functions or normal sexual appearance or
function; or
(b) the person is at least eighteen years of age and there is no resulting bodily harm.
Consent
(4) For the purposes of this section and section 265, no consent to the excision,
infibulations or mutilation, in whole or in part, of the labia majora, labia minora or
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annually. Dr. Victoria Davis, a Canadian expert on FGM/C who has worked with hundreds of
immigrant women, says a high percentage of these women will have undergone FGM/C.
However, there are no reliable statistics because of the secrecy of the practice. Dr. Davis
examined a pregnant immigrant from Somalia who had undergone FGM/C. In order to have the
baby, the woman had to be defibulated (her vagina fully reopened). Dr. Davis saw the woman
again for her second pregnancy and discovered the woman had been reinfibulated (sewn up
again).
The woman admitted she had returned to Somalia to have the procedure done
daughters to their native countries to have FGM/C performed, even though the act of
transporting a child outside of Canada for the purpose of obtaining the procedure is prohibited by
section 273.3 of the Criminal Code (Keilburger and Keilburger, 2016; Government of Canada,
2016). In addition, there is evidence provided by members of the communities at risk, which
suggests that FGM/C is practised in Ontario and across Canada (Ontario Human Rights
Commissions).
It is difficult for affected women to access appropriate health care in Canada because of
their lack of knowledge and reluctance to overcome social, cultural, financial and psychological
barriers. Difficulty also arises when they do seek health care; this may be because of incomplete
training of health care providers and/or incomplete services, such as a lack of translators
(Women's Health Bureau Health Canada). The SOGC says, FGM/C should be included in the
medical school curriculum, teaching doctors and nurses not just about the medical aspects of
FGM, but about its cultural roots and how to start a respectful conversation with their patients
concerning the serious health risks, (Keilburger and Keilburger, 2016). It is also necessary for
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In Canada, there have been several community and government based initiatives
regarding FGM/C. A prominent example is the initiative created by the Canadian Centre for
Victims of Torture, family physicians and the Department of Health, which is a mutual support
outreach program for women who have undergone FGM/C (Ontario Human Rights
Commissions). In addition, a National Consultation concerning FGM/C was held in 1999. The
purpose of the National Consultation was to develop recommendations for a dissemination
strategy, to initiate and continue to build collaborative relationships among people committed to
the issue, and to identify the next steps that should be taken at the national level regarding
FGM/C in Canada, (Women's Health Bureau Health Canada). This event is significant because
it was the first time in Canada that affected women, community groups, health care providers and
government representatives collectively discussed possible improvements for the health of
affected women and how to guarantee that FGM/C does not occur in Canada. Although there has
been progress, for collaborative efforts undertaken by individuals and groups to continue, more
resources, networking support, and program development are needed in Canada (Women's
Health Bureau Health Canada).
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Solutions
Female genital mutilation has complex causes, yet simple solutions, (Hill, 2014). The
practice leaves mental and physical scars. It is a tradition that continues, despite the laws passed
by government, UN and native leaders. However, given the laws passed, the increased education
and campaigns to have the practice stopped. FGM/C is not as common as was previously.
An achievable solution to the issue of FGM/C is to pass more severe laws. Although
many African communities have laws against FGM/C, the practice remains because the laws do
not get at the cultural and social core causes that maintain its viability:
If individuals continue to see others cutting their daughters and continue to believe that
others expect them to cut their own daughters, the law may not serve as a strong enough
deterrent to stop the practice. Conversely, among groups that have abandoned [female
genital mutilation and cutting], legislation can serve as a tool to strengthen the legitimacy
of their actions and as an argument for convincing others to do the same (ABC News,
2013).
Another attainable solution is education. In places where FGM/C is practiced, girls and
women are not given the same educational and political opportunities.
Since FGM/C is
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Traditionally, women are not in positions of power and have little to no authority. Even if
they decide to end the cycle of FGM/C, they may become outcasts in their community. The fear
is that if girls do not have the procedure completed, they will not be viewed as suitable for
marriage, therefore destined for a life of exclusion and poverty. Due to the lack of education and
methods of financially supporting themselves, women are cemented in a nefarious cycle of
injustice and impoverishment. According to Gerntholtz, more has to be done to advance the
rights of women by governments, non-profit organizations and others (ABC News, 2013). They
need to work together to eliminate cutting.
Education allows girls and women to realize full participation in their societies and it
should be utilized as a significant tool to eliminate FGM/C. The leaders of education in affected
countries should establish programs on the issues of FGM/C for all age groups. They should
ensure that these educational programs become a part of the national curriculum and training
provided and experts need to be involved in developing them. To eliminate FGM/C for good,
widespread support of the idea is needed from the whole community. Action on education must
incorporate all member of society, including the little girls that do not go to school (ABC News;
GIZ, 2011).
Schools have the ability to show girls varying views and provide access to different
people and cultures that may contradict the practice. Although many of them may have gone
through the practice by the time they attend school, they may be more inclined to reject the
practice for their own daughters. Education can also be a stepping-stone to the work force,
which could devitalize the customary family structure. Women would have the potential to be
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Education must also include boys and men. They should be taught about the risks and
consequences of cutting. Some men want the practice to end, but due to social reasons, feel that
they have no choice but to force their daughters to be cut. If in the next decade, we work
together to apply the wealth of evidence at our disposal, we will see major progress, Geeta Rao
Gupta, deputy executive director of UNICEF, wrote, That means a better life and more hopeful
prospects for millions of girls and women, their families and entire communities, (ABC News,
2013; GIZ, 2011).
Although reconstructive surgery, namely clitoral repair, may not be a solution to end
FGM/C, it is a solution that will reduce the long-term pain experienced by girls and women. It
enables women to regain clitoral sensations and for some to achieve organisms (African
Renewal, 2013). Clitoral repair was created in 2004 by Dr. Pierre Folds, a French urologist.
The procedure calls for opening the scar tissue, exposing the nerves buried underneath and
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For FGM/C to end, it must be ended by the communities subjected the practice. Many,
especially indigenous people, dislike when western ideologies are imposed on them because they
are outsiders. To end the practice, organizations at the grass roots level are important. There is
evidence and precedent that starting regionally works. Bogaletch Gebre, founder and director of
KMG Ethiopia said, yes it is possible to eliminate female genital mutilation this is because of
our experience in Ethiopia, in an area of 2 million population within literally 10 to 15 years, I can
say, we have eradicated, (Tenoi, 2014). Community sanctions have been put in place and they
are working. Their message is that they are encouraging people to change one part of Maasai
culture, but not give up all of what makes them proud to be Maasai. A woman they educated
said to them, you come to us in a proper way, in our own language. You are one of us and you
would not trick us. Our position means we can talk to people about change and that they
listen, (Tenoi, 2014). With the combination of the community and the existence of national
policy framework and laws enforced by governments, it is possible to break the cycle of FGM/C
in this generation. FGM/C cannot be eliminated in this generation because there are still 140
million girls who have undergone the procedure and remain scarred. Although there is
clitoridectomy reconstruction, those girls will never be the same and, therefore they need to be
supported. In addition, breaking the cycle does not just stop with ending FGM/C; gender
inequality is deeply rooted within society and will be a long, arduous battle.
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