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Oil Pollution
By: Zoe Verheyen
Integrated Independent Study
M.Torle

Table of contents:

Definition

Pg3

Significance
Pg5
Background

Pg9

Expert

Pg12

Role of Control

Pg16

Logic of Evil

Pg19

Case Study: Exxon Valdez

Pg22

Case Study: Ogoni

Pg26

Case Study: Kuwait Oil Fires

Pg30

International Organizations

Pg33

Canadian Connections

Pg35

Solutions

Pg39

Bibliography

Pg41

Definition:

Petroleum or crude oil has a profound impact on world civilizations, it is what fuels the
modern world. Although much of the world depends on the production or trade of oil, it's use can
severely damage the environment.

The world's dependence on the use of oil is something that is very modern and has only
come into use in the past century. Since the 1930s, world crude oil production has increased
from approximately 5 million barrels per day (mb/d) to 97 million barrels per day (Oil, n.d.). Oil
is now viewed as necessary to modern society because it is so extensively used that it can
virtually be found in almost everything. However, the production and exportation of oil has
many adverse environmental impacts. For instance, oil is prone to spilling into large bodies of
water, which is deadly to marine life and towns and cities who are dependent on fishing
industries, or the burning of oil for production produces greenhouse gasses which are the largest
contributor to global warming. These are only a few examples of the downfalls to the oil industry
(Effects of Oil Spills - Conserve Energy Future, n.d.).

Although the oil industry is harmful to the environment, humans continue to produce it
for convenience. Oil is the cheapest resource to fuel automobiles, that are used to transport
goods, it is a large source of energy and it is used in all petroleum based products such as plastic.
The oil industry is one of the largest industries in the world, it employs many people worldwide
and it leads to economic prosperity for many countries (Online Chemical Environment, n.d.).
Significance:
Petroleum is one of the most prevalent sources of pollution in the industrialized world.
The importance of petroleum products creates the conditions for large amounts of its toxins to be
pumped into highly inhabited areas and ecosystems around the globe.

Possibly, the most visible source of petroleum pollution is oil spills. Crude oil in the
ocean is accessed by companies who drill into the sea bed, the oil then travels for long distances
by ocean tankers or pipelines before it is refined and used for petroleum products. Although these
are efficient means of accessing oil, they are prone to accidents which have deadly consequences
on the environment (Oil, 2015). Oil may spill at the site where it is extracted in the form of a
blowout, which occurs when gas trapped inside the deposit is at such a high pressure that oil
suddenly erupts out of the drill shaft in a geyser(Guided History, n.d.). It may also spill when a
pipeline breaks, ships collide or when underground storage tanks leak. In 2015 the total recorded
amount of oil lost to the environment was approximately 7,000 tonnes, the majority of which can
be directed towards the two large spills (Oil Tanker Statistics, 2015). The first, in Singapore,
resulting in a spill of approximately 4,500 tonnes of crude oil and the second in Turkey, resulting
in a spill of approximately 1,400 tonnes, according to The International Tanker Owners Pollution
Federation (ITOPF) (Oil Tanker Statistics, 2015). However, the amount of oil being spilt is
steadily decreasing, from 1970 to 1975 3956 000 tonnes of oil had been spilt into ocean waters
whilst in 2000 to 2015 only 229 000 tonnes had spilt (Oil Tanker Statistics, 2015). Although the
amount of global oil spills has decreased, it is still a pressing issue in our society that needs
improvement.

Spills from tankers and pipelines are examples of point sources of pollution, when the toxins
originate from one distinct point. However, the majority of oil pollution is from non-point
sources, where over a long periods of time small amounts originate from different locations and
add up to create large-scale effects (Pollution Issues, n.d.). 70% of oil released into oceans
worldwide is derived from small spills during petroleum use (Non Point Source Pollution). For

instance, routine discharges of fuel from commercial vessels or leakage from recreational boats.
These minor unreported spills can also be seen on land, as oil will often collect in hazardous
concentrations in wastewater coming out of cities and other populated areas (Stormwater to
Streets, n.d.). Runoff from asphalt roofs, roads and parking lots enters drains, streams, lakes and
eventually into the ocean. As cities grow, and more people use petroleum productssuch as
solvents or oil-based paint and, above all, gasolinethey will often end up disposing them in
improperly; down drains and sewage pipes. Industrial plants also produce small, recurring spills
that go unnoticed, but add up over time and enter into bodies of water (Stormwater to Streets,
n.d.). Non-point source pollution can be lethal to the environment because it disrupts all of the
ecosystems through which it passes.

As more and more oil enters the oceans, whether in the form of crude oil or a refined
product, there is an increasing risk of oil contamination to marine life and ecosystems. Oil can
coat feathers and fur, reducing buoyancy and insulation, compromising the ability for wildlife to
fly and swim (Kolieb, E, n.d.). Oil in the ocean can also severely impact local communities that
rely on marine resources for their health and economic well-being. Communities may be unable
to consume or sell fish and or other seafood due to oil contamination. Many components of oil
are also toxic and can result in diverse effects ranging from eye, skin and throat irritation to
damage to reproductive organs and death. One study found crude oil spills could cause a 45%
increase in the normal background radiation level of the location where the spill occurred, which
can manifest into different types of cancer and can impact the environment in which it's
surrendered, such as crops and forests (Ordinioha, B, 2013). Local communities may continue to
be affected for many years after a spill as oil can remain in the environment for decades, even
after cleanup attempts.

Not only is oil a vast issue within ocean waters, it is also an issue within air quality.
Excess amounts of greenhouse gases such as Carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, and mononitrogen oxides (NOx), are released during the use of petroleum (Natural Gas and the
Environment, n.d.). Infact CO2 the most important gas in insulation, is being emitted at about
38.2 billion tons a year, one-third of which comes from vehicle exhaust (CO2 added to the
atmosphere, n.d.). Petroleum-fueled vehicles, engines, and industrial processes is disrupt the
atmospheric balance that keeps the world's climate stable. The effects of air pollution negatively
impact environments around the world. Most notably we can see the rise of global warming.
Since 1900, the global average temperature has risen by 0.7 degrees Celsius, and the northern
hemisphere is substantially warmer than at any point during the past 1,000 years (Suzuki, D,
n.d). With increasing global temperatures less fresh water will be available as glaciers melt,
precipitation patterns shift to extreme droughts and floods and animals are now required to move
and adapt to new habitats (Water, n.d.).

Another adverse effect of air pollution is acid rain. Harmful gasses like nitrogen oxides
and sulfur oxides are released during the burning and use of petroleum. When it rains, the water
droplets combine with these air pollutants, and form into acid rain. Acid rain can cause great
damage to human health, animals and crops (Oil Accidents, n.d.). Yet another concern is the
depletion of the earth's Ozone layer. Ozone exists in earths stratosphere and is responsible for
protecting humans from harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays (Introduction to Ozone, n.d.). As the
ozone layer depletes, it will emit harmful rays back on earth and can cause skin and eye related
problems. UV rays also have the ability to affect the growth of crops and increase global
temperatures (Rinikesh, 2013). Approximately 92 million gallons of petroleum related air

pollution is released into the atmosphere every year and it is evident it has serious repercussions
to the earth's environment (Oil Accident, n.d.).

Background:
The exploration for and production of petroleum largely began thousands of years ago in
Central-Asia and the Middle East where it was discovered naturally seeping through the earth's
surface (World History of Oil, n.d.). Slowly, over hundreds of years, oil production increased as
well as its trade with the western world. In 1847, the worlds first oil well is drilled in Baku on
the Caspian Sea, what is now known as Azerbaijan, and by the 1860s Baku produced 90% of the
worlds oil (Macintyre, A, 2007). However, at this time the exploration for oil also began around
the world, most notably the US first oil well in 1859 near Titus, Pennsylvania, when a
homemade rig drilled down 70 feet by Edwin L. Drake.Brice, Ph.D., of the University of
Pittsburgh at Johnstown states,

Even though the use of petroleum dates back to the first human civilizations, the

events of that Saturday afternoon along the banks of Oil Creek near Titusville,
Pennsylvania, provided the spark that propelled the petroleum industry toward the
future.

At this time, oil was not widely used and served little purpose in society, it was used mainly for
small jobs such as lubrication, or as an adhesive, but was most extensively used to fuel lamps
(Oil Industry, n.d.). That being said, the exploration and production of oil gradually increased as
people began to see the potential possibilities for oil use.

From the 19th century onwards, scientific developments found more and more uses for
petroleum products in an assortment of industries. During WWI, oil was beginning to be used for
different functions with inventions such as electric light, motor vehicles, airplanes, modern tanks
and asphalt beginning to play an essential role in street building (Macdonald, A, 2007). It was the
first time in history that people were fighting to ensure their access to oil. Among the warring
parties, only the United States and Russia could count on a sufficiently high domestic oil
production, in fact the United States produced two thirds of the world's oil at the time
(Petroleum, n.d.). Aside from Russia and the United States, other western countries put
considerable effort to opening up new oil fields in Persia and India, and their petroleum demand
was almost entirely covered by imports (Petroleum, n.d.). The world had a demand for oil and
the exploration for it was rising.

As the years progressed so did oil and its extensive use in society. However, the
awareness of environmental issues had only just become more evident to oil industries and
regulators over the past few decades. The awareness of the environmental impacts of oil

escalated in the 1960s and 1970s, a period of growth for environmental movements (Geary, D,
2003). The movements increasingly addressed environmental threats created by the disposal of
toxins and world wide problems as such as ozone depletion and global warming. By the end of
the 1980s, the environmental movement had increasingly come to focus its attention on global
issues that could only be resolved through international diplomacy (Geary, D, 2003).

The United Nations played a crucial role in the development of such international
agreements. Developed in 1972,
the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is the leading global
environmental authority that sets the global environmental agenda, promotes the coherent
implementation of the environmental dimension of sustainable development within the
United Nations system and serves as an authoritative advocate for the global
environment. (United Nations Environment Program).

In addition, there is the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
which is an international environmental treaty developed in 1992 (A Brief Introduction to the
United Nations Framework, n.d.). By 1995, countries launched negotiations to strengthen the
global response to climate change and two years later, adopted the Kyoto Protocol. The Kyoto
Protocol legally binds developed country Parties to emission reduction targets. The Protocols
first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. The second commitment period
began on 1 January 2013 and will end in 2020 (Essential Background, n.d.). Other initiatives
such as the more recent Doha agreement have been set into place to combat climate change by
reducing greenhouse gas emissions (World Trade Organization, n.d.).

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Expert:
Dr. James Abbot is assistant Professor of Geography at Nipissing University. His area of
expertise is in highly variable natural and human landscapes, rural livelihoods, and Africa. His
current and future research include long-term environmental monitoring in North Bays Lake
Nipissing's environment, development of an online portal for environmental data related to Lake
Nipissing and exploitation of floodplain fisheries and regional distribution chains in Southern
Africa. Dr. James Abbot answered some questions on oil pollution via phone call.

Do you think that international agreements, such as the Kyoto Protocol, are effective
means to combat climate change and is it something that should be continued to be used and
developed?
Unlike other agreements, it's hard to enforce an international agreement with many
different participants. There is no global policeman to enforce the guidelines set out by such
agreements, so it really depends on the goodwill of each country to do what they have agreed to.
Agreements like the Kyoto Protocol, are often referred to as paper taggers, or agreements that
don't really have an effect. What I find interesting is not the international level of climate change
agreements but more the national or regional level ones, as people are combating their own
climate change issues and not waiting for the federal government to bring in guidelines, whether
it be by carbon taxes or mitigation.

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I think international agreements are good as a framework or starting point but really the
problem is with the distribution of cost and benefit. The big irony is that the countries that will
be the most soonest and severely affected by have the lowest carbon footprint, so Africa for
example. North America, strictly speaking, is not in present danger even though they have a
much larger carbon footprint. And then there is the equity issue because these people will point
to China saying well China is emitting so much greenhouse gases, but China will then return by
saying we're only doing what you did for all of the twentieth century, in basically using cheap
energy as a way of advancing your economy.

However, there are examples of other international agreements that worked, so in the
end they are better than nothing. Other international agreements such as the Montreal Protocol
and the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea have been effective. As much as
possible, each country has to be transparent about what they plan to do on combating climate
change and then also reporting back to what they've achieved. A good agreement to look back on
would be the Acid Rain Agreement between Canada and the United State. In the 1970s acid rain
was produced largely from industrial plants and would turn bodies of water completely dead of
life as well as forests. The United States and Canada both had something to lose and something
to gain, by cutting these emissions you bring in pollution control plans that cost money, but you
protect the environment. The relationship wouldn't work if one fell behind on their agreements so
they had to report back on how much they reduced emissions on a regular basis, but as you can
imagine it becomes more complicated to work on these agreements with more than two
countries. Going from one focus of pollution, in this case acid rain, to everything from burping
cows to rice paddies on a global scale is a much harder thing to do. Given that international
agreements can work we should be critical and not cynical about them.

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Do you feel that there are any stable solutions to oil pollution, for instance alternative
energy resources?

The problem is we are hooked on cheap oil, oil is cheaper than it's been for over a
decade. So we need to be reminded of the economic and environmental impacts of oil spills.
Every time there is an oil spill we see these shocking pictures of birds trying to clean themselves
of oil, because oil is essentially a death trap for a bird. Their feathers are filled with air to stay
warm but once covered in a slick of oil they try to fluff their feathers by cleaning themselves of
it, but instead end up ingesting oil, so they either die of poison or hyperthermia. People are
shocked after these events and initiating cleanup groups and funds to help, but then something
else outrageous happens and we forget and move on. So we have to be reminded of the
consequences. Once were cognisant of the possible downsides of oil, we begin to think more
creatively and we start opening our minds up to other possibilities. I think as much as it is hard to
do, marking up the price of oil would push people to use alternative energy resources. I also
think we have to start with changing society's norms, if we were to change and began looking
things like buying a larger car as frowned upon, we can begin to change our ways.

In Canada, the tar sands are obviously a large source of oil pollution do you think oil
production should continue to grow or is it an industry we should slowly start to diminish, even
though it produces a lot of revenue for Canada?

We just have to ask ourselves is it worth it? There are two arguments against it, one is
that it is too volatile. So it's great when its great but when the price drops it's just not

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economically sustainable. The other issue is that when you look back at other things that were
arguably an important part of the economy that we decided we either had to cut back on, or cut
back completely because we realized that the social costs were too high. For instance cigarettes,
lead, slavery, and gasoline have all been cut back on or cut out. We adjust to new standards, and
just like we have short memories in environmental disasters, we also have short memories in the
way things used to be, we adapt.

We have to make it clear that the tar sands industry is a dead end and that we gradually
need to move onto alternative resources. A good example is Costa Rica whose energy policy is
now entirely renewable energy, not only does it benefit them environmentally but as well as in
national security. Where as we worry that the price of oil is going down and affecting our
economy they worry when the price of oil goes up and affects their economy. We can also point
to the fact that destruction also brings creation, by diminishing the oil industry we are opening up
new industries for practitioners in renewable energy.

Role of control:
Virtually every man-made product in the world is linked to oil in one way or another, Dr.
DM Kale, Executive Director of Indias state-owned oil company ONGC states, Today we eat
oil, drink oil, wear oil, furnish our houses with oil and drive vehicles which run on oil. (The Big

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Question: How much oil do we need, 2004). One thing that is certain is that society is dependent
on oil. Currently 90 million barrels of crude oil is produced per day (Oil, 2015) and the
International Energy Agency (IEA) of the Organisation of Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD) predicted that world oil consumption will reach 105 million barrels per
day in 2030 (Oil, 2015). Countries around the world are dependent on oil, and securing access to
oil is an ever growing conflict.

Conflict over valuable energy supplies have been features of the international landscape
for a long time. Major wars over oil have been fought every decade or so after WWI and smaller
engagements have erupted every few years (6 Global Conflicts That Have Flared Up Over Oil
and Gas, 2013). What is now occurring is a whole cluster of oil-related clashes constantly
stretching across the globe, involving a dozen or so countries, with more occurring all the time.
Owning large amounts of oil is key to increase a country's national wealth, power, and prestige
(Canadian Edition Oil, n.d.). A prime example on the war of oil can be seen in the US-led
invasion of Iraq in 2003 by the US military. The Iraq War was the outgrowth of several decades
of strategic thinking and policy making about oil (Journal of American History, 2012). Oilproducing states have faced repeated internal and external threats, including domestic unrest,
invasion, and regional or civil war. Such instability and conflict has had much to do, with
internal political problems, only some of which were the result of outside intervention. But the
militarization that began under the US was both a sign of its superpower status and a
demonstration of its limits (Journal of American History, 2012).

One of the largest companies to own oil is the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC) (OPEC Definition, n.d.). According to current estimates OPEC holds more

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than 80% of the world's proven oil, with the bulk of OPEC oil reserves in the Middle East,
amounting to around 66% of the OPEC total oil reserves (OPEC Share of World Crude Oil
Reserves, n.d.). OPEC was originally founded in Baghdad, Iraq, with the signing of an
agreement in September 1960 by five countries; Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi
Arabia and Venezuela. These countries were later joined by Qatar (1961), Indonesia (1962),
Libya (1962), the United Arab Emirates (1967), Algeria (1969), Nigeria (1971), Ecuador (1973),
Gabon (1975) and Angola (2007) (OPEC Share of World Crude Oil Reserves, n.d.). OPEC has
remained a dominant leader in the oil industry. The five largest oil independent oil companies in
the world are Saudi Aramco, Gazprom, National Iranian Oil, Exxonmobil and Rosneft
(Infographic: The World's 10 Biggest Oil and Gas Companies, 2015). These oil companies refine
the crude oil to produce petroleum and then sell it off to other companies who produce petroleum
based products. Although these are powerful companies, in the end it is the oil producing
companies who ultimately control the direction of oil production.

Politically, many countries around the world will have a green political party who
campaign for environmental rights, social justice and environmental protection. Lobbying may
also take place by organized groups, including individuals in the private sector and large
corporations, who attempt to influence decisions made by officials in government (Lobbying,
n.d.). So-called big oil companies such as ExxonMobil, Royal Dutch Shell, BP, Total S.A., Koch
Industries, Chevron Corporation, and ConocoPhillips are amongst the largest corporations
associated with the fossil fuel lobby. According to the Environmental Integrity Project,
Companies like ExxonMobil and Sunoco keep reporting record profits while increasing
emissions or more cancer causing chemicals from their refineries. The energy lobby is
criticized for using its influence to block or dilute legislation regarding

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global climate change. (Buncomb, A, 2008)

Logic of evil:
Although the production and use of oil has a negative effect on the environment, it plays
a crucial role in society and the economy. Former secretary of OPEC, the late Chief M.O. Feyide
states,

All over the world, the lives of people are affected and the destiny of nations are
determined by the result of oil explorations. Oil keeps the factors of the
industrialized

countries working and provides the revenues, which enable oil exporters

to execute

ambitious national and economic development plans. The march of

progress would be

retarded and life itself would be unbearable if the world is deprived

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of oil. That is why

oil has become the concern of governments, a vital ingredient of

their politics and a

crucial factor in the political and diplomatic strategies.

The world economy runs directly parallel to the oil industry. The price of oil easily
fluctuates up or down depending on how much oil production has decreased or increased. For
instance, major world oil producers, OPEC vowed to keep the price of oil above $100 a barrel
for the foreseeable future, but in mid-2014, the price of oil began to tumble. It fell from a peak of
above $100 a barrel to below $50 a barrel. OPEC was the major cause of cheap oil. It refused to
cut oil production, leading to the tumble in oil prices (What causes oil prices to fluctuate, 2015).
The price affects the economy because when the price drops the country of origins gross
domestic product (GDP), the monetary value of all the finished goods and services produced
within a country's borders in a specific time period, drops as well (Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) Definition, n.d.). Thus, making it cheaper to export petroleum and domestic consumer
purchases of petroleum and its products increase. However, it in turns makes it expensive to
import goods.

Although there are alternatives to the use of petroleum, they are not commonly adopted
because society is so accustomed to the use of oil. The world is based upon the need for
unlimited, cheap oil. Unfortunately, oil is far from unlimited. Scientists believe we're
approaching peak oil, the the hypothetical point in time when the global production of oil reaches
its maximum rate, after which production will gradually decline (Definition of peak oil in
English, n.d.). Because the world is so dependent on oil, companies are reluctant to make a
committed switch to alternative resources. To explain, the cost and time it would take to switch
to alternative resources would be immense. Because of this, people would rather push the use of

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oil to the breaking point then find a solution before it reaches that point. As Einstein once said,
"energy is neither created nor destroyed, it simply changes form (Moskowitz, C, 2015). The
logic of evil is that the world needs oil and it is easier to continue using it rather than pursuing
alternative resources.

Case studies-Exxon Valdez:

On March 24, 1989, the tanker Exxon Valdez landed on Bligh Reef in Prince William
Sound, Alaska rupturing its hull and spilling nearly 11 million gallons of crude oil into a remote
and biologically productive body of water. It was a deadly oil spill that, prior to the 2010
Deepwater Horizon oil spill, was the largest single oil spill in U.S. coastal waters (Oil and
Chemical Spills/Significant Incidents/Exxon Valdez Oil Spill, n.d.).

In the weeks and months that followed, the oil spread over a wide area in Prince William
Sound and beyond, resulting in an unexpectedly large cleanup (Graham, S, 2003). Although
Exxon employed people in the clean-up effort, only 10% of total oil was actually completely
cleaned in immediate efforts (Skinner, S, 1989). In the first 24 hours of the spill, a helicopter
with a dispersant bucket, filled with a chemical dispersant, a surfactant and solvent mixture, was
poured onto the slick. But because there was not enough wave action to mix the dispersant with
the oil in the water, the use of the dispersant was abandoned (Gilson, D, 2003). During the early

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stages of the spill, a trial explosion was also conducted in a secluded area to burn off the oil. The
test was fairly successful, reducing 113,400 liters of oil to 1,134 liters of removable residue. This
attempt however, most likely lead to many health problems for a neighbouring native village that
was downwind of the fumes caused by the explosion and was also abandoned because of the
health consequences (Gilson, D, 2003). Mechanical cleanup was started shortly afterwards using
booms and skimmers, machines that separate oil floating on a liquid surface. Unfortunately the
skimmers were not readily available during the first 24 hours following the spill and thick oil
tended to clog the equipment (Oil spill control technologies, n.d.).

The environmental impact of the spill decimated the local wildlife and marine life in
Prince William Sound. Approximately 2,000 sea otters, 302 harbor seals and about 250,000
seabirds died in the days immediately following the spill (Graham, S, 2003). Pink salmon, one of
Prince William Sound's largest fishing products, before the spill varied from a high of 23.5
million fish in 1984 to a low of 2.1 million in 1988 (Struck, D, 2009). The food chain has also
seen negative affects, for instance 14 out of the 36 killer whales in the Prince William Sound pod
disappeared shortly after the spill, who were one of the highest players in the food chain (Struck,
D, 2009). The ecosystems affected by the spill continue to struggle and may never fully recover
(Struck, D, 2009).

More than two decades later, a significant amount of oil still persists and the long-term
impacts of oil spills may be more devastating than previously thought. As of 2010 there was an
estimated 23,000 gallons of Valdez crude oil still in Alaska's sand and soil, breaking down at a
rate estimated at less than 4% per year (Control Of Oil Spillages in Marine Environments, n.d.).
According to Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council, a government-created monitor, the crude

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oil will take decades and possibly centuries to disappear entirely (Struck, D, 2009). It is
evident that lingering oil still affects those living by the spill. Charles H. Peterson of the
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and his colleagues analyzed dozens of previous
studies on the case. The results, Peterson says;

"showed that oil has persisted in surprisingly large quantities for years after the Exxon
Valdez spill in subsurface reservoirs under coarse intertidal sediments. Exposure
to

this oil, in turn, caused additional animal deaths. Salmon, for example, had

increased

mortality for four years after the spill because incubating eggs had come

into contact

with it. Larger marine mammals and ducks, meanwhile, suffered ill effects

because

their prey was contaminated. The team estimates that shoreline habitats

such as mussel
beds affected by the spill will take up to 30 years to recover fully. (Graham, S, 2003).

Marine life still continue to suffer under the contaminated water, as well as fishing
industries. The community of Prince William Sound heavily relied on their fishing industry
which was disrupted after the spill, infact the Prince William Sound herring fishery was closed
for 15 years after the spill (Status of Restoration - Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council,
2010). Many health risks remain as well. In 2010, a CNN report alleged that many oil spill clean
up workers involved in the Exxon Valdez response, had subsequently become sick. Anchorage
lawyer Dennis Mestas found that this was true of 6 722 of 11 000 worker files he was able to
inspect. Though access to the records was controlled by Exxon (Griffon, D, 2010). Exxon
responded in a statement to CNN: "After 20 years, there is no evidence suggesting that either
cleanup workers or the residents of the communities affected by the Valdez spill have had any

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adverse health effects as a result of the spill or its cleanup (Griffon, D, 2010), however evidence
proves otherwise. It is evident there are still pressing affects from the the spill.

The most positive results from the disaster involves oil tanker safety. In 1990, the US
Congress passed the Oil Pollution Act, requiring a phase-out of single-hulled oil tankers in US
waters by 2010 (Summary of the Oil Pollution Act, n.d.). If this law had been in effect in 1984, a
double-hulled tanker would have contained much of the oil lost from the Exxon Valdez. The Act
set up a liability fund to toughen spill disaster plans and create a mechanism for citizen-led
oversight committees to police safety claims by shippers. Worldwide, the frequency of major
accidents in oil shipping has dropped, and insurance experts say safety has improved. The
requirement of double-hulled tankers sparked the shipping industry to modernize with safer
ships. On the whole, if you look at the long view of history, said Aldo Chircop, a maritime law
expert at Dalhousie Law School in Halifax, the Valdez spill has pushed standards up. (Struck,
D, 2009).

On a grand scale the most effective way to reduce oil spills is by using alternatives to
petroleum based products. In the interim, more protocols and technological innovations on
equipment can be used to ensure that oil will be safely extracted from bodies of water. As for
caring for spills that have already occurred, the previously discussed methods of chemical
dispersants, controlled burns and water-oil separation machines should continue being used as
temporary means of cleaning water, as well as long term care and research on new and more
effective ways to clean water of oil spills.

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Case studies-Ogoni:
Nigeria, one of the world's largest oil producers, joined the league of oil producing
nations on August 3rd, 1956 when oil was discovered in commercial quantities by Shell Oil
Company. Today, oil accounts for 80% of the Nigerian governments revenue and 95% of the
countrys export earnings. Interestingly, almost all of Nigerias oil and gas resources come from
its Niger delta region occupied by a variety of indigenous peoples, amongst which is the Ogoni
(Factsheet on the Ogoni Struggle, n.d.).

The Ogoni people are a distinct indigenous minority nationality living in an area of 404
square mile on the south eastern edge of the Niger Delta River. The Ogoni people number around
750 000 and has a population density of 1250, one of the very highest in any rural setting of the
world (The effects of oil, 2007). The Ogoni people have a tradition that is rooted in nature and
this helped them to protect and preserve the environment they live on for generations. The land
and rivers which surround them are viewed by them not just as natural resources for exploitation
but with spiritual significance. Living on fertile soil, the Ogoni people seized the opportunity of
these resources to become expert fisherman and farmers (Unrepresented Nations and Peoples
Organization, n.d.).

However, the exploration and exploitation of oil was followed almost immediately with
severe oil pollution. A major problem in Ogoni were oil spills, between 1993 and mid-2007,
there had been a recorded 35 incidences of oil spills. This is aside from the unnoticed slicks and
unreported cases of small oil spills. The major causes of the spill incidences in Ogoni include
pipeline leakages and blowouts from well-heads due to poor maintenance and damage (The

23

effects of oil, 2007). As the spill occurs, it spreads onto farmlands and water bodies. The toxic
crude seeps into the ground and is taken up by the roots of plants. Studies have shown that oil
spills lower soil fertility and cause poor growth of plants. These spillages affect vast stretches of
waterways, thus polluting marine life and the sources of domestic water use (How Oil Harms
Animals and Plants in Marine Environments, n.d.). Another major problem was gas flares or the
burning of oil. The flaringoff of natural or associated gas is done as a by-product of the drilling
of crude oil from reservoirs in which oil and gas are mixed (Flaring, n.d.). This made the Ogoni
area one of the most polluted areas in the world. In the Ogoni area, the impact of gas flares on
the local ecology and climate as well as people's health and property is evident. The result of
this unchecked emission of gases is the release of 35 million tons of Carbon dioxide and 12
million tons of methane (The Effects of Oil, 2007). The gasses released during gas-flaring, mixes
with the moisture and other forms of precipitation in the atmosphere to form acid rain (Flaring,
n.d.).

The results of the unchecked oil pollution in Ogoni have been the complete destruction
of ecosystems. It has led to soil degradation which affects crop yield and harvest, the rainforest
has fallen to the axe of oil companies, wildlife have been driven away and farmlands have been
rendered infertile. Another negative effect was the destruction of the local economic support
system of fishing and farming. As plants and marine life began to die off the Ogoni people were
left unemployed and unable to feed their families (Environmental Assessment of Ogoniland,
2011). Originally, the Ogoni people lived in closely knit communities and were not used to mass
movement from their territory as their subsistent economy provided them with their basic needs.
To the average Ogoni, movement to a foreign area meant they would live in poverty they would
lose their pride and self-esteem (Environmental Assessment of Ogoniland, 2011). This indeed,

24

was the situation, as Shell destroyed their land, many Ogoni women and youth emigrated out of
the area into cities, especially to Port Harcourt, where they have become environmental refugees
with a poor economic status (The Effects of Oil, 2007).

The most worrisome aspect of oil pollution in Ogoni is the reported correlation between
exposure to oil pollution and the development of health problems. In a recent research report
released by a group of scientists from the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lagos, it was found
that water samples collected from the Niger Delta region indicate that more than 70% of the
water in the Niger Delta contains a chemical called Benzo Pyrene, with a high concentration of
0.54 to 4ug per litre, far above the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommendation of
0.7ug/1 for drinking water (Environmental Assessment of Ogoniland, 2011). The report further
concluded that the harmful chemicals in the sediments which marine life feed on are definitely
higher in Benzo Pyrene concentration, and the people dependent on these marine creatures for
food also take in a higher level of the cancerous chemical (Environmental Assessment of
Ogoniland, 2011). In the past thirty years there has been an increase of cancer and other diseases
connected to oil pollution in the area. The diseases include respiratory problems, skin ailments,
gastrointestinal disorders, waterborne diseases and nutritional problems associated with poor diet
(The Effects of Oil, 2007).

The solution to the oil pollution in Ogoni rests in the hands of the government who must
integrate environmental concerns and indigenous rights in their nations development policies, as
well oil companies who will continue to exploit their resources without harsher rules and
punishments. All laws concerning oil, gas and land use that exclude indigenous peoples from
participating in the control of their resources should be abolished or amended. The government

25

of Nigeria should enforce stricter adherence to environmental laws and regulations by oil
companies and a penalty plan needs to be established that require oil companies whose activities
cause excessive pollution or are ill equipped, to forfeit their licenses. A rapid oil spill response
plan be put in place by the government and oil companies, and a commitment made to it. And the
water polluted of the Niger Delta should require large investments in clean up and alternative
water supplies.

Case studies-Kuwaiti oil fires:

When Iraqi troops withdrew from Kuwait at the end of the Persian Gulf War in early
1991, they set fire to or damaged over 700 oil wells, storage tanks, refineries, and facilities in
Kuwait" According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's report to Congress (US
Environmental Protection Agency, n.d.). The result was a significant economic toll on the
country's major petroleum industry and massive environmental destruction.

26

Kuwait contains about 9 percent of the world's total proven oil reserves, and petroleum
revenues account for 95 percent of its export earnings (Guo, R, 2013). The oil fires however,
burned for more than eight months, consuming approximately five to six million barrels of crude
oil and 70 to 100 million cubic meters of natural gas per day (Duncan, L, 2004). The fires lasted
from about late February to November 6, when the last fire was extinguished (Dunbar, B, 2012).
These fires constituted approximately 50% of the total number of oil well fires in the history of
the petroleum industry, and damaged or destroyed approximately 85% of the wells in every
major Kuwaiti oil field (Kuwaiti Oil Fires, n.d.). A large amount of oil was destroyed in the fires
which resulted in a downfall of Kuwait's oil production and undoubtedly affected the
environment.

The burning oil in the fires produced smoke clouds containing hazardous mixtures of
gases, specifically carbon dioxide, which is very harmful for the environment, and the people
and animals who are subjected to it. The smoke plumes engulfed downwind area as large as 150
by 1000 kilometers. As the smoke settled and hung in the air the sun was partially being blocked
out as it absorbing 75 to 80% of the suns radiation. Temperatures dropped 10 to 20 degrees
Celsius in most areas, causing climate changes in the regions (Duncan, L, 2004). The plumes of
smoke often blanketed the Kuwaiti land surface which formed layers of hard tarcrete, a Solid oil
based crust, that covered nearly five percent of Kuwait's land mass. Violent sandstorms often
took place due to intense summer winds, mixed sand and dust with the smoke plumes (Duncan,
L, 2004). The burning caused many problems for migratory birds in the area; significant amounts
of birds died as a result of exposure to oil and the polluted air. The polluted air also caused
respiratory problems for many Kuwaiti citizens. Concerns of lung cancer and birth defects were
raised and the death rate was predicted to rise by as much as 10% within a short amount of time

27

(Environmental Effects of Oil Drilling in Kuwait,. n.d.). Due to land destruction and health
concerns, thousands were left without homes and Hundreds of miles of the Kuwaiti desert were
left uninhabitable, due to the accumulation of oil lakes and of soot from the burning wells
(Environmental Effects of Oil Drilling in Kuwait, n.d.).

Not only did the oil burn, much of it spilt as damaged wells leaked large amounts of oil
into pools on the land surface that threaten fragile desert ecosystems. Kuwaiti Oil Minister
estimated that in terms of total oil spilled,

it was estimated that 250 million gallons of oil - more than 20 times the amount spilled
in the Exxon Valdez disaster in Alaska - flowed into the Gulf, causing irreparable harm
to the biological diversity and physical integrity of the Gulf. Oil soaked over 440 miles of
Saudi Arabia's coastline. Due to the Gulf's sluggish circulation system, it will take years
before the oil is swept away by the natural forces of the water (Environmental Effects of
Oil Drilling in Kuwait, n.d.).

The unburned oil from damaged facilities also pooled to create approximately 300 oil
lakes, that contaminated around 40 million tons of sand and earth. In addition acid rain formed,
The acid rain poisoned trees and grazing sheep, contaminated fresh water supplies, and found
refuge in the lungs of people and animals throughout the Gulf" (Environmental Effects of Oil
Drilling in Kuwait, n.d.). The acidic rain also hindered agricultural production in the area, as well
as in distant areas. Infact, "within six days of the fires being set, a cloud of smoke stretched from
Baghdad across the United Arab Emirates to Iran, and "black rain" fell as far away as Turkey,
Syria and Afghanistan (Environmental Effects of Oil Drilling in Kuwait, n.d.).

28

There is no simple solution to what happened to the Kuwait oil fires as it was such a large
scale disaster that has never been seen before. Greater security would have prevented the
problem, however the Kuwait oil fires is still a prime example of the negative effects of burning
oil, which happens on a day to day basis through the production and use of oil, simply on a much
smaller scale.

International Organizations:
As previously discussed, the United Nations is a key player in the development of
international agreements and organizations focused on climate change. However, many other
international organizations are set to combat the issue as well.

International Maritime Organization:

As a specialized agency of the United Nations, the International Maritime Organization
(IMO) is the global standard-setting authority for the safety, security and environmental
performance of international shipping (Policy Brief IMO, 2011). In specific regards to oil
pollution, the IMO was called upon to develop further measures to prevent pollution from ships,
and develop a draft convention aimed at providing a global framework for international
cooperation in combating major incidents or threats of marine pollution. Parties on the
International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation (OPRC) are

29

required to establish measures for dealing with pollution incidents, either nationally or in cooperation with other countries (Introduction to IMO, n.d.). Ships are required to carry a
shipboard oil pollution emergency plan, and operators of offshore units under the jurisdiction of
Parties are also required to have oil pollution emergency plans. Ships are required to report
incidents of pollution to coastal authorities and the Convention. The Convention calls for the
establishment of stockpiles of oil spill combating equipment, and the development of oil spill
combating exercises and plans for dealing with incidents (Introduction to IMO, n.d.).

The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation:

Another example of an international oil pollution organization is the the International Oil
Pollution Compensation Funds (IOPC Funds) who provide financial aid for oil pollution damage
that occurs in Member States resulting from tanker spills. Since their establishment, the 1992
Fund and the preceding 1971 Fund have been involved in 149 incidents of varying sizes all over
the world (Funds Overview, 2015). The International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation
(ITOPF), has responded to over 750 incidents involving oil or chemical spills worldwide. As a
not-for-profit organisation, it has provided a wide range of technical services to promote
effective response in the marine environment by responding to ship-source spills (About UsITOPF, n.d.). These are only a few examples of the vast amounts of organizations available.

Greenpeace and the World Meteorological Organization:

Furthermore, international organizations may also be set up to combat climate change,
which is heavily influenced by the use of oil. One organization is Greenpeace, a nongovernmental environmental organization active in over forty countries. Greenpeace states its

30

goal is to "ensure the ability of the Earth to nurture life in all its diversity" and focuses its
campaigning on worldwide issues such as climate change, deforestation, overfishing,
commercial whaling, genetic engineering, and anti-nuclear issues (Greenpeace, n.d.). Other
organizations such as the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), a specialized agency of
the United Nations, also combats climate change. It is the UNs authoritative voice on the state
and behavior of the Earth's atmosphere and disturbances of water resources. WMO has a
membership of 191 member states and territories, as of February 2014 (About WMO, n.d.).
There are still many more organizations who seek to diminish the adverse affects of climate
change.

31

Canadian Connections:
Canada's oil industry produces more than 3.6 million barrels of oil per day and is part of
the global crude oil market (Canadian Oil and Natural Gas, n.d.). 91% of the crude oil production
is found in three provinces; Saskatchewan at 23%, Newfoundland at 21%, and the majority in
Alberta at 47% (Petroleum Production in Canada, n.d.). In Alberta, the vast majority of oil is
found in the oil sands. Canada's oil sands are the third largest reserves of crude oil in the world,
with 166 billion barrels of recoverable oil. The oil sands are located in three main regions within
the province of Alberta: the Athabasca, Cold Lake and Peace River regions, which combined
cover an area more than 142,000 square kilometres. The oil sands are found in sections of the
boreal forest, prairies and muskeg ( ). The oil sands consist of crude oil suspended in an ore that
is a mixture of sand, clay and water. Approximately 20% of of the oil is recoverable through
open-pit mining, while 80% require in situ drilling technologies because of the depth of the oil
(Oil Technology). The means of accessing and producing this oil, although convenient, is
extremely destructive to the environment.

The tar sands are already destined to be the cause of up to the second fastest rate of
deforestation on the planet behind the Amazon Rainforest Basin. Oil sands development causes
large-scale disturbances to Albertas boreal forest, Canada's largest vegetation zone, making up
55% of the country's land mass (Boreal forest, n.d.). The forest is home to a variety of species
and a report issued in 2011 by the PEW Environment Group, described the Canadian boreal

32

forest as the largest natural storage of freshwater in the world. According to critics, the
cumulative effects of deforestation, habitat fragmentation, and species loss caused by
exploration, open pit mines, in-situ developments are not being adequately managed.

Only 10% of the Boreal Forest is government conservation land (International Boreal
Conservation Science Panel),the rest of the land is subject to companies exploiting the resources.
However, the government requires extensive monitoring of oil companies and requires
companies to remediate and reclaim 100% of the land after the oil sands have been extracted so
the land is returned to a self-sustaining Boreal forest (Lee, p, 2015). Yet, Global Forest Watch
claims that Canadas tar sands region has cleared or degraded 775 500 hectares of boreal forest
since the year 2000. If the tar sand extraction continues, it is expected that forest loss will
increase (Lee, p, 2015).

Tar sands also heavily pollute and waste water. To process a single barrel of pit-mined
bitumen, the petroleum production from oil sands, it requires 12 barrels of water, often a mix of
freshwater and saline groundwater (Alberta's Oil Sands Water, n.d.). From the Athabasca River
alone, current tar sands projects remove about 370 million cubic metres of water each year,
free of charge (Tar Sands and Water, n.d.). While a small amount of this water is recycled, 90%
of the water used in tar sands operations never returns to the river, but ends up in the toxic lakes
that the oil industry calls tailings ponds. The sludge like waste in the ponds is toxic to aquatic
life, birds and wildlife. Adding to the danger of these ponds is the fact that the contaminants
seep into groundwater and the surrounding soil (Alberta's Oil Sands Water, n.d.). It is estimated
that tailings ponds are already leaking more than 11 million litres every day, and it is even
acknowledged by the industry that the damage will be irreversible. Albertas current regulatory

33

framework has been criticized because the quantity of water withdrawals it authorizes does not
adequately ensure ecosystem protection, or the long-term conservation of the waters available
(Alberta's Oil Sands water).

The tar sands mining procedure also affect air quality as it releases at least three times the
CO2 emissions as regular oil production and is slated to become the single largest industrial
contributor in North America to climate change. Currently, Alberta is responsible for one-third of
Canadas Greenhouse Gas Emissions (GHGs). Specifically, the oil sands are Canadas largestgrowing source of GHGs and there are currently no limits on oil sands emissions, either by
facility or industry-wide. By 2030 the government of Alberta hopes to transition to an oil sandsbased performance standard for the carbon price and will legislate an overall limit to oil sands
GHG emissions. A $30/tonne carbon price will be applied to oil sands facilities and a legislated
emissions limit on the oil sands will be a maximum of 100 million tons (Mt) (Capping Oil Sands
Emissions, n.d.). These will create the conditions for the oil sands sector to innovate and become
more globally competitive.

The current state of oil production still raises many controversies, particularly with the
First Nations. The oil sands industry has been a mixed blessing for rural First Nations
communities. While many First Nations members have been employed in the oil sands, their land
has been stripped from them and has been exploited by the oil companies. In 2010, there were
more than 1,700 Aboriginal employees in permanent oil sands operations jobs in northeast
Alberta (Alberta's Oil Sands Aboriginal People, n.d.), though in recent years many have been
unemployed as the price of oil is low and companies cannot afford to pay the workers. They have
also lost much of the natural resources and wildlife they used for survival. For example, caribou

34

have been severely impacted by tar sands extraction. Today, just 175 275 caribou remain, By
2025, the total population is expected to be less than 50 and locally extinct by 2040 (Tar Sands,
2015). Although protected by government laws that ensure the rights of First Nations, many have
been ousted from native lands and suffer the environmental loss created by the oil industry.

Although the environmental impacts of Canada's oil industry is evident, Canadians still
continue to produce vast amounts of oil and it is expected to continue growing. The Canadian
Energy Research Institute projects that Albertas oil production will rise from 1.6 million barrels
per day at present to 5.4 million barrels by 2045 (Tencer, D, 2013). Oil is one of Canada's largest
exports and it often employs hundreds and thousands of people, though in recent years there has
been massive waves of unemployment in the oil sands due to the falling prices of oil.

Albertas oil sands are growing into a source of political conflict, both domestically and
globally, as scrutiny of one of the worlds largest known oil reserves intensifies. There is
increasing concern that the oil sands cause unprecedented ecological harm.

Solutions:
Oil is so important to modern society that the use of it will never disappear. However, the
development of new technologies allows humans to reduce their dependence on oil. Although

35

many of these alternatives exist they are not widely or implanted around the world as some are
still in development, cost too much to produce or cannot be mass produced at this time.

Major innovations in renewable energy sources have allowed humans to reduce their oil
consumption. Based on REN21's 2014 report, renewables contributed 19% to the world's global
energy consumption. This energy consumption is divided as 9% coming from traditional
biomass, 4.2% as heat energy , 3.8% hydroelectricity and 2% is electricity from wind, solar,
geothermal, and biomass. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have
renewable energy contributing more than 20% of energy supply (Renewables Global Status
Report, 2014). National renewable energy markets are expected to grow strongly in the coming
decade. While many renewable energy projects are large-scale, renewable technologies are also
suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries, where energy can be used to develop a
more modern society. United Nations' Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that. renewable
energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity. Renewable energy
sources are an excellent method of reducing oil intake and providing a more sustainable way of
meeting energy needs (Leon, S, 2011).

Another innovation for reducing the amount of oil consumption is the electric car.
Electric cars create significantly less air pollution and reduction in total greenhouse gas and other
emissions, dependent on the method used for electricity generation. They also provide
independence from foreign oil, which in several countries is cause for concern in regard to
vulnerability to oil price volatility. In more recent years electric cars have been gaining in
popularity and the cost of the car has continually been decreasing. However it is still relatively

36

high and because of this, most electric cars still have a limited driving range and a higher
purchase cost than conventional vehicles (Electric Car, n.d.).

Solutions to combat the effects of oil pollution will continue to be developed. A higher
reliance on renewable energies and greater fuel efficiencies will help in the short term to reduce
the dependance on oil.

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