r ~e eco eee BRC-CORP 37-74.F 183 Section 34. RESIDUAL STRESSES peranition of the Problem Residual stresses are stresses remaining in a solid body in the absence of leads or of changes in temperature. They can act in combination with applied stresses, Discussion of the Problem Residual stresses on a macroscopic scale arise whenever a material is nonuniformly plastically deformed. The permanent strain produced prevents the elastic component from recovering completely. As a result, a residual is generated within the material. Such deformation may be induced by ic bending, rolling, or forming operations. Residual stresses can arise f.vw uvnuuiform heating wnen differential thermal expansion causes some regions to exceed the elastic limit or to creep, causing a misfit on cooling to room temperature. This effect may occur during heat treatnent, welding, or cacting. Macroescpie rectdual etrees can be as high eo the yield werengin, Detrimental effects of residual stress are manifested in the varping of machined items and in the interaction with corrorion to produce fracture (stress corrosion cracking - see Section 37). Several alloy/environment Combinations exhibiting this behavior are yellow brass in ammonia, austenitic stainless steel in aqueous chlorides, and carbon steel in aqueous hydrogen ulfide. Kesidual stress also can interact with hydrogen in ferritic steels to produce fracture. This effect is most pronounced in the high strength Steels. Ductility of steel can be influenced by residual stresses associated with notches, When combined with triaxial constraint, as at the root of deep sharp notch, long range residual stresses can contribute to brittle behavior. Not all effects of residual stress are harmful. Examples of beneficial effects of residual stress are autofrettage (a process for introducing residual stress by plastic expansion of gun tubes and pressure vessels), shrinking a collar on a cylinder for improved strength of guns and hydraulic cylinders, and shot peening for increasing the fatigue life of machine parts. Metlwd vf Clecking for the FropL Residual stresses are usually determined from strains observed during removal of material from the part of otructure. Prom « huvwledge Of the mechanics of deformation, it is possible to calculate what stress level existed in the metal. When a series of layers is removed, it must be borne in mind that the removal of one layer changes the atreas in the remainder of the part. This change must be taken into account in calculating the original stress. The method is destructive. The only entirely nondestructive method of measuring residual stress in metals de through the use of X-ray diffraction, With X-rays, one has the capability of measuring interatomic spacings accurately. Only untactal or biaxial otatco of stress can be detcimined, excepe wne aided DY other methods. Sensitivity is of the order of 1000 psi. Best results are obtained when the method is used in the laboratory.184 BRC-CORP 37-74.F Residual stresses in a metal can usually be ramovad or radueed hy various stress relief treatments. These treatments include both stress relief by heat treatment or stress relief by deformation of the metal Usually, an anneal at high temperature, followed by extremely slow cooling, results in almost complete relief of residual stresses. Residual stresses are also reduced by plastic strain or creep etrain during service. Residual welding stresses in steel can be relieved by thermal stress relief which consists of aubjecring the weldnent to a euboritieal anneal of 650°C (1202°F), and cooling slowly. One of the benefits of thermal stress relieving is the tempering of weld metal and heat-affected zone which is also accomplished. The less ductile metal in these regions is toughened by this treatment. Most of the improvement is due to these metallurgical changes, and to a lesser degree, relaxation of welding stresse: Pitfalls When attempting to relieve residual stresses by annealing at at elevated temperature, one often mut wae care not to advereely mallfy the urgital metallurgical structure. One example of this is a steel, which previously had been quenched and tempered at 480°C (896°F) to produce a desired hardze: after stress relieving at 595°C (1100°F), would ha anfrenad coneiderabiy- e Another example is the annealing of Aluminum alloy 6061 T-6 at a temperature Buch in excess of its precipitation hardening temperature. The material would be softened and possibly ~endered unsuitable for the service originally intended. An additional example is the annealing of certain austenitic stainless steels such as Type 304. Chromium carbides form in the regions of the grain boundaries and induce sensitivity to intergranular corrosion (see Section 29). These ‘examples chow that one ehould have detailed knowledge of the alloy in order to Prescribe successfully the removal of residual stresses. In the use of ahot peening tn introduce favorable residual stresses for the purpose of increasing the resistance to fatigue failure, care must be taken that the degree of peening is not excessive. Excessive pening results in a thicker surface coupressive layer, but the stress in the tension layer underlying this region can be so high that fatigue fracture originating in this subsurface layer may result. Thus, there is an optimum degree of peening for maximizing fatigue resistance. f