Human Kinetics (Organization) - AquaTech - Best Practices For Pool and Aquatic Facility Operators-Human Kinetics (2008)

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Human Kinetics
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

AquaTech : best practices for pool and aquatic facility operators.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-7360-6560-3 (hard cover)
ISBN-10: 0-7360-6560-1 (hard cover)
1. Aquatic sports facilities--Management. 2. Aquatic sports facilities--Maintenance and repair. 3. Swimming pools-Management. I. Human Kinetics (Organization)
GV770.7.A68 2008
643.5560288--dc22
2007033658
ISBN-10: 0-7360-6560-1 (print)
ISBN-13: 978-0-7360-6560-3 (print)
ISBN-10: 0-7360-8588-2 (Adobe PDF)

ISBN-13: 978-0-7360-8588-5 (Adobe PDF)
Copyright 2008 by Human Kinetics, Inc.

All rights reserved. Except for use in a review, the reproduction or utilization of this work in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including xerography, photocopying, and recording, and in any information storage and retrieval system, is forbidden without the written permission of the publisher.
Notice: Permission to reproduce the following material is granted to individuals and agencies who have purchased
AquaTech: Best Practices for Pool and Aquatic Facility Operators: pp. 133 and 143-145. The reproduction of other parts of
this book is expressly forbidden by the above copyright notice. Persons or agencies who have not purchased AquaTech:
Best Practices for Pool and Aquatic Facility Operators may not reproduce any material.
Permission notices for material reprinted in this book from other sources can be found on pages xi-xii.
The Web addresses cited in this text were current as of July, 2007, unless otherwise noted.
Acquisitions Editor: Jill E. White; Staff Writer: Patricia Sammann; Developmental Editor: Christine M. Drews; Assistant Editors: Heather M. Tanner and Kyle G. Fritz; Copyeditor: Patsy Fortney; Proofreader: Jim Burns; Indexer: Anne
Truesdale; Permission Manager: Carly Breeding; Graphic Designer: Bob Reuther; Graphic Artists: Bob Reuther and
Angela K. Snyder; Cover Designer: Bob Reuther; Photographers (cover): clockwise, from left: iStockphoto.com/
Rene Mansi; Eyewire/Photodisc; by Jill White; iStockphoto.com/Edwin Verin; by Jill White; Photographer (interior): Neil Bernstein, unless otherwise noted; Photo Asset Manager: Laura Fitch; Visual Production Assistant: Joyce
Brumfield; Photo Office Assistant: Jason Allen; Art Manager: Kelly Hendren; Associate Art Manager: Alan L. Wilborn;
Illustrator: Argosy; Printer: Custom Color Graphics/Dekker Bookbinding
We thank Sholem Aquatic Center inChampaign, Illinois, Urbana Indoor Aquatic Center in Urbana, Illinois, and Savannah
Yacht Club in Savannah, Georgia, for assistance in providing the locations for the photo shoots for this book. We also
thank Rasmussen Pool N Patio, Champaign, Illinois, and Pride Pools & Spas, Savannah, Georgia, for their assistance
in providing equipment.
Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Human Kinetics
Web site: www.HumanKinetics.com
United States: Human Kinetics
P.O. Box 5076
Champaign, IL 61825-5076
800-747-4457
e-mail: humank@hkusa.com
Australia: Human Kinetics

57A Price Avenue
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08 8372 0999
e-mail: info@hkaustralia.com
Canada: Human Kinetics

475 Devonshire Road Unit 100
Windsor, ON N8Y 2L5
800-465-7301 (in Canada only)
e-mail: info@hkcanada.com
New Zealand: Human Kinetics

Division of Sports Distributors NZ Ltd.
P.O. Box 300 226 Albany
North Shore City
Auckland
0064 9 448 1207
e-mail: info@humankinetics.co.nz
Europe: Human Kinetics

107 Bradford Road
Stanningley
Leeds LS28 6AT, United Kingdom
+44 (0) 113 255 5665
e-mail: hk@hkeurope.com
Contents
Preface
From the Contributors
ix
Credits
xi
Why Each Pool Is Unique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
How a Pool Circulation System Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
How Filtration Systems Work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
How Chemical Feed and Automation Systems Work . . . . 41
How to Test the Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
How to Sanitize and Oxidize the Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Indoor and Outdoor Pools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Size and Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Equipment and Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Water Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
AquaTech Performance Goal and Best Practices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
How Water Flows Through the Pool Circulation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

How Each System Part Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Turnover and Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
AquaTech Performance Goal and Best Practices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Sand Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Diatomaceous Earth (DE) Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Cartridge Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Dry Chemical Feeders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Liquid Chemical Feeders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Gas Chemical Feeders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Manual Testing Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Testing Sanitizer Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Tests to Determine Water Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Specialized Water Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Handheld Electronic Testing Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Keeping Records of Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Chemicals That Sanitize and Oxidize Pool Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Equipment Used to Sanitize or Oxidize Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Evaluating Chlorine Test Results and Adjusting Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Breakpoint Chlorination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Controlling Algae With Chlorine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
iii
CONTENTS
How to Balance the Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
How to Control Exposure to Pathogens. . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
How to Operate Safely . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
10
How to Perform Routine

and Preventive Maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
What Is Water Balance? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Determining Water Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Adjusting Chemicals to Achieve Water Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
AquaTech Performance Goal and Best Practices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Bloodborne Pathogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Recreational Water Illnesses (RWIs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Contact and Airborne Pathogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Patron Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Guidelines, Standards, and Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Electrical Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Weather Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Chemical Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Physical Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Pool Workplace Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Facility Security. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Record Keeping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Maintenance Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

Temperature and Humidity Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Maintenance Equipment and Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Pool Covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Cloudy Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Colored Water and Staining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Documentation and Record Keeping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
11
How to Perform Seasonal and Special Maintenance . . 163
12
How to Safely Operate Spa and Warm Water Pools . . . 181
Preparing for a Competitive Event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

Winterizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Opening a Seasonal Facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Preparing for Major Storms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Features of Spa Pools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

Warm Water Sanitation and Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Replacement of Spa Pool Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Features of Warm Water Pools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Precautions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Appendix: Resource List for Information, Guidelines, Standards, and Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .191
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207
iv
Preface
ongratulations on your interest in becoming a pool plant operator! Its a job with
a lot of responsibility, and in this book and the companion course well show you
how to do it competently. This is not a book to skim through quickly. Youll want to
read carefully to obtain a full understanding of the subject. Study the illustrations,
too, so that you get a visual picture of how to operate your pool.
The pool you operate might be a traditional rectangular pool, and it might be
used for leisure or competition. It might be a public indoor or outdoor pool, or it
might be located in a hotel or at a residential complex. Your pool might be used for
medical treatment, therapy, or lap swimming. Or the facility where you work might
be purely recreational in nature, featuring pools of various sizes and shapes, a
wave-action pool, a leisure river, a catch pool at the end of a water slide, or even
a spa pool or spray park.
The one thing all those pools need is a pool plant operator. Any body of water
regulated by health codes worldwide needs your expertise. As a pool plant operator, you have a number of important duties:
Keeping the water clear and free of germs
Maintaining a comfortable environment
Keeping the water chemically balanced
Minimizing risks to yourself and to patrons
Maintaining the pool structure, plant, and equipment
Keeping accurate records
Throughout the book you should regard pool plant operator as a generic term
that includes anyone with a responsibility for the mechanical aspects of pool plant
operation and water treatment. The aim of this book is to guide you in following safe
workplace practices, maintaining equipment with a long service life, and meeting
regulatory requirements.
Many public health agencies worldwide establish guidelines and health codes
for operating and maintaining nonresidential pools. As a pool plant operator, you
need to be aware of the aquatic guidelines developed by the national and international organizations. Even more important, to maintain an inviting facility that has
a negligible risk of infection or illness to patrons, you must know and follow the
codes and requirements of the regulatory agency that governs your pool.
PREFACE
In this text we answer four basic questions about aquatic facilities:

1. How do swimming pools function?
2. How can you maintain water that is sparkling clear and free of germs?
3. What can you do to maintain the service life of your equipment and systems?
4. How can you maintain a safe and attractive facility?
These are the fundamentals of your job as a pool plant operator. Some pool plant
operators have additional pool management responsibilities, such as supervising
staff or programming. However, we have chosen to focus on the responsibilities
common to all operators, which is to maintain the facilitys physical plant.
This book, AquaTech: Best Practices for Pool and Aquatic Facility Operators, has
many features to help you learn the content, and it supports the online course and
classroom components of the AquaTech certification program. The contents of this
book and the AquaTech course are based on the required competencies established by U.S. and international
training guidelines. Certification
by AquaTech meets or exceeds
Vacuum DE Filter
is fed by gravthe equivalency of other recogm DE filter is in an open tank that
Like a vacuum sand filter, a vacuu
r than the
ces where the tank is located highe
instan
In
ow.
overfl
pool
the
from
ity
to pull the
nized training programs, but you
fill the tank, a lift pump may be used
to
used
be
cant
y
gravit
and
pool
rectangular
contains at least one septum with
should confirm with your local
water into the filter. The open tank
m to clean
Do you see
DE. You dont backwash this syste
the
holds
that
nts
eleme
ar
or circul
this with
wash off the dirty DE. You can do
problems with
and
tank
regulatory agency that they are
the
drain
must
d
instea
it, but
of both
jets that do this. You must dispose
water
have
may
m
syste
your pool water?
your
or
a hose,
refill the
aware of and accept AquaTech
ding to your local regulations; then
accor
DE
the
and
water
ed
the drain
Is it cloudy or
tank with water.
certification.
a dry hopper feeder that has
dirty, or is the
elements, some vacuum filters have
3 How Filtration Systems Work
To recoat the
Cues to help you get

to know your facility
If the filter
circulation flow of a vibrator to keep the DE loose and an auger to deliver it to the filter.
cast manually
ry method, the DE must be broad
water too slow?
does not have an automatic delive
tank.
Dont ignore these into the open
signs of filtration
Regenerative DE Filter
ing that the
problems. Find
the interrupt filtration concept, mean
The regenerative DE filter uses
nts. With the
eleme
the
to
ed
return
is
DE
the best practices pump stops briefly and then the same
filters septum
automated. Each element on the
table for your type regenerative filter, this process isunde
DE gets dirty,
the
When
tube.
c
plasti
a
by
d
a metal strand surro
of filter (pages 34 consists ofare pressurized from within. They expand outward and grow shorter,
the tubes
the same DE.
to 35, 39, or 40), which makes the DE fall off. The elements are then recoated with
use the tank
of water, heat, and chemicals beca
and diagnose the
This system cuts down on the use
letely soiled or decomposing.
comp
is
DE
the
when
only
ed
drain
is
problem.
ing an Element in a DE Filter
Cleaning a Septum or Replac

and
1. Take the elements out of the filter
rinse them with water.
nts for
2. Check the cloth on the eleme
damage and replace torn cloth.
er
3. Place the elements in a filter clean
solution; then rinse. You may also
need to wash the elem ents with
an acidic filter cleaner, then rinse
Step-by-step instructions
for common pool issues
again.
m
4. Put the element back onto the septu
and back into the filter.
Full-color art and photos
38
vi
Best Practices: Solving DE

Problem
Pool water is murky and
irritating to bathers.
Water flow is too slow.
er feeder that has

e filter. If the filter
oadcast manually
meaning that the

elements. With the
the filters septum
n the DE gets dirty,
and grow shorter,
with the same DE.
s because the tank
sing.
n a DE Filter
Possible causes
Filter Problems
To avoid the problem
Torn cloth on elements.

DE can escape back
into the pool water if the
cloth that holds it is torn.
Clean the DE filter on a

regular basis and avoid
getting DE into the pool.
Metal stains and

calcium deposits.
Buildup on the elements
can project into the
water, slowing the flow.
Clean the septum

elements every three
months, following the
steps shown on page
38.
Blockage in the suction

line to the pump.
Blockage or damage to
the pump.
Pool water is not clear.
Plugged-up cloth on the

elements. The openings
on the cloth are no
longer trapping debris.
Missing DE on the
elements.
Damaged manifold
or vacuum piping
connection. This may
allow unfiltered water
to escape back into the
pool.
PREFACE
Best Practices tables for

diagnosing, avoiding,
and solving problems
Clean the septum

elements on a regular
basis.
Always follow the
manufacturers
instructions for
precoating the
elements.
Check the manifold,
joints, and pipes for
cracks regularly.
To fix the problem

Clean the filters and
vacuum any DE that
has entered the pool.
Check for blockages
in the suction line to
the pump, and remove
them. Also check the
pump for blockage or
damage, and repair it, if
necessary.
at is fed by gravd higher than the

e used to pull the
with rectangular
s system to clean
u can do this with
st dispose of both
ons; then refill the
We focus on the principles and practices that apply equally to all pools and
identify common specialized circumstances. However, this book is not all inclusive,
and the advice might not apply in all situations. Youll need to get some on-the-job
training about the specifics of your particular facility. The best practices in this book
have limited application to pools created from separated areas of natural bodies
of water such as lakes, rivers, or the sea.
Following the best practices will help you reduce accidents and incidents of illness, and the practical advice will help you comply with pool code regulations. The
recommendations should be followed only as they pertain to your location. There
might be other legally acceptable ways of achieving the same outcome. Where
a relevant local standard is more specific than this guidance or recommends a
higher level of performance, you should follow that standard.
Check for missing DE

on the elements, and if
necessary, recoat them
with DE.
Clean the septum
elements as described
previously.
Check for cracks in the
manifold and pipes,
and replace if needed.
Cartridge Filters
ard pools,
t for use with spas and small backy
Cartridge filters were originally mean
pools. Most are
public
and
ercial
comm
r
large
but they now are manufactured for
filters are
vacuum. The two types of cartridge
pressure filters, although a few are
surface carand
rate,
flow
high
a
re
requi
and
depth cartridges, which are thick
media is wound
re a low flow rate. The cartridge
tridges, which are thin and requi
or pleated cloth or paper.
the
es or the vacuum gauge and follow
Check the pressure gauge or gaug
dge. You do
to decide when to clean the cartri
manufacturers recommendations
must be
d hand-clean them. The cartridge
not backwash cartridges, but instea
ing prodwith water, washed in a filter clean
rinsed
ter,
canis
filter
the
from
ved
remo
want to keep
acid wash, and replaced. You may
uct, sometimes rinsed with a light
circulation
to swap with the dirty ones so pool
hand
on
dges
cartri
of
set
a clean
filter.
the
clean
you
while
ue
contin
can
each time
should be checked for damage
Cartridges also have an O-ring that
g out
This helps prevent water from leakin
ated.
lubric
and
ed
clean
is
dge
the cartri
in.
g
leakin
from
and air
Handy notes to help you

find more information in
this book
For more
on pool
circulation,
see pages
10 and 11.
39
vii
PREFACE
viii
Your employer should assess and record your level of knowledge and demonstrated competence over time. And you should strive to stay up to date with new
developments in pool operations by joining professional organizations, reading
industry newsletters and journals, and attending conferences and workshops in your
area. Further advice on many of the subjects introduced in this book is available
from the resources listed in the appendix. Additional information and interactive
activities designed to help you apply your knowledge can be found in the AquaTech
online course and certification program. Youll find the laminated AquaTech Pool
Tool a handy reference as you operate your facility.
We welcome you to the challenging job of being a pool plant operator. Your
efforts will affect everyone who passes through your pool. In addition, you can
have a positive influence on your facility by doing your best to keep pool systems
in good working order.
From the Contributors
oor pool operator training comes with costs: a higher-than-necessary operating

expense and an increase in the risk of injury or illness to yourself or patrons.
Very good plumbers, top-rated mechanics, and well-meaning but uneducated
operators have wrecked million-dollar pools in all parts of the world, thinking that
tossing in a little chlorine while hoping some good pH or chlorine test-kit readings
will take care of that chemistry stuff just fine. Pool plant operators have died
because they didnt follow safe pool workplace practices.
We firmly believe that investment in staff development through training is essential
and is the foundation on which to build experience in order to care for and operate
a modern public pool. Just as new technologies are demanded to improve the
chemical quality of pool water, new methods for learning must be created and new
ways of delivering information established if we are to develop our profession.
We contributed to this project because of our unwavering commitment to knowledge and education. Human Kinetics approached us with an exciting vision to
produce a book that would support the new one-of-a-kind interactive AquaTech
online learning experience. The book also stands alone as a resource for those
who prefer to know the cause, effect, and remedy for pool plant operation rather
than a lot of technical and chemical talk.
We are a diverse group of professionals with backgrounds in pool operations,
pool management, public health, aquatic education, nonprofit aquatic organizations, and pool service. We believe AquaTech: Best Practices for Pool and Aquatic
Facility Operators will serve the industry well.
Heres why were excited about the AquaTech program as a learning tool:
The course recognizes the diverse situations of pool plant operators and
includes international considerations.
The text has a cone of focus that, at its widest point, provides information
about how pool plant systems work, then narrows to define those procedures
that have been accepted as good industry practice. This clear focus will help
you be successful in operating pool systems as quickly as possible.
The text and course consider the pool plant your workplace, and detailed
attention is given to safe workplace practices.
The text is a companion to the AquaTech online course. This course is
light-years ahead of the typical narrated slide show often touted as online
education, and it includes problem-solving case studies, highly interactive
activities, and visual tutorials.
ix
FROM THE CONTRIBUTORS
We thank Lili McGovern for her contributions and vision early in this project.
Additional thanks and appreciation go to the editors and graphic designers at
Human Kinetics, who provided the creative expertise and patience to create something special for AquaTech. This text is truly an appealing and useful tool, thanks
to the special efforts of Chris Drews, Bob Reuther, Patricia Sammann, and all the
other professionals who worked on the text in various phases of the publication
process.
Finally, we hope you will use this book as a catalyst for continued improvements
in your skill and that you choose to become AquaTech certified, develop a passion
for the profession, and strive for safe operations.
Robert Burrows
Vice President
Surewater Technologies
Tom Carrico
Chief Poolologist
Carrico Aquatic Resources, Inc.
Robert Clayton
President
Aquatic Partners
Juliene Hefter
Deputy Director
Wisconsin Parks & Recreation Association
Mick Nelson
Facilities Development Director
USA Swimming
Jill White
Director
Human Kinetics Aquatic Education Division
Kent Williams
Executive Director and Founder
Professional Pool Operators of America
Credits
Figure on 187: Adapted, by permission, from S.K. Hillman, 2004, Introduction to athletic
training, 2nd ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 206.
Figures on 169, left; 169, right; 172, left; 172, right: Redrawn from illustrations provided by
Loop-Loc, Ltd.
Graph on 47; figure on 83; text from chapter 6: Breakpoint Chlorination: Courtesy of
Professional Pool Operators of America/www.ppoa.org
Figure on 154, bottom: From the U.S. Department of Energy. www.eere.energy.gov
Photo on 176: AP Photo/Phil Coale
Photo on 2, bottom left: Astral Pool
Photo on 4, bottom: Bruce Coleman
Photos on 112, top; 112, bottom: Custom Medical Stock
Photo on 3: Eyewire/Photodisc/Getty Images
Photo on 32, top: By Holly Gilly
Photos on 16; 17, left; 17, right; 18; 20, right; 21, top left; 21 top right; 21, bottom right; 29,
bottom; 30, left; 30, middle; 30, right; 31; 36; 41; 42; 44, top; 46; 47, top; 49, top left; 49, top
right; 49, bottom left; 49, bottom middle; 49, bottom right; 54; 55, left; 55, right; 56, top left;
56, top right; 56, middle right; 56, bottom left; 56, bottom right; 57, all; 63; 64; 66; 75, top;
75, bottom; 99, bottom; 100, all; 105; 106, left; 106, right; 107, left; 107, right; 111; 117; 121,
bottom; 124; 127; 128; 129, left; 129, right; 132; 134; 139; 142, right; 145; 149, middle; 151; 163;
166; 175, top; 189, top: Human Kinetics
Photos on 103; 104: iStockphoto.com/Loic Bernard
Photo on 21, bottom left: iStockphoto.com/Stephen Bonk
Photo on 82: iStockphoto.com/Pathaithai Chungyam
Photo on 168: iStockphoto.com/Stephane Daoust
Photos on 4, top; 86: iStockphoto.com/Christopher O Driscoll
Photo on 165, bottom: iStockphoto.com/Lloyd Hess
Photo on 110: iStockphoto.com/Nancy Hixson
Photo on 164: iStockphoto.com/Rayna Januska
Photo on 122: iStockphoto.com/Mark Jensen
xi
Preface
Credits
Photo on 2, middle: iStockphoto.com/Annene Kaye

Photo on 108: iStockphoto.com/Deanna Larson
Photo on 74, bottom: iStockphoto.com/Carsten Madsen
Photos on 71; 73; 74, top; 99, top: iStockphoto.com/Gary Milner
Photo on 2, bottom right: iStockphoto.com/Lidian Neeleman
Photo on 165, top: iStockphoto.com/Purdue9394
Photo on 184: iStockphoto.com/ShellEy Shay
Photo on 175, bottom: iStockphoto.com/Eliza Snow
Photos on 9; 11: iStockphoto.com/Ferran Traite Soler
Photo on 2, top: iStockphoto.com/Doug Webb
Photo on 90, bottom: iStockphoto.com/Carrie Winegarden
Photo on 72: iStockphoto.com/Kenneth C. Zirkel
Photos on 20, left; 79: Photo courtesy of Lincoln Equipment, Inc.
Photos on 14, left; 53; 68: Photo courtesy of Myron L. Company
Photo on 78: Image courtesy of Engineered Treatment Systems, LLC.
Photo on 44, bottom: Photo courtesy of Surewater Technologies, Incorporated
Photos on 1; 5; 14, right; 27; 32, bottom; 33, top; 33, bottom; 38; 39; 56, middle, left; 77, left;
77, right; 90, top; 93; 94; 95; 121, top; 123; 131, left; 131, right; 136; 141; 142, left; 148, all; 149,
top; 149, bottom left; 149, bottom right; 150, top; 150, bottom; 153, top; 153, middle; 153,
bottom; 154, top; 154, middle; 181; 186; 188; 189, bottom: By Jill White
Table 8.1 (109); Table 8.2 (109); photo on 114: Courtesy of the Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention (CDC), a division of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Text from chapter 10: Temperature and Humidity Control: From USA Swimming and Mick
Nelson.
Text from chapter 9: Underwater Lighting; chapter 11: How to Paint a Pool: Courtesy of
Poolcenter.com.
Text from chapter 8: Removing Your Gloves: Reprinted, by permission, from J. White, 2006,
StarGuard: Best practices for lifeguards 3rd ed. (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 21.
xii
1 1
Why
Each Pool
Is Unique
o two aquatic facilities are alike. Just ask two operators! This
certainly holds true for your pool plant and its associated
equipment. Your facility is unique in many ways, and this chapter
will introduce you to some of those ways. Topics on deck:
What materials pools are made of
How indoor and outdoor pools are different, and how
those differences concern you as a pool plant operator
How the size and configuration of the pool can affect
pool plant operations
What equipment and systems your facility might use
How the source of the water for your pool may affect how
you treat the water
1 Why Each Pool Is Unique
id you know that each pool is, essentially, unique? As you train to become a
pool plant operator, you will learn the basics about pool operation and maintenance, and most of what you learn can be applied to many different pools. But
over time, you will need to learn how your particular facility works. Although pools
have many characteristics in common, the specifics of how your pool was built
and where it is located, even the qualities of the water used to fill it, can make a
big difference in how you do your job.
The pool vessel can be manufactured from several different types of materials:
Concrete. Poured concrete can be used to build the
walls and floor of the pool. They are then painted
with chlorinated rubber or epoxy paint or lined with
tiles. Sometimes they are even coated with gun-shot
fiberglass.
Gunite, shotcrete, or marcite. These kinds of
reinforced concrete are pressure sprayed, rather than
poured, over steel rods and wire mesh to form the
pool walls and floor. A finish is then applied.
Stainless steel. Here type 304 stainless or hotdipped galvanized steel panels are put together to
form the pool. A vinyl liner is then heat welded or
hung onto the inside of the pool.
Fiberglass. Fiberglass is most often used for small
pools or spas. The pool consists of one continuous
molded piece of fiberglass or gel-coat fiberglass
panels. Shot fiberglass, used often for rehabilitations,
is sometimes used in place of plaster as a liner for
new shotcrete pool structures.
Although pools may be constructed of many different materials, they all have
similar requirements for mechanical systems. They must have the following:
A circulation system that draws pool water from the vessel through pipes,
using a large pump to move it through systems that will treat and process
the water
A filtration system that removes soil and debris from the water
A disinfectant system that kills germs, viruses, and other pathogens that can
spread disease (this can include both sanitizing chemicals and physicaltreatment systems such as ultraviolet light)
A chemical treatment system that helps keep the water balanced so the
sanitizers work more effectively and the working life of the pool structure and
equipment is extended
A temperature regulation system that can either heat or cool the water
Although all pools have similar functions, the specifics of location, size and
configuration, equipment and systems, and water sources combine to make the
operational needs for each pool unique.
Indoor and Outdoor Pools

One of the most significant elements determining pool operations is
whether a pool is indoors or outdoors. Think of some of the obvious differences: Twigs, leaves, bugs, and even small animals
can enter an outdoor pool, whereas indoor pools are
generally protected from these problems. On the
other hand, noise levels and ventilation may
be more difficult to control in an indoor
pool environment than one outdoors.
Depending on whether the pool is
indoor or outdoor, other concerns
might include humidity, water and
air temperature, lighting, and
the types of barriers you will
need around your pool. Is your
pool indoor or outdoor? Pay
attention to these specific
concerns for each location:
Indoor
Air may become irritating to

bathers if the ventilation system
doesnt bring in enough fresh
air to reduce the effects of
chloramines (chemicals formed
from the breakdown of chlorine in
the water).
Lighting can cause glare,

making it difficult to see into
the water.
Noise levels may be high
if the acoustics in the pool
building are poor.
Air temperature must be

kept warm enough that
bathers emerging from the
water arent chilled.
Water evaporating from the pool

makes the indoor humidity high.
If the humidity in the air is not
controlled, it can easily condense
on surfaces and corrode or harm
them, especially when chlorinated
compounds exist in the air.
Water temperature must

be kept comfortable
as well.
Is your pool indoor or outdoor?

Which of the concerns on this
page do you notice?
outdoor
Lighting must be
adequate enough for
nighttime vision, for
patrons, and after-hours
security.
A pool cover may be

needed at night to
reduce evaporation
and maintain water
temperature.
Patrons, staff, and the

facility are exposed to the
effects of severe weather.
Because the suns UV

rays break down chlorine,
more chlorine is required
to keep the sanitizer
levels up.
Debris from surrounding

vegetation or the deck is
continuously getting blown
into the pool.
Insects and wildlife
can enter the pool.
Secure barriers must be

placed around the pool to
prevent unwanted visitors
from getting into the pool.
The water may need to

be heated or cooled.
Some outdoor pools will

have outdoor furnishings
that need to be kept clean
and maintained.
Algae are more likely

to get into the pool and
bloom in water that has
inadequate chlorine.
For more on algae

see pages 88 to 92.
Size and Configuration

The pools size makes a difference in how easy it is to maintain. Strangely enough,
a large pool is easier to keep disinfected than a smaller one. A small pool means
theres a smaller volume of water in relation to the number of bathers, especially
in water activity pools or spas. This puts high demands on all systems, especially
the chemical treatment and filtration systems.
Some aquatic facilities have more than one pool vessel or feature only one
mechanical system, while others have multiple systems. For example, a facility
might have a six-lane L-shaped lap pool with a water slide that enters into the pool.
The water slide has a separate pump, but the water comes from the lap pool. A
similar facility might have the same lap pool with a water slide, but the slide enters
a separate catch pool tank next to the main pool. Here the water slide has a separate pump and a separate filtration system, so the two tanks do not share the same
water. Childrens play areas sometimes share the same filter system as the pool.
The water is routed through booster pumps that take water from the main pool to
the play features.
Commingling water can cause significant problems. For example, if separate vessels of water share the same filtration system and one area of the facility becomes
contaminated with fecal matter, the entire facility must be closed. Organic-load
differences can make balanced treatment difficult, especially when using one
chemical controller. If the bodies of water do not share the same filtration system,
appropriate treatment can be maintained in each vessel. Most health codes no
longer allow commingled systems in public pools.
Is your pool large

or small? How
do the various
features at your
facility interact?
Equipment and Systems

The equipment and systems used at your pool also make your pool plant unique.
Many combinations of systems for filtration, sanitizing, pH and chlorine control,
and temperature management are possible. Table 1.1 shows the most common
options for each system.
Table 1.1 Common Options for Public Pool Plant Operation
Circulation
Filtration
Your pool will

have all of these
components. The
features will vary by
manufacturer.
Your pool will have

one or more of these
types of filters for
each separate body
of water.
Your pool may

have one or more
automated control
systems.
Pumps
Sand filter
Circulation pump
Sand and gravel
Drains
Pressure highrate sand
To help monitor
and manage water
quality:
Skimmers or
gutters
Main drain
Pipework
Inlets
Outlets
Valves
Measuring devices
Flow meter
Thermometer
Gauges
Vacuum (gravity)
high-rate sand
Diatomaceous earth
(DE) filter
Pressure DE
Vacuum DE
Regenerative DE
Cartridge filter
Paper cartridge
Fabric cartridge
Automation
Automated
chemical
controller
To remotely monitor
and manage filter
backwashing:
Automated
backwash
controller
To remotely monitor
and manage energy
use and operation of
the pool building:
Automated
building systems
controller
Sanitation and oxidation

Your pool will
need one of these
chemicals as a
primary means
of sanitation and
oxidation.
Your pool may have

one of these devices
installed to help
with sanitation and
oxidation.
Chlorine (liquid)
Ultraviolet light
(UV)
Sodium
hypochlorite
Ozone generator
Chlorine (granular)
Calcium
hypochlorite
Dichlor
Lithium
hypochlorite
Chlorine (tablet)
Calcium
hypochlorite
Trichlor
Chlorine (gas)
Liquid elemental
chlorine under
pressure
Salt chlorination
Electrolytic
chlorine
generation
Bromine
Bromine tablets
Sodium bromide
with an activator
Youll learn more

about circulation in
chapter 2.
Youll learn more

about filtration in
chapter 3.
Youll learn more

about automated
control systems in
chapter 4.
Youll learn more about sanitation and

oxidation in chapter 6.
Your pool may have one or

more chemical metering
pump(s) or feeder(s).
To deliver chemicals in a
liquid solution:
Diaphragm metering
pump
Piston metering pump
Peristaltic metering pump
High-capacity vacuum
induction system
To deliver solid or dry
chemicals:
Erosion feeder
Mechanical feeder
To deliver liquids under
pressure (gas):
Pressurized cylinder and
regulated delivery device
Water treatment
Your pool will need some
or all of these chemical
treatments.
Your pool may have one

or more means to control
temperature or conserve
energy.
To lower pH:
To heat the pool water:
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Gas water heater
To lower pH or total alkalinity:
Electric or gas boiler
Muriatic acid
Solar power heater
Dry acid
HVAC heat recovery
To raise pH:
Heat exchanger
Soda ash
To raise pH or total alkalinity:
To reduce heat loss and

evaporation of the pool water:
Sodium bicarbonate
Pool blanket
To increase calcium
hardness:
Liquid pool cover

To cool the pool water:
Calcium chloride
Aerator
To remove minerals:
To control the indoor air

temperature and humidity:
Sequestering agents
To stabilize chlorine against
the effects of sunlight:
HVAC
Spot coolers
Cyanuric acid
Air fans
To neutralize chlorine:
Exhaust fans
Sodium thiosulfate
To cool the deck area

outdoors:
To oxidize organic matter:

Potassium monopersulfate
(nonchlorine shock)
Shade structures
Water misters
Peroxolytes
Chlorine dioxide
Hydrogen peroxide (used
with UV)
To break down oils and
prevent scum line:
Natural enzymes
To aid filtration:
Flocculants (alum)
Coagulants
Youll learn more about

chemical dosing with
metering pumps and feeders
in chapter 4.

water balance and chemical
treatment in chapter 7.
Chemical dosing
Energy management
and temperature
regulation

energy management and
temperature regulation in
chapter 10.
What types of
systems does
your facility use
for circulation,
filtration,
sanitation,
chemical dosing,
water treatment,
and temperature
control? This
combination
is what makes
your pool plant
operations unique!
Water Source
Whats in your
water? Before you
fill your pool, use
a commercial test
kit to analyze your
water or take a
sample to a test
lab.
When you look at a pool of clear water, you wouldnt think that the water itself could
cause damage to the pool systems, yet it certainly can! If the water you use to fill
the pool contains minerals such as iron, copper, calcium, manganese, or zinc, it
may cause staining, be discolored, or form unattractive scale that, over time, can
clog plumbing and filters. The water may also be corrosive and eat into plumbing,
plaster, or filters if it has some combinations of low pH, low total alkalinity, or low
calcium hardness. To counteract such conditions, you first need to know the quality and characteristics of your water source. Then you will know the problems and
trends you are facing and the chemicals you will need to use to solve them.
Before you fill your pool, use a commercial test kit to analyze your water or take
a sample to a test lab. Here are the most important questions to answer:
What are the pH, alkalinity, and hardness of the water?
Are there any minerals that will react with pool chemicals or affect the condition of the water?
he message of this chapter is clear: Get to know your pool! What material is it made from? Is it indoor or outdoor? Is it large or small, and how
do the various bodies of water or features interact? Become familiar with
the circulation, filtration, automation, and associated equipment (see table
1.1). Finally, what is the water source for your pool, and what might you
need to do to overcome any problems with that water? Knowing the answers
to all of these questions will help you succeed in your role as a pool plant
operator.
Performance Goal
Get to know your pool plant and its needs in order to be an
effective pool plant operator.
Best Practices
Know how each of your major systems workscirculation,
filtration, automation, sanitation, chemical treatment, and

temperature regulation.
Consider whats needed to properly operate your indoor or
outdoor pool based on its features and installed systems.
If you have multiple pool vessels or play equipment, consider
how they interact.
Know the characteristics of the water used to fill your
pool.
2
How a Pool
Circulation
System Works
ver feel as though you are running in circles? Well, that is

E
what your pool circulation system does, too. After fresh water
enters the system, it continuously circulates through an entire
system of mechanisms that mixes the water in the pool and
makes sure its filtered properly. Topics on deck:
How water flows through the pool and then into equipment that treats the water
What all of the parts of the circulation system are and
what they do
What flow and turnover are
How to solve problems with your circulation system
System Works
2 How a Pool Circulation
ouve probably enjoyed swimming in a clean, warm pool many times,

but have you ever thought about what has to go on behind the scenes
to make this happen? Pool circulation systems are more complex than they
seem from the outside, but each element has a purpose that makes sense
once you understand the system as a whole. Because youll be the one
responsible for making this system run reliably, we start by giving you a
tour of a typical pool plant layout, then briefly explain what each component
part does and how to keep it in good working order. We then explain turnover and flow, provide information you need to meet your local regulatory
agencys code requirements, and finish with a table showing solutions to
some common pool circulation system problems.
overview of A pool circulation System

This figure is a representation of the equipment and location of pool system components
and not an exact replica of size, scale, or design.
Fill
Circulate
10
Chemical
feeders
9
Return
inlets
Surface
skimmer or
gutters
Fill
inlet
From
1 source
water
UV
(if present)
Bottom outlet
(main drain)
Surge pit or
balance tank
3 (if present)
Filters
6
Disinfect
Automated
controller probes
(if present)
Gauge
Heat
Circulation
Gauge
pump
5
8
Heater/HVAC
(if present)
7
Flow meter
10
Filter
To waste
4
Hair/lint
strainers
How Water Flows Through

the Pool Circulation System
System Works
When water flows through a pool circulation system, it has to be continuously

cleared of suspended matter, sanitized, and kept at a comfortable temperature.
We wouldnt want our pool water to become like bathwaterfilled with soil and hair
with no means to get it out except draining! The water level also has to be regulated
so it doesnt spill over the sides of the pool or get too low that air is drawn into the
pumps. Good circulation mixes all the water in the pool and makes sure its filtered
properly, whereas poor circulation can lead to many water-quality problems.
Lets walk through how the water moves through each element of the system,
from first entering the pool as fresh water to circulating and returning to the pool.
Step 1. Fresh water enters the pool through either a manual or automatic fill valve.
Step 2. Once the water has entered the pool, it mixes, then flows out of the pool through
two exits: gutters or skimmers along the sides, and the main drains on the bottom.
Step 3. With gutter systems, the water is drawn by gravity into a surge pit or balance
tank, which holds excess surge water, assuring the gutters continue collecting surface
water and the circulation pump never loses prime.
Step 4. Next the water moves through the pumps strainer, which removes hair, lint, or
other items sucked into the drains, preventing them from entering the pump.
The water passes by a gauge that measures the vacuum (suction power) and . . .
Step 5. It then passes through the circulation pump, which keeps the water moving
through the system. The pump must have an adequate amount of water at all times; if it
runs dry, it will become damaged.
The water continues by a gauge that measures the pressure of the water coming out of
the pump and . . .
Step 6. It moves through some type of filter. Whereas the strainer took out
relatively large debris (such as bugs, leaves, and hair), the filter removes
much smaller suspended particles.
Step 7. As it leaves the filter, the water passes by a flow meter. This allows
you to see whether the water is moving through the system rapidly enough
to keep the pool clean and clear.
Step 8. The water now goes through the heater to be warmed, if a
heating system is installed.
Step 9. It then passes by one or more chemical feeders,
which add chemicals to sanitize and oxidize and to adjust
the pH of the water. If an automated chemical control
system is installed, the water flows past sensor probes
before reaching the feeders. The probes measure the
sanitizing and oxidizing potential in the water, along with
pH, and signal the feeders to dose the water on demand.
Step 10. Finally, the water is released back into the pool through pool inlets.
11
Thats the grand tour! At each of these steps, of course, equipment needs to be
maintained to keep the entire system functioning properly.
How Each System Part Functions

System Works
There are a lot of parts in this system! Lets examine each one separately. As we
go, well also give you some maintenance tips.
Fill Valves
Pool water evaporates, splashes, backwashes, and leaks out of the pool, so more
water must be added periodically. Fill valves, which connect a fresh water supply
to the pool, can be manual or automatic, and automatic valves can be either electronic or hydraulic (moved by water pressure). To prevent contamination of the
fresh water supply with pool water, theres a backflow preventer valve that allows
the water to run only from the fresh water line to the pool.
Maintenance: If you manually add new water to your pool, be sure to remember to
turn the water off! If you dont, you will end up flooding your facility! If you have an
automatic fill system, check and maintain it regularly so that you dont have the surprise of an overfilled pool when you arrive some morning.
If you have an automatic fill valve system, try shutting it off once a month for 24
hours to see whether the water level goes downa sign that your pool might be leaking. You may never detect a leak if the system is automatically compensating for the
loss of water.
Note: Due to rights limitations, this item has been removed.
12
How Much Water Is in Your Pool?
When your pool was built, the mechanical engineers and architects used the amount of water
that your pool can hold to calculate the correct size of pumps, piping, and filters. You need to
know about how many gallons (or liters) of water you have in your pool to calculate the dosage
for pool chemicals. This information should be in your pool licensing or operating permit documents, but if it isnt, you can easily calculate it on your own.
To Find Volume in Gallons
For a rectangular pool, the length times the width (L W).
For a circular pool or spa, the radius times the radius times 3.14 (R R 3.14).
The radius is the length from the center of the pool to the outside edge of the pool.
For an oval pool, the length from the center times the width from the center times
3.14.
System Works
1. Determine the surface area of your pool in square feet, using the following formulas:
2. Determine the average depth of your pool in feet. Because pools often vary in depth,
divide the pool into sections, such as the shallow and the deep end. For each section,
add the depth in feet at the shallowest end to the depth in feet at the deepest end and
divide by 2 to get an average.
3. Calculate the gallons in each section using this formula:
Surface area Average depth 7.5 = Number of gallons
The number 7.5 is a conversion factor used in calculating volume in

U.S. gallons. There are 7.48 gallons of water in a cubic foot, which is
rounded to 7.5 for use in the calculation.
4. Once youve calculated the number of gallons for each section, add
the sections together to get the total number of gallons of water in the
pool.
Having trouble
with the math?
Ask someone
for help.
Width
To Find Volume in Liters

1. Use the surface area formulas in step 1 of the previous list,
with the measurements in square meters.
2. Determine the average depth in meters and multiply that
number by the surface area. The result of this calculation is in
meters cubed (m3).
Length
Surface area Average depth =

Meters cubed (m3)
3. There are 1,000 liters in a

cubic meter of water, so the last
step is to multiply m3 1,000 to
obtain your pool volume in liters:
m3 1,000 = Number of liters
Width
Length
To find the surface area of an irregularly shaped

pool, calculate the length times the width for each
section of the pool; then add them together.
13
Surface Water Draw-Off
Contaminants are continuously entering pool water, either from the outside environment or from bathers bodies. Many of these, such as lint or hair, are light enough
to float, and oily substances such as body oil and suntan lotion stay on the waters
surface. Thank goodness for the systems that draw off the polluted surface water!
A combination of gutters or skimmers pull water from the surface to remove anything that is floating there.
System Works
Gutters For gutter systems, the pool water level is kept just above the lip of the
gutter so surface water and debris are drawn into it. The two main types of gutters
are those that are recessed below the deck level and those that are even with the
deck.
Recessed gutters have deep troughs that

help move excess water out of the pool and are
sometimes known as surge gutters. Some pools
with recessed gutters have a significant height
difference between the deck and the water.
Overflow gutters have wide grates that allow

large quantities of water to flow into them almost
constantly. Because the water overflows, any wave
action on the surface is quelled almost immediately.
Maintenance: Clean the gutters occasionally so they dont accumulate oil and debris
that can form scum or promote the growth of algae. A good scrubbing with a brush
will remove any buildup.
What types of
gutters does your
facility have? Does
your facility have
any skimmers?
14
Skimmers Skimmers generally are used in smaller pools and spas. They are
spaced around the pool in openings in the pool wall, and like gutters, they take
in surface water. Skimmers have a flap (called a weir) that floats with the water
level. When the surface water flows across the flap, it falls down into the skimmer
and flows through a skimmer basket. Any debris that was floating on the water is
caught in the skimmer basket.
Some skimmer systems have an equalizer plumbing line attached to the skimmer about a foot below the waters surface. A valve on the line is closed when
water flows through the skimmers normally, but it opens to allow pool water to
flow through the line if the water level falls below that of the skimmers throat. This
Floating weir
System Works
Skimmer
basket
Equalizer
check valve
To pump
suction
Equalizer
grate
Cross section of a skimmer.
ensures that water, not air, gets to the pump. If you have such a system, make sure
that the equalizer line does not generate direct suction, which could be hazardous
to pool patrons.
Maintenance: Remove and clean the skimmer baskets regularly. When you do,
check the skimmer lids for cracks and replace them if necessary. When you put the
emptied skimmer baskets back, secure the skimmer lids. The continuous flow of
water toward the skimmers will pull oils and other contaminants to the sides of the
pool, which can create a scum line where the water meets the pool wall. Brush the
walls at the water line around the entire pool at least daily to prevent scum buildup.
If your skimmer has a float (equalizer check valve) below the skimmer basket,
check to make sure the float hasnt been sucked closed. Restricted flow from low
water levels or flow blockage could cause this to happen.
Main Drains
Main drains allow large volumes of water to be pulled toward the filter. These drains
must be located at the deepest parts of the pool. They usually handle half the total
flow, but in some locations, the pool operating code calls for less.
Where are the

main drains at your
facility? Are the
covers secure and
free of damage?
15
System Works
Every main drain must have a secured drain cover

in place at all times. These drains generate a huge
amount of suction, and uncovered or damaged drains
have severely injured and even trapped bathers
underwater (especially children). Anti-entrapment
covers that are designed to prevent the suction
entrapment of limbs or hair can enhance safety and
are required in wading-type pools and spas. The rate
of flow through a drain (and therefore the amount of
suction) also must not be higher than code requirements. Many codes now call for two well-spaced main
drains for shallow pools.
Main drain.
Maintenance: Check drain covers daily to make sure they are undamaged, clear of
debris, and properly secured so that only maintenance personnel can remove them.
Never allow bathers to enter the pool if a drain cover is not intact and secure.
Balance Tank or Surge Pit

The balance tank or surge pit serves two purposes:
1. It holds excess flow from the pool that is created when many bathers enter
the water, causing the level to rise and spill into the gutters.
2. It keeps a reserve of water that comes from the main drains and ensures
that the circulation pump intake is covered with water at all times.
Maintenance: Clean your balance tank or surge pit annually. (Note that, because
most government occupational safety administrations consider these to be confined
spaces, your facility will need an approved confined-space program.)
Vacuuming the Pool

Another way to eliminate debris from the pool is to vacuum the pool floor regularly. Most pools
have some method of creating suction to do this. The suction may come from the pool pump,
a separate vacuum pump, skimmers, or a robotic vacuum system. Never vacuum a pool when
patrons are in the water. Youll learn more about vacuuming in chapter 10.
If a wall vacuum outlet goes directly to a pump, keep the outlet safely covered whenever
bathers are present and use it only when the pool is not occupied. Check daily to make sure
the outlet is securely closed and undamaged.
16
System Works
Balance tank (surge pit).
Many balance tanks or surge pits have a modulating float valve

attached to the main drain outlet to keep the water level within the
tank or pit from getting too low. It also assures a surge capacity
by preventing the surge tank from filling completely.
Pump Strainer
Strainers provide the last line of defense against debris entering
and clogging the recirculation pump and filter. Pump strainer
baskets capture things as small as hair and lint or as large as
goggles and toys. The pump strainer basket sits in a cylindrical
housing with a removable lid.
Dirty strainer.
Maintenance: Check the pump strainer basket every day, and clean it when necessary. Switch a clean basket for the dirty one: Once the dirty one dries, it is easier to
remove the lint and debris using a stiff brush.
Lubricate the lid gasket occasionally with a silicone-based (not petroleum-based)
lubricant to keep a watertight seal on the strainer, and replace it if it gets damaged or
brittle or fails to keep a seal.
Pipework
Pipes allow the water to flow to the various elements of the system. The size of the pipe plus the
pump pressure determine how fast water can circulate through the system. The pipes provide
resistance to flow, and that resistance increases as the water moves faster. Resistance decreases
as the diameter of the pipes becomes larger. For example, if water is flowing through a 4-inch
(10.2 cm) pipe at 10 feet (3.1 m) per second, and then enters a 2-inch (5 cm) pipe, only onequarter of the water will be able to enter the smaller pipe at the same speed.
17
System Works
Pump Vacuum Gauge
Pump vacuum gauge (on left) and pump pressure

gauge (on right).
The vacuum gauge, which is installed

between the strainer and the pump, measures the amount of vacuum forming at
that point in the system (which indicates
how hard the pump is working to pull
water through the system). It is measured
in inches of mercury (inHg) or millimeters of
mercury (mmHg). If your strainer does not
have a clear cover that allows you to look
inside to see how much debris is present,
reading the gauge is a way for you to monitor how much the debris is blocking water
flow and increasing vacuum. By comparing
each days gauge reading with the readings
made when the system is clean, and learning over time what the upper limit is, you will
know when to clean the strainer.
Circulation Pump
Water flow
Casing
The circulation pump is the pool systems heart, moving the water throughout
the system. This usually is a centrifugal pump. Water is drawn in to the center, and
the impellers blades move it rapidly to the outside. This movement creates pressure within the pumps volute, or diffuser, and propels it through the pool system.
A motor with a sealed shaft turns the impeller.
The effectiveness of the pump determines how fast water moves through the
system (see Turnover and Flow later in this chapter). This in turn affects how often
the pools water volume moves through the filter. You want your pool water to be
clear and, if a heater is installed, relatively warm, right? So you want to make sure the
circulation pump is working properly at all times!
If circulation slows or stops, all of your water treatment systems will stop too, and youll quickly see
a not-too-pleasant change in your water quality.
Impeller
Pumps can be either straight centrifugal or selfpriming. A self-priming pump can work using
only the water contained in the pump casing,
whereas the straight pump must have a constant
water supply. Self-priming pumps are usually
mounted above their water source, and straight
pumps are usually mounted below grade, so the
water flows in by gravity. Self-priming pumps can
remove air from circulation lines quickly because
they usually operate at 3,200 rpm, but they are
less efficient than straight pumps, which operate
at half that speed.
Cross section of a pump.
18
Maintenance: If you have problems with the pump, contact a motor repair shop. Have a
copy of the motor nameplate on hand to identify the type and model of pump you have,
and be able to describe the symptoms that indicate the pump is not working properly.
System Works
WARNING! Once the water has gone through the pump, it is under pressure. The pump
also adds air to the systemair that can be compressed. This means that all equipment
that comes after the pump is under pressure. As a result, if the water flow changes abruptly
(such as when a valve is opened or closed), the pressure literally can break the system
apart. So, before you adjust any part of the system that comes after the pump, stop the
pump or throttle down the flow to reduce the pressure.
Pump Pressure Gauge

A gauge is mounted right after the pump to measure the pumps pressure output
as it pushes the water to the filters. This is measured in pounds per square inch
(psi) or the metric measurements of bar (1 psi = 0.069 bar) or kilipascals (1 psi =
6.89 kPa). The pressure needs to be high enough to keep up the flow and move
the pools volume of water through the filter at rates needed for the system (see
Turnover and Flow later in this chapter).
The measurements from this pressure gauge and the vacuum gauge located
before the pump can be used to determine the total losses in the system due to
resistance to water flow. This is known as the total dynamic head (TDH), and it is
calculated as follows:
(Pump vacuum gauge reading 1.133) + (Pump pressure gauge reading 2.31) = TDH
More on TDH
It might be helpful to understand a little more about resistance to water flow. Various parts of the
circulation system create resistance that the circulation pump must overcome for the water to
flow at a constant speed. For example, it takes more force to push water up through a pipe than
to push it horizontally. When water flows from a big pipe into a smaller pipe, it bottlenecks and
the speed of the water actually increases while the total flow might be reduced. Various valves
and even the filter itself also resist water flow.
The measurement of this resistance to flow is called pump head. Three head components
added together create a reading called total dynamic head (TDH):
Static head. The vertical distance the water must be raised. This is measured from the waters
surface to the highest destination point in the circulation system, usually the pool.
Friction head. The amount of friction loss as water flows through pipes. The higher the flow
and the smaller the pipe, the higher the water flow resistance. This is calculated by using
the flow of your pump and your overall pipe length, including fittings.
Pressure head. The amount of additional pressure that is needed to push the water through
filters, spray nozzles, UV lights, and so forth.
You wont need to know how to calculate the TDH for sizing of filters or pumps. The pump size
and filter size were determined by the engineers and design team based on TDH and volume
long before the pool was built. But it is good for you to understand the concept.
19
Maintenance: Record the pump vacuum gauge and pump pressure gauge readings
daily. Keep track of the systems TDH when the filter is clean, and if you see changes
in the TDH, look for problems in the system such as a worn pump or a dirty filter.
Filtration System
System Works
For more on
filters, see
chapter 3.
So many types of filtration systems are available that we have a separate chapter
on filters and their care. Just like the filter on a coffee maker, pool filters are meant
to rid the water of tiny particles using porous material that will trap them. The various types of materials used to entrap particles in filters are called filter media. They
all also need to be cleaned periodically.
Vacuum filters are installed before the pump, whereas pressure filters come
after the pump. Pressure filters often have additional pressure gauges. One gauge
measures the pressure of water as it enters the filter (influent), and the other
measures the pressure of the water as it flows out of the filter (effluent). The difference between the pressure readings on these gauges is called the differential.
The trapped particles build up and eventually slow the waters flow through the
filter, reducing pressure on the effluent gauge and making the differential exceed
a predetermined limit established by the manufacturer. When this happens, you
know its time to backwash the filters.
Does your pool have vacuum filters or pressure filters? If you have pressure filters, check the
gauges! When the pressure at the effluent gauge is lower than the pressure at the influent
gauge by 10 psi or more, it is time to clean the filter. This differential limit is set by the
filter manufacturer and is sometimes as much as 15 psi.
Maintenance: If the needles on the pressure gauges vibrate, rather than staying
steady, you may have air trapped in the filter or not enough water circulating.
Flow Meter
Flow meters measure the flow of water through the
system. The most common type of flow meter is a tube
made from clear acrylic and mounted on a pipe. As
the water flows past the meter, the pressure causes
a stainless steel float to rise up the tube. A scale is
printed on the tube, and the flow rate is indicated by
the position of the float. This type of device is known
as a variable flow meter.
The flow rate can also be measured with a sensor
and a digital reading displayed on a device mounted
on the pipe or another location. Flow meters are usually inserted into a pipe after the filter but before the
chemical feeder. The best location is wherever theres
Variable flow meter and a digital flow meter.
20
(continued on page 22)
Valves
System Works
Various types of valves are used to control water flow in a pool system. They
All gate valves
each have different types of handles and methods of opening and closing.
work the same
A gate valve controls the water flow by rotating a solid flap inside the
way, so a handy
pipe. Most gate valves have a wheel handle. Turn the handle left to open
the valve and turn the handle right to close it.
way to remember
A butterfly valve uses two flaps inside the pipe that are adjusted to control
how to open or
the amount of water flow. A butterfly valve may be operated using a gear wheel
close a valve is
handle, a lever handle, a multi-valve handle, or an electric control box. Butterfly
righty-tighty,
valves are commonly used in commercial pool circulation systems.
As the name implies, a ball valve has a ball inside of the pipe that has a
lefty-loosey!
large hole through the center. As the valve handle is turned, the ball rotates,
the hole lines up with the pipe, and water is able to flow through. A ball valve is usually installed
on small pipes. To open the valve, turn the handle so it is in line with the pipe; to close the valve,
turn the handle so its at a right angle to the pipe.
A multiport valve controls the flow of the water to several pipes. This type of valve is used
with a high-rate sand filter and is commonly found on smaller pools or water features. For a
multiport valve, check the manufacturers instructions. Always turn the valve handle in the
same direction with the handle depressed, or you may damage the diverter gasket and create
a leak.
Remember, be sure not to
adjust any valves without
first turning off the pump,
bleeding air out of the
system (if release valves
are present), or throttling
down the flow, to avoid the
risk of blowing the system
apart.
The direction of water
flow through the circulation components such as
pipes and valves should
be identified in some way,
and the valves should be
numbered. A chart should
be posted showing where
all the parts are located
and what they do. Learn
the system your facility
uses for identifying components.
Gate valve
Butterfly valve
Ball valve
Multiport valve
21
a straight, uninterrupted section of pipe before and after the meter. The length of
the pipe before the meter should be 10 times the pipe diameter, and the length of
the pipe after the meter should be half that length (or five times the pipe diameter).
Most regulatory agencies require minimum flow values when operating a nondomestic (public) pool, so its important to check the flow meter daily and to record
the values noted.
System Works
Maintenance: If you ever get the same flow reading day after day on a variable flow
meter, you should suspect that the stainless steel float may be jammed. A piece of
debris as small as a grain of sand can cause the stainless steel float to get stuck
inside the flow meter. Be sure to turn off your pumps before removing a flow meter
for cleaning or replacement, and make sure it makes a good seal over the installation
hole when you put it back in place.
Removing and Reinstalling a Variable Flow Meter

Occasionally, you will have to take off, clean, and reinstall a flow meter. Here are some basic
steps for the most common types of flow meters. Modify these steps according to the instructions for your equipment.
1. Turn off the pump. Put on eye protection before removing the flow meter.
2. Use a screwdriver to loosen the stainless steel clamps. Loosen the clamps alternately a little at a time until they slide off the base of the flow meter body.
3. Carefully lift the flow meter off the pipe. Note the direction of the tube opening and
flow arrow so you can reinstall it correctly.
4. Carefully take off the cap at the top of the flow meter and remove the stainless steel
float. Note the up position of the float so you can reinstall it correctly. Wash the flow
meter body and float with a mild soap-and-water solution. Use a small bristle brush for
the inside of the flow meter.
5. Replace the float into the flow meter body, replace the cap, position the gasket, and
insert the flow meter into the drilled pipe. Make sure to position it so the water flows into
the tube opening. Place and alternately tighten the stainless steel clamps.
Heater
The heater warms the water before it is returned to the pool. Heaters can run on
gas (natural gas, propane), electricity (immersion heaters, heat pumps), solar, or
geothermal power. Heaters usually have a check valve between the filter and the
heater, as well as between the heater and the chemical feeder, to prevent heated
water from flowing back into the filter or chemicals back into the heater. Some
heaters also have a bypass line that allows better control of the amount of water
that is heated and permits the heater to be taken off line without shutting down
the pool.
22
Automated controllers measure conditions in the water and signal various pieces
of equipment what to do. Its like having a conductor in your pool plant who will
monitor and control the interaction between the systems! Automated controllers
are usually installed to control chemical metering pumps.
Chemical metering pumps and feeders add the chemicals in a regulated way.
The type of chemicals you want to add to the water will determine if you use a
positive displacement pump, erosion feeder, or venturi vacuum feeder.
For more on
automated
controllers,
metering
pumps,
and chemical
feeders, see
chapter 4.
Pool Inlets
The water is returned to the pool through inlets in the wall, floor, or both. The direction of these inlets is adjustable and should be set to distribute chemicals and warm
water evenly throughout the pool, without any dead spots where the incoming
water doesnt mix.
Now that you have a basic understanding of the various pool circulation system
elements, lets take a look at the two key rate measurements you need to know to
check the system and to keep your pool operating within statutory requirements.
Turnover and Flow

A turnover is the amount of time it takes your circulation system to move an amount
of water equal to the total volume of water in your pool through the filters. Even
though it may look still on the surface, the water in your pool is constantly moving,
randomly mixing, and creating intricate circulation patterns. This movement causes
some water to be drawn into the system more often than other water. On the first
turnover, only about 42 percent of the water makes it through the system, most of
that amount twice, and a small amount of it three times. Sixty percent doesnt make
it through the pump room at all! It takes several turnovers before most of the water
has been filtered and treated. A turnover rate is the number of turnovers per day,
so a six-hour turnover is a turnover rate of four.
Most pool codes usually require a maximum six-hour turnover for a nondomestic (public) pool.
Spas usually require a 30-minute turnover.
Wading pools usually require a two-hour turnover.
Your local regulatory agencys code may specify other turnover requirements
for different pool classifications.
23
System Works
Automated Controllers, Chemical Metering Pumps,

and Feeders
Maintenance: If you are using a natural gas heater, be very careful if problems arise
with the ignition system. Unregulated ignition of the gas could cause an explosion.
Follow the manufacturers instructions for dealing with such problems, and call a service technician trained in repairing this type of equipment.
Best Practices: Solving Circulation System Problems
Pump loses
prime or air
bubbles are
coming out of
the inlets.
System Works
Problem
Possible causes
A suction leak due to

lack of water.
Always keep water flowing

through the pump.
A leak at the joint

(particularly the first
fitting in the strainer).
Make sure that the strainer

covers and O-ring are on
tight.
A pump that is far above

the pool water level or
too far from the pool, so
it takes longer to prime.
Make sure that air is not

flowing through the system.
A loose strainer cover or

worn O-ring under the
cover.
To fix the problem

Inspect all possible sources
of air intake and tighten or
replace.
Reprime the pump according
to your manufacturers
instructions.
If the cause is a damaged
impeller or clogged pipe,
contact a service technician
trained in pump and plumbing
repair.
A damaged impeller.
A clogged suction pipe.
Pump is
making noise.
Not enough water in

the impeller, causing
cavitation. In cavitation,
bubbles rapidly form
and burst in the water,
causing uneven water
flow and vibration (you
can hear a difference in
the sound of the pump).
Vibrations between the
bottom of the pump and
the base it sits on.
Motor bearings making
noise.
Cant maintain
adequate
flow.
Clogging in the strainer

or filter.
Stuck valves.
For cavitation, routinely

check for debris in the
skimmers, strainer, or filter
or blockages or leaks in the
circulation system.
For vibrations, make sure the
pump is securely fixed to its
base.
For bearings, make sure
you dont feed chemicals
into the suction side of the
pump that can corrode
the pump seal. Grease the
motor bearings on a proper
maintenance schedule with
marine-quality grease.
For cavitation, clean out

any debris in the skimmers,
strainer, or filter, or correct
any blockages or leaks in
the circulation system. You
must correct any cavitation
problems right away, or they
may damage the pump or its
motor.
For vibrations, secure the
pump to the base.
For bearings, call a
professional pump repair
person.
Clean the strainer regularly.
Check all valve settings.
Backwash the filter at the

pressure recommended by
the manufacturer.
Inspect all strainer baskets and

clean if necessary.
Backwash for a longer time
and/or at a slightly slower flow
rate.
Inspect the filter to determine
whether a problem there is the
cause.
Water surface
is not being
skimmed.
Water is too low or too

high in the pool.
Maintain the water at

the appropriate level for
skimming.
Adjust your automatic level
controller.
24
If the water level is too low,

check for leaks. If no leaks
are found, you may want
to consider installing an
automatic level controller. If
the water level is too high and
you have an automatic level
controller, check and repair the
controller if necessary.
What is the flow

at your pool?
What should it be,
according to your
local codes?
Flow is how fast water is running through your circulation system. Its measured
in gallons per minute (gpm) or cubic meters per hour (m3/h). The flow meter in your
system tells you the actual rate.
The circulation flow must be high enough to achieve the turnover required by
your local regulatory agencys code. To determine what that flow must be in gallons, use the following formula:
System Works
Gallons of water in the pool or spa Specified turnover in minutes =

Needed flow in gallons per minute.
For example, if you had a pool that held 100,000 gallons of water and needed a
six-hour turnover (6 hours 60 minutes in an hour = 360 minutes), your circulation
flow must be at a rate of 280 gpm to achieve that goal.
100,000 gallons 360 minutes =
277.77 gallons per minute (gpm) or, appropriately rounded, 280 gpm.
our pools circulation system is very important! It helps keep your pool
water clean, warm, and disinfected. It even helps regulate the water
level. All of these things help keep your patrons happy and your pool operating properly. Its up to you to keep the system working well. We know that
is a big responsibility, but following the guidelines in this chapter will help
you accomplish this goal.
Performance Goal
Keep your pool circulation system in good working order to keep
pool water clean and avoid costly repairs to the equipment.
Best Practices
Know how water runs through your pool circulation system

and why.
Check and record the systems performance daily.

Clean skimmer and pump strainer baskets frequently to keep
from starving your pump of the water it needs to operate
effectively.
Follow all manufacturers safety precautions and instructions when making changes to equipment tied in to the
circulation system.
25
3
How
filtration
systems work
f you make coffee, you probably use a filter to keep coffee

grounds from getting into your cup. Even your car has an air
filter to keep dirt from invading the engine! In the same way,
filtration systems in pool facilities remove small particles from
pool water to keep it clean and clear. This chapter explains how
filtration systems work. Topics on deck:
What sand filters are and how to backwash them
What diatomaceous earth (DE) filters are and how to
clean them
What cartridge filters are and how to maintain them
iltration systems in pool facilities remove small, suspended particles from pool
water. Your patrons expect an inviting pool, and the first step to sparkling water
is to make sure the filtration system is working well. Three types of filtration systems
are commonly used in pools and spas:
Sand filters, which are considered permanent media filters
Diatomaceous earth (DE) filters, which are considered disposable (temporary) media filters
Cartridge filters, which use paper or fabric
The media in permanent media filters is replaced only rarely, whereas the media
in temporary media filters and cartridge filters must be replaced on a regular basis.
Lets look at each type of filter to see how it works, how it can be cleaned, and how
to resolve any problems that may arise.
Sand Filters
What type of filters
does your facility
usesand, DE,
or cartridge? Are
different types of
filters used for
different pools at
your facility?
The earliest pool filters were of the sand-and-gravel type. This reliable technology
has been updated over the years, and its still in use, but in a much more convenient and efficient way. Today modern sand filters use either pressure or vacuum
to circulate the pool water through the sand at a much higher rate.
Sand is considered to be a permanent media because it stays in the filter
tank and does not have to be replenished, although it may have to be replaced
eventually. Many conditions affect the life of filter sand, but a well-maintained filter
can operate for 10 years or more before the sand has to be replaced. Besides the
older but still common sand-and-gravel filters, the two types of sand filters most
often used are pressure high-rate sand and vacuum (or gravity) high-rate sand.
Pressure High-Rate Sand Filters

Commercial sand filters come in a variety of sizes and shapes, and they are made
of either steel or fiberglass. The filter tank may be vertical or horizontal, and any
number of tanks might be used to filter a body of water. The tank size, placement,
and valve type for the filter system are based on the amount of water to be filtered,
the required turnover times, and space factors. These decisions are made during
the engineering and design phase of pool construction.
Despite differences in size, placement, and valve type, pressure sand filters
all work the same way. Water flows in the top and is dispersed evenly by a baffle
arrangement (also called a distributor) mounted below the input fitting. The water
Where Can I Find the Filter?

You can tell where a filter is located in a pool circulation system by its name!
A filter with vacuum in its name is placed before the pump (where the pump
creates a suction), whereas a filter with pressure in its name will come after
the pump (where the pump creates pressure).
28
42 to 44.
Monitor the difference between the influent side (shown on the left) and the effluent
side (shown on the right) to determine when your filter needs to be cleaned.
29
falls into the filter bed, which consists of coarse sand

Air pressure relief
(pressure filters)
processed specifically for pressure high-rate sand
filters. A lateral drain (collector) arrangement at the
bottom of the bed allows the clean water to flow out
Baffle system
after filtration. The drain openings are too small to
allow the sand to wash out with the water.
Soil particles and oils in suspension are trapped
in the sand. In 8 to 12 hours after contaminated
Inlet
water enters a clean filter, the contaminants form
a coating on the sand that traps smaller particles
more efficiently. This coating is called a floc. The
contaminants continue to build up in the sand until
they restrict the flow of water in the system too much.
Outlet
The natural process of floc development can be
enhanced by using coagulant products that cause
suspended solids to clump together or by adding
flocculant products that coat the sand with aluminum sulphate (alum). These products are added to
the water by hand or by means of chemical dosing
Underdrains
pumps.
You can determine how dirty the filter is by comparing the pressure gauge on the influent (incoming) side to that on the effluent (outgoing) side of
Cross section of a pressure sand filter tank.
the filtration system. When the filter is clean, theres
not much difference between the two. As the filter
gets loaded, the influent gauge pressure rises, while the effluent gauge reading
For more
on chemical
stays the same or drops. When the pressure differential between them gets to the
feeders
level recommended by the filter manufacturer, you know that its time to clean the
see pages
filter.
You can see that the sand does not fill up the entire tank; there is an empty space,
called freeboard, at the top. This space is there so that when the filter bed is cleaned
by reversing the flow of water, the sand can rise up and release contaminants into
the water. The suspended contaminants then drain to waste through the overhead
distributors. This method of cleaning is called backwashing. You can determine
how long you need to backwash your filter by monitoring the sight glass.
End the backwash when the water in the sight glass becomes almost clear.
Depending on the size and complexity of your filter system, your manufacturer
may suggest that you manually open air release valves prior to backwashing. These
valves are located on the top of smaller filters and are opened by hand turning.
Large filters usually have a PVC pipe attached to the top of the filter that joins another
pipe within reach where a valve can be opened to release the air. Be sure to close
air release valves after backwashing to avoid a loss of water or pump pressure. If
you have heaters, boilers, or HVAC installed, the manufacturer may suggest that
you turn these off or close certain valves before backwashing.
Small commercial sand filters are fitted with one multiport valve, whereas large
ones use a series of manually or automatically controlled valves to control the flow
of water through the filter. Backwashing a filter with a multiport valve is a simple
process. Each function of the filter is identified on a notch on the valve handle:
Filter. Used for normal operations when the water flows through the filter.
Rinse. Used after backwash to rinse the inside of the tank.
30
Recirculate. Used to circulate the water to and from the pool, but the water
bypasses the filter. This setting would be used if you keep the pump running
so that the water is circulating but want to keep the water from going through
the filter.
Backwash. Used to clean the sand, reversing the water flow through the
filter.
Closed. Used when the flow to the filter needs to be shut off and the pumps
are not running.
Waste/drain. Used to send the water straight to the drain. The water bypasses
the filter and does not return to the pool.
If you are manually backwashing a filter with a series of valves, you have to know
which valves need to be closed to reverse the flow of water and then remember to
open each valve when the backwashing is complete. Most modern filter systems
with manual valves have several valves linked together so that you have to pull
down or push up on only one lever to place
all of the valves in the proper position for
backwash.
If you are using programmed controllers to automatically backwash the filter,
monitor the readouts of pressure and flow
rate on a regular basis. These automatic
systems are convenient but sometimes fail
to backwash often enough.
Follow the manufacturers instructions on
water flow during backwashing. Too low a
water flow will do a poor job of removing
dirt, and if this happens repeatedly, you
may clog the filter bed permanently (requiring replacement of the bed). Too high a
water flow can disturb the filter bed and
move the sand around. It also could send
some of the sand out through the distributors at the top.
The interval between backwashings is
referred to as a filter cycle or run. Dont
schedule backwashings for a set period
of time, because when the filter is slightly
dirty (flocced) it actually cleans the water
better than when it has just been cleaned.
Backwash only when the pressure reading
on a single gauge filter, or the difference
between the readings on a filter with influent and effluent gauges, reaches a level
indicated by the manufacturer.
A pool plant operator pulls down one lever, which places
all valves in proper position for a backwash.
31
How to Backwash or Clean Your Filter

Do you have the manufacturers instructions for backwashing your filtration system? If you
cannot find paper copies at your facility, you can usually find them online by searching on the
manufacturers name and finding the technical support resource for the make and model of your
filter. Here are some basic steps for each type of filter, which you should modify according to
the instructions for your system. If your pool plant has a heater installed, turn it off at least five
minutes before backwashing.
To Backwash a Small Sand Filter With a Multiport Valve
1. Turn off the pump and close any valves to erosion chemical feeders.
2. Open the air release valve located on the top of the tank by turning it
counterclockwise.
3. Squeeze the valve handle and slowly press it down to release the
valve from the filter position. Then slowly rotate the handle so the
valve moves to the backwash position. Always fully depress the
valve handle and turn the valve in the same direction.
4. Open the valve to your backwash hose or pipe. Turn on the filter
and backwash until the water being discharged to waste runs
clear, usually only a few minutes.
5. Turn off the pump, move the handle to the rinse position,
turn on the pump, and run the filter for about 20 seconds.
6. To return to normal operation, turn off the pump again, close the
air release valve, close the valve to the backwash pipe, and open
valves to erosion chemical feeders.
7. Move the handle to the filter position and turn on the pump.
Observe the pressure gauge reading, which should now be your
baseline reading for a clean filter.
To Backwash a Large Multi-Cell Sand Filter
Turn off the pump.
Open the air release valves for the filter cell you will backwash.
Close off any additional filter cells.
Pull the valve handle down into backwash position.
Turn on the pump.
Monitor the sight glass and backwash until the water is almost clear.
Turn off the pump.
Move the valve handle up into filter position, open the valves to any
additional filter cells, and close the air release valve.
9. Turn on the pump. Observe the pressure difference between the
influent and effluent gauges, which should now be your baseline
reading for a clean filter.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
32
To Backwash a Vacuum DE Filter

1. Turn off the pump.
2. Close the valve to the pool and open the valve to the waste or
a separation tank.
3. Turn on the sump pump to drain the filter pit tank.
4. As the water level drops, use a hose to spray the elements
and remove the DE.
5. Refill the filter pit tank.
6. Turn off the sump pump and close the valve to the waste or a
separation tank. Open the precoat valve.
7. Turn on the circulation pump. Broadcast DE into the tank to

recoat the elements. Allow the water to circulate in the filter
tank until it clears, usually about 30 to 45 minutes. Then open
the return valve to the pool and close the precoat valve.
To Backwash a Pressure DE Filter
1. Turn off the pump.
2. Close the valve to the pool. Open the valve to the separation tank.
3. Turn on the pump to reverse the water flow.
4. Watch the sight glass and stop the backwash when the water is clear.
5. Turn off the pump, close the valve to the separation tank, and open the
valve to the pool.
6. Turn on the pump. Feed a slurry of DE and water into the filter to recoat
the elements.
To Clean a Cartridge Filter
1. Turn off the pump and close any valves to erosion chemical feeders.
2. Open the canister by slowly turning the top to the left. Remove the
filter cartridge.
3. Spray the cartridge with a hose to remove the large dirt and debris.
4. Soak the cartridge in a cleaning solution such as TSP to remove
body oils. Rinse with water.
5. Soak the cartridge in a solution of muriatic acid and water to remove
mineral deposits. Rinse with water.
6. Soak the cartridge in a bleach solution to kill bacteria and any algae
spores. Rinse with water.
7. Place the cartridge back in the canister. Replace the top by turning
the top to the right. Do not overtighten, but be sure the canister top
has a tight seal.
8. Turn on the pump. Open any valves to erosion chemical feeders.
33
Vacuum High-Rate Sand Filters

If your facility has a vacuum high-rate sand filter, it is located before the pump. It
has an open top, with the filter bed housed in a tank in a pit that is as deep as 8
feet (2.4 m). The pit is well below pool level, so overflow water moves to the filter
by gravity. It serves as a surge pit as well as a filter, and this filter doesnt require
a strainer basket.
When this filter is backwashed, it can be cleaned at a much lower flow than is
required of a pressure filter. A vacuum sand filter is often installed in locations where
there are restrictions on the backwash rate that can be sent to the sewer system.
Best Practices: Solving Sand Filter Problems

Problem
Possible causes
Water flow is
too slow.
Blocked return line or

partially closed valve. Either
of these can restrict water
flow.
Mudballs. If the backwash
flows are inadequate or
chlorination is insufficient
over long periods of time,
sand can mix with lint, hair,
and other debris to form
lumps in the sand. These
lumps slow the flow of water.
Calcification. If over a long
period of time backwash
flow is less than needed or
the water is not chemically
balanced, the filter bed may
develop a rigid coating that
blocks water flow.
Dirt and
small debris
are getting
into the pool
from the filter.
Channeling. If mudballs are

forced down into the sand,
they may cause channeling,
or tunnels in the sand. Water
flows more quickly through
these channels and can
carry debris back into the
pool. Channels are likely to
grow bigger over time as
water rushes through them.
Rounding of sand. After
a long period of time, the
sharp edges of the sand
in the filter beds are worn
down. At that point, the sand
doesnt trap dirt as well.
34

Use the manufacturers
recommended backwash
flow.
Keep the water properly
balanced (see chapter 5
for information on water
balance).
Check the filter bed at least
annually for problems. Look
for peaks and valleys, as
well as gaps between the
inside of the tank and the
filter bed. Rake the sand
to level it out, removing
mudballs and hair.
Backwash when indicated

and maintain proper water
chemistry.
To fix the problem

If you suspect that blockage
in the circulation system is
the cause of your problem,
check for obstructions in the
return line and for partially
closed valves. Remove the
obstruction or open the
valve.
If you think mudballs or
calcification is the cause of
your problem, try soaking
each filter tank with a
chlorine solution or filter
cleaner. However, if this
doesnt work, you may have
to replace the sand in your
filter bed. Replace it with the
size of sand recommended
by the manufacturer.
Inspect the sand and

replace if indicated.
Best Practices: Solving Sand Filter Problems
Water is
cloudy.
Possible causes
Poor water chemistry.
Poor or no circulation. If
youve eliminated water
chemistry as the cause,
check the circulation and
make sure all pumps are
operating properly.
Filter needs backwashing.
Although a slightly dirty filter
works better than a clean
one, a very dirty filter will
lose its effectiveness.
Heavy bather loads. The
filter sometimes cant keep
up with removing all the fine
particles.
To fix the problem
Check your pump operation

and filter gauges frequently
so you can fix any problems
before water quality is
affected. You also can use
organic polymers to clean
up fine particles in the pool
water. These chemicals,
when distributed on the
pools surface, neutralize
the polarities of particles
and cause them to clump
together in larger (but still
not visible) pieces. The
filter can then remove
these larger pieces more
effectively.
Check the pressure

readings on the filter gauges
and backwash if necessary.
Check pump operation
and reprime or repair
any malfunctions that are
affecting circulation.
Close access to any area of
the pool where the bottom
is not clearly visible until
the problem is fixed and the
water is clear.
Sand is
getting into
the pool.
Broken lateral drain. A

broken drain allows sand
to drain out with the water.
Such a break is sometimes
the result of a water
chemistry imbalance or
too rapid a change in the
direction of the water flow.
Keep the water properly

balanced. Dont switch from
regular flow to backwash
flow without first turning the
pump off.
If you find that a broken

lateral is leaking sand, you
will need to remove the sand
bed and replace the lateral.
You may want to consider
replacing all the laterals
while you have the sand out
of the filter tank.
Gauges
show
unusual
readings.
Gauge reacts slowly to

pressure or is stuck. The
nozzle is clogged or the
mechanism is broken.
Keep a record of your filter

gauge readings so you can
identify any discrepancies
before a small clog turns
into a full clog. Backwash
when needed, and maintain
proper water chemistry
to avoid mudballs,
calcification, or channeling.
Visually inspect the sand
bed every year to check for
problems.
If you suspect theres

something wrong with the
gauge itself, remove it and
check the opening in the
gauges nozzle. If you cant
see the opening, clean or
replace the gauge. You also
can check how a gauge is
working by switching it with
another gauge that performs
a similar function and seeing
if it responds properly.
Mudballs, calcification, and

channeling. These may
be the problem if the filter
medium is over eight years
old or has not been well
maintained.
If you think the problem

is mudballs, calcification,
or channeling, turn off the
pumps and remove the
manhole cover. Inspect the
sand bed, and replace the
sand if needed.
35
Problem
(continued)
Diatomaceous Earth (DE) Filters
DE powder.
The media used in temporary media filters is diatomaceous earth, known as DE, which is simply
the fossilized skeletons of microscopic ocean
organisms. The DE is removed from the ground
and processed into a fine powder that resembles
flour. This sounds strange, doesnt it? But it actually serves as a great filter! DE powder is used
as a coating on filter elements and provides an
excellent medium for catching small particles in
water down to the size of a few microns.
In temporary media filters, plastic elements of
different shapes, held together on a septum, are
covered with chemical-resistant cloth to hold the
DE in place. The elements are attached to a pipe
that draws the clean water out of the filter.
For filtration to take place, you must coat the
septum elements with DE in a step called precoating. This is accomplished by first removing the old coat of DE and then adding
just the right amount of DE to the filter, either as a slurry of water and DE or the
DE itself.
Too little DE will not cover all of the cloth on the filter elements, so that debris
and oils get caught in the cloth. This will reduce water flow and perhaps
damage the elements.
Too much DE may cause the coating from one element to merge with the one
next to it, in a phenomenon called bridging.
Protect
yourself with
a mask when
handling DE.
For more
on personal
protective
equipment,
see page 127.
Immediately after adding the DE, you turn on the pump. The DE applies itself
evenly to the elements as it follows the waters flow, becoming whats called a filter
cake. As one area becomes covered with DE and blocks the water, the water then
tends to flow to where less DE has built up. The flow of water is what keeps the
DE on the elements, so dont turn off the pump on this filter unless you want the
DE to fall off!
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Clean Water Act prohibits the discharge of DE into a drinking water source or into municipal storm sewers. Instead,
backwash water that contains DE is often sent under pressure into a separation tank.
The tank has a bag that collects the DE from the water. You can then discard the
DE according to your local regulations. In areas without DE dumping restrictions,
the DE is backwashed to waste, usually to a retaining pond or septic bed.
If you want to extend the filter cycle on a DE filter, you can use one of two
methods:
Continuous slurry feeding, in which you slowly add more clean DE to the
filter.
Interrupt filtration, in which you release the dirty DE into the filter water by
36
stopping the pump briefly and then return the same DE to the elements. This
cleans some of the dirt from the DE and rearranges the surface to expose
more of the clean DE.
You can tell when to clean a DE filter by monitoring the difference in readings
between influent and effluent pressure gauges on a pressure filter and the reading
on the vacuum gauge on a vacuum filter.
Three types of DE filters are commonly used:
Pressure DE filter
Vacuum DE filter
WARNING! Although DE might seem to be a harmless substance, it actually can be dangerous if it enters your lungs. DE used for filtration contains a highly crystallized form of
silica that has microscopically sharp edges! Whenever you handle DE, wear a protective
mask that will keep you from breathing or swallowing it or from getting it in your eyes. (See
chapter 9 for more on personal protective equipment.) Breathing a large quantity of DE all
at once may send you to the emergency room, and exposure to DE over a long period of
time carries health risks that you must take steps to avoid.
Pressure DE Filter
The pressure DE filter consists of a pressurized tank, a septum with a set of tubular
or cylindrical elements held together on a bracket with rods, and water inlet and
outlet valves at the bottom. Water comes in through
the bottom of the tank and sweeps the DE from the
bottom of the tank up onto the elements, where it is
deposited. The water then passes through the elements, leaving any suspended dirt on the DE, and
the clean water leaves the filter through the outlet.
As with pressure sand filters, you clean a pressure
DE filter by backwashing it. However, with DE filters
the reverse flow of water carries away the DE media.
(In some systems, water or air sprays or rotation
additionally help clean the DE off the elements.) This
water is released into the separation tank. If you have
a sight glass, you can watch for when the water runs
clear to determine when to stop the backwash. Run
through additional backwash cycles if necessary to
remove all the DE from the elements.
To recoat (or precoat) the elements, a slurry of DE
and water must be fed into the filter. Some filters have
a system of a tank, a slow agitator, and a feed pump
DE-coated
that does this. Mixing of the DE and water must be
Inlet
septa
slow to avoid pulverizing the DE, so you should
carefully follow the manufacturers instructions for
frequency of operation and feed-pump speed. In
Outlet
older models of DE filters that dont have automatic
Cross section of a pressure DE filter.
feeders, the DE must be added manually.
37
Regenerative DE filter
Vacuum DE Filter
Do you see
problems with
your pool water?
Is it cloudy or
dirty, or is the
circulation flow of
water too slow?
Dont ignore these
signs of filtration
problems. Find
the best practices
table for your type
of filter (pages 34
to 35, 39, or 40),
and diagnose the
problem.
Like a vacuum sand filter, a vacuum DE filter is in an open tank that is fed by gravity from the pool overflow. In instances where the tank is located higher than the
pool and gravity cant be used to fill the tank, a lift pump may be used to pull the
water into the filter. The open tank contains at least one septum with rectangular
or circular elements that holds the DE. You dont backwash this system to clean
it, but instead must drain the tank and wash off the dirty DE. You can do this with
a hose, or your system may have water jets that do this. You must dispose of both
the drained water and the DE according to your local regulations; then refill the
tank with water.
To recoat the elements, some vacuum filters have a dry hopper feeder that has
a vibrator to keep the DE loose and an auger to deliver it to the filter. If the filter
does not have an automatic delivery method, the DE must be broadcast manually
into the open tank.
Regenerative DE Filter
The regenerative DE filter uses the interrupt filtration concept, meaning that the
pump stops briefly and then the same DE is returned to the elements. With the
regenerative filter, this process is automated. Each element on the filters septum
consists of a metal strand surrounded by a plastic tube. When the DE gets dirty,
the tubes are pressurized from within. They expand outward and grow shorter,
which makes the DE fall off. The elements are then recoated with the same DE.
This system cuts down on the use of water, heat, and chemicals because the tank
is drained only when the DE is completely soiled or decomposing.
Cleaning a Septum or Replacing an Element in a DE Filter

1. Take the elements out of the filter and
rinse them with water.
2. Check the cloth on the elements for
damage and replace torn cloth.
3. Place the elements in a filter cleaner
solution; then rinse. You may also
need to wash the elements with
an acidic filter cleaner, then rinse
again.
4. Put the element back onto the septum
and back into the filter.
38
Best Practices: Solving DE Filter Problems

Possible causes
Pool water is murky and

irritating to bathers.
Torn cloth on elements.

DE can escape back
into the pool water if the
cloth that holds it is torn.
Clean the DE filter on a

regular basis and avoid
getting DE into the pool.
Clean the filters and

vacuum any DE that
has entered the pool.
Water flow is too slow.
Metal stains and

calcium deposits.
Buildup on the elements
can project into the
water, slowing the flow.
Clean the septum

elements every three
months, following the
steps shown on page
38.
Check for blockages

in the suction line to
the pump, and remove
them. Also check the
pump for blockage or
damage, and repair it, if
necessary.
Clean the septum

elements on a regular
basis.
Check for missing DE

on the elements, and if
necessary, recoat them
with DE.
Blockage in the suction

line to the pump.
To fix the problem
Blockage or damage to
the pump.
Pool water is not clear.
Plugged-up cloth on the

elements. The openings
on the cloth are no
longer trapping debris.
Missing DE on the
elements.
Damaged manifold
or vacuum piping
connection. This may
allow unfiltered water
to escape back into the
pool.
Always follow the

manufacturers
instructions for
precoating the
elements.
Check the manifold,
joints, and pipes for
cracks regularly.
Clean the septum

elements as described
previously.
Check for cracks in the
manifold and pipes,
and replace if needed.
Cartridge Filters
Cartridge filters were originally meant for use with spas and small backyard pools, but they now are manufactured for larger commercial and
public pools. Most are pressure filters, although a few are vacuum. The two
types of cartridge filters are depth cartridges, which are thick and require
a high flow rate, and surface cartridges, which are thin and require a low
flow rate. The cartridge media is wound or pleated cloth or paper.
Check the pressure gauge or gauges or the vacuum gauge and follow
the manufacturers recommendations to decide when to clean the cartridge. You do not backwash cartridges, but instead hand-clean them.
The cartridge must be removed from the filter canister, rinsed with water,
A cartridge filter.
washed in a filter cleaning product, sometimes rinsed with a light acid
wash, and replaced. You may want to keep a clean set of cartridges on hand to swap
with the dirty ones so pool circulation can continue while you clean the filter.
Cartridges also have an O-ring that should be checked for damage each time
the cartridge is cleaned and lubricated. This helps prevent water from leaking out
and air from leaking in.
39
Problem
Best Practices: Solving Cartridge Filter Problems

Problem
Debris is getting
into the pool.
Possible causes
Too much water flow. If
water pressure is too high,
it may force debris through
the cartridge element.
Media element is damaged
or not properly seated.

Reduce water flow.
Check the filter on a
regular basis for proper
element placement and for
damage.
To fix the problem

Reseat the cartridge
element if it is not in the
proper place, or replace
the media element or air
strainer if it is damaged.
Air strainer is damaged.

Pool water is not
clear.
Filter is dirty.
Media element is
damaged.
Turnover rate is not

sufficient for the number of
bathers.
Clean the filter when

the pressure reaches
the manufacturers
recommended level.
Check the filter on a
regular basis for damage.
Check the flow meter on a
regular basis.
Clean the filter. If the filter

medium is damaged,
replace it. If the flow meter
shows lower than normal
flow, look for blockages in
the circulation system and
remove them. If necessary,
restrict the number of
bathers.
well-maintained filter makes for clean and clear pool water! Your pool
likely uses one of three types of filterssand, DE, or cartridge. Make
sure you know how your filters work, how to clean them, and how to resolve
problems with them. How you manage the filtration system can make all the
difference in how people feel about your pool.
Performance Goal
Understanding how your pools filter works and how to maintain it
will make it easier for you to keep the pool water clean and clear.
Best Practices
Know how your pools filter works.

Check the filter as described in this chapter and according
to the manufacturers instructions.
Monitor filter pressure or vacuum gauges daily so you know

when to clean the filter.
Follow the manufacturers instructions carefully when you

clean the filter.
Wear protective gear when working with DE.
40
4
3
How Chemical
Feed and
Automation
Systems Work
fter the water circulates through the filters, its ready to head
back to the pool. But there is one more important step on
the journey. The water needs to be treated with the chemicals
necessary to keep it germ free and balanced. Before the days of
automation, pool plant operators had to do lots of calculating and
dosing of chemicals by hand. With the right equipment your job
will be much easier! What you learn in this chapter will help you
maximize the benefits of technology while you keep your pools
water quality controlled 24 hours a day. Topics on deck:
What feed devices are used to get sanitizers and other
chemicals into the water
What types of metering pumps provide the dosage of
chemicals
How automated controllers help orchestrate what the
feeders and metering pumps do
How to read, monitor, and maintain automated controllers
he chemicals you will use to treat the water come in various forms. Some are
liquid, others are solid tablets or granules, and some may even be a pressurized gas. Each type of chemical will need to be prepared to be put into the water.
For example, a tablet of chlorine cant be injected into the pool whole. It must be
eroded, or dissolved, down; then that chemically laden water enters the circulation
flow on its way back to the pool.
For dry chemicals, several types of erosion feeders and mechanical dry
feeders can be used.
For liquids or dry chemicals that are dissolved in water, metering pumps or
high-capacity vacuum induction systems are used.
For gases, pressurized cylinders with regulators are used.
Dry Chemical Feeders
4 How Chemical Feed and
Automation Systems Work
Dry chemicals get into the pool water either through erosion feeders or through
mechanical dry feeders. Several types of erosion feeders exist. In an erosion feeder,
chemical sticks or tablets are placed in a container connected to the circulation
line. Small containers have a cap and gasket to hold the container closed, and
larger containers have a lid. Pool water is allowed to enter the container and dissolve the chemical into the water. A venturi draws the water and chemicals back
into the line.
Here are some of the types of erosion feeders:
Pressure erosion feeders. These are mounted after the pump and use the
pump pressure to move the water. These feeders remain under pressure
during operation, so they are fitted with a bleed valve. (Dont open a pressure erosion feeder until youve turned the pump off and you know theres no
pressure remaining. A sudden release of pressure could send parts flying!)
These devices are used primarily for slow-dissolving trichlor tablets and are
not generally recommended for public pools.
Pressure differential erosion feeders. These bring the water
in on the pressure side of the pump, then let the water out
much farther down the line where the pressure is lower. The
difference in pressure between the two points is what moves
the water through. These may use a pump, a venturi loop, or
a throttling valve loop to get the water back into the line. They
function similarly to pressure erosion feeders.
An erosion feeder.
42
Spray erosion feeders. These feeders simply spray the chemical with water rather than submerge it. The feeder may have a
pump or a venturi loop to get the chemical-laden water back
into the line. Large systems of this type are fairly common
in public or institutional pools and are used to feed calcium
hypochlorite, which, because it so easily dissolves, would not
work well with the wet or pressure-type feed systems.
What Is a Venturi?
When a fluid flows through a section of pipe that is
Vacuum chemical feed
smaller in diameter than the rest of the pipe, the fluid
moves faster. Faster liquid flow reduces pressure
on the sides of the tube, while the rapid change
actually creates a partial vacuum. This is called
the Venturi effect. This principle of physics is used
in pool systems to introduce gases and liquids into
the pool circulation system with a device called a
Water flow
venturi. A short section of the water line is narrowed
to restrict the flow of water, creating the desired vacuum that pulls a gas or liquid through a side
opening. A valve on the pipe may control the amount of gas or liquid that is drawn in.
Mechanical dry feeders are fairly simple. An auger or gate gradually pushes
the chemical out into a tank, where it mixes with water. A mixture of water with one
chemical is called a slurry. This slurry then moves into the circulation line through
a pump or venturi.
Liquid Chemical Feeders

Liquids are fed into the water using a type of pump that meters the amount of
chemical that is released, or through a new technology that uses a high-capacity
vacuum induction method.
Metering Pumps
Metering makes it possible for the chemical pump to keep up with the demand and
feed in more chemicals when needed, or less when the water has enough. One of
the most important pieces of equipment you can have at your pool is a metering
pump (or pumps) that are properly sized to keep ahead of demand.
Positive displacement metering pumps are one
Flexible
type used for liquid chemicals or slurries of water and
Check
diaphragm
valves
chemicals. Positive displacement simply means that
a piston or flexible diaphragm, mechanically stroked
at a given rate, moves or pumps a known amount of
liquid per stroke. Besides flexible diaphragms and
mechanical pistons, a third type, called a peristaltic pump, rolls or strokes a short length of flexible
tubing. The rollers move a given amount of liquid
per revolution, qualifying them to be called positive
displacement as well.
Check
Diaphragm pumps have a casing that houses a diaphragm on the line through which the liquid travels.
Spring-loaded check valves are on the openings into
and out of the pump. A rotating cam provides force
that pushes the diaphragm back and forth. When the
Piston
Suction phase
valves
Pumping phase
Cross section of a diaphragm pump.
43
diaphragm moves out, it creates a vacuum that sucks in the liquid through
the first check valve. When the pump is full of liquid, the check valve closes
to hold the liquid inside. Then, when the diaphragm moves in, it squeezes
the liquid upward and out the second check valve into a feed line, which
then injects the liquid into the circulation line. Because the check valves can
become clogged and keep chemicals from reaching the pool, you should
flush a diaphragm pump weekly.
Piston pumps work much like diaphragm pumps, except that the liquid is
pushed out of the pump by a piston.
Peristaltic pumps start with a flexible tube. Liquid is sucked into the tube,
and then rotating rollers squeeze the tube, pushing the liquid out in constant
amounts. Both the feed lines and the pump tube can get clogged, so you
should clean these often. Because failure of the tube in the pump could
leak chemicals unexpectedly, dont place a peristaltic pump above where
chemicals are stored or above other equipment.
A peristaltic pump.
High-Capacity Vacuum Induction System
A high-capacity vacuum induction liquid feeder system eliminates the need for
metering pumps and works by creating a vacuum that pulls liquid through a large
venturi into the water flow. This feeder creates a closed system and eliminates the
need for flexible tubing, motors, pistons, and other moving parts. Because the
liquid can be infused into the water (rather than dribbled in, as with other pumps),
the chemical readings can be adjusted much more quickly, even in large bodies
of water. Heres how the system works for liquid chlorine (sodium hypochlorite),
but any liquid chemical can be infused this way:
Pipework connects the
system directly to the
chlorine storage tank,
which can be closed
off with the shutoff valve.
The unit is cleaned every few

weeks by closing the shutoff valve,
opening the clean-out flex tube,
and alternately drawing clean
water and an acid solution
through the system.
An automated controller
connects to the solenoid valve.
When the controller calls for
chlorine, the solenoid opens.
44
The venturi draws the chlorine

through the unit and infuses it
into the water from the pool as
it flows past.
The metering valve

adjusts the flow rate.
The chlorine moves

through the flow meter.
Gas Chemical Feeders

The gases you are most likely to use for maintenance of pool water are chlorine gas
and carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is not a disinfectant, but it is used to control
pH and chemically balance the water (see more on this in chapter 7).
For either gas, the feeder design is likely to be similar. You attach a pressure
regulator device to a pressurized gas cylinder or chemical tank. The regulator
has a control that allows you to adjust the flow of gas into the circulation line. The
gas flow is usually controlled by an electrical valve, called a solenoid, which turns
the flow on and off. In the United States the use of chlorine gas has been almost
entirely eliminated for safety reasons.
Automation
Feeders and metering pumps can be controlled by automation. This can make
your job easier and promote consistently high water quality. Lets start by making
a distinction between automatic and automation. Automatic devices are not truly
automatedyou have to turn on the device and it feeds until you turn it off, or the
device is turned on and off by a timer. The device is not regulated by any input
related to levels of water quality. Automation means that the component reads results
and enables the activation of a devicechemical pump, air conditioner, waterlevel valve, automobile speedwhen a chosen target, or set level, is achieved.
Automation is what we are discussing here.
One way (the hard way) to maintain consistent sanitizer levels in the water is to
test the water often, calculate the dosages needed in order to make changes, and
then adjust your chemical feeders or manually add chemicals to the water. This
approach is time-consuming and difficult. In fact, its impossible to maintain a consistent desired value of pH or chlorine residual when organic loads change rapidly
in a busy pool on a sunny day. In a pool, one goal is, of course, to kill pathogens
with sanitizer. But another important goal is to render organic contaminants invisible
and nonoffensive, which results in the clear and sanitary water we want. Believe it:
Automation can give you an edge! You can see how it works on page 46.
Having pumps or feed systems that can meet the demand in a short time is
critical. If the feeders cannot catch up in brief cyclesand stay off the rest of the
timeyour system is inadequate and you are not truly automated. On average,
feeder pumps should be off three times more than they are on. If your feed system
is running almost continuously, trying to keep up with what the controller is requesting, your result will be very poor water management.
Controller Readings for Oxygen Reduction Potential (ORP)

The most widely used controllers test and display oxygen reduction potential
(ORP), which in Europe is called redox. One U.S. company even uses another
name, high-resolution redox, or HRR. Theyre all the same thing, so well use ORP
from here on.
45
The controller is
programmed with
the desired levels,
or set points.
Measurements
from the sensors
are fed back
to controllers,
which contain
microprocessors,
and the results
are displayed on
a control panel.
Some controllers
can print a readout or download
results to a computer.
Electrical sensors,
called probes,
measure several
properties of the
water.
An ORP control system.
If the value measured is not at set level, the appropriate pump is

activated and feeds chemicals until it senses that there is enough.
Then it turns off. A few of these automated controllers are proportional, meaning they turn the pump on for a longer or shorter time
based on how far away the readings are from the set point.
For more on
oxidation,
see pages
72 to 73.
Does your facility

have an automatic
controller that
displays an ORP
reading? If so, be
sure to understand
what it means and
how it relates to
the ppm levels of
chlorine in your
pool and the pH.
46
If the probe says

theres too much
of something, or
other problems
occur with the
system, such as
low water flow, a
lack of chemicals,
or feed cycles
that run too long,
the controller
will lock out the
chemical feed
systems and set
off an alarm. The
alarm may be a
loud sound or a
flashing light.
ORP is a way to measure the ability of a sanitizer in water to oxidize, or burn off,
the organic contaminants in the water, such as sweat and urine. These readings
dont indicate a quantity of anythingthey are purely qualitative, meaning they tell
you the bottom-line work value of your chosen sanitizer. ORP is a reliable measure
of what your chlorine or bromine is doing, not the amount of chemical present. Your
controller doesnt have any idea how much chlorine you have in the water; indeed,
it doesnt even know you are using chlorine. What it does know, however, is what
youre using is doing in the water.
When a chemical such as chlorine is available and ready to work at oxidizing, it
gives off electrical energythe more chlorine there is available, the more energy
is released. The voltage across the probes is measured in millivolts (mV) and can
be directly related to efficacy, or work value, of any oxidizing product in the water.
The minimum desired voltage, and the minimum world standard, is 650 mV, which
has been shown in studies to indicate that pathogens have been adequately killed
by the disinfectant. Values much below 650 mV become unsafe because oxidation
suffers proportionally as ORP drops. Cloudy water is not far behind!
Controller Readings for pH

Automated controllers also measure and control pH, because this water quality
variable has the most influence over how well chlorine works in the water. As pH
rises, chlorine becomes less effective and there is a predictable drop in ORP.
For more
about pH,
see pages
94 to 95.
Automated controllers use electrodes in a sample stream to determine the

electrical potential of sanitizers in the water. This results in more accurate
expectations of oxidation and pathogenic deactivation than one might expect
from traditional chlorine testing.
Controller Readings for ppm
For more
pH value
3.0
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.
Manual testing methods for sanitizer measure how much is in the water and give
about
manual
readings in parts per million (ppm) or milligrams per liter (mg/L). Weve already
testing,
discussed that automated controllers take a different approachthey measure the
see pages
ability and potential of what the sanitizer can do and not how much is in the water.
54 to 59.
While ORP is the sanitizer variable typically under control, some newer controllers
read out in ppm. So where does this ppm reading come from?
The microprocessor in the unit calculates it and then displays a ppm value on
the screen. In other words, based on the ORP value and the pH of your water, the
ppm is what the equivalent value of the amount in the
water would be. So this value may not always be the
Free chlorine equivalent (ppm)
same as the manual chlorine reading. The graph on
this page shows an example. It relates three things:
8.0 0
.5
ORP, ppm, and pH.
7.9
This graph is similar to how the ppm is calculated
7.8 0.4
by an automated controller. The graph is used to
7.7
estimate ppm values from known pH levels and ORP
7.6 0.3
readings. If you know the ORP and pH values for
your pool water, you can look at the ppm curve and
7.5
see approximately what the ppm reading on your
7.4
0.2
controller will be. You can use this graph to help you
7.3
understand the interaction between pH, ORP, and the
7.2
calculated ppm value, which may be different from
0.1
your manual reading. Notice that as pH rises, the ppm
7.1
value lowers. As pH lowers, the same ppm values
7.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
give a higher ORP value, in mV. As an example, the
650
750
graph shows the intersection of pH 7.4 and the 1.0
Oxidation reduction potential
ppm curve. Dropping straight down, we read an ORP
value of about 810 mV. Note that the entire working
Graph of ORP, ppm, and pH.
range of ORP is from 650 mV to 850 mV. A reading of
When the probe senses

a rise in pH, the controller
turns on the feed system
that delivers the chemical
you are using to lower
pH. When the chemical takes effect and the
pH lowers, the controller
shuts off the feeder. In
this way, the automated
controller orchestrates
and controls the delicate
relationship between pH
and chlorine, making
your life much easier and
your water much better!
10
850
47
810 mV is an excellent oxidation value, indicating a very high potential to oxidize.

The World Health Association considers 650 mV as a minimum value to indicate
adequate sanitation and oxidation in the water.
This ppm readout feature, while making readings easier to understand for health
inspectors and aquatic folks, requires some calibration and maintenance. When
your controller is first installed, the ppm value from a manual test will be entered
as a baseline for the ORP reading at that time.
Additional calibration may be needed occasionally if there is a large or consistent discrepancy between your manual ppm results and the ppm readout on the
controller. Very few high-end automation devices actually have a third electrode
that measures the actual amount of chlorine in the water, as opposed to calculating an estimated amount, reading out in true quantitative parts per million. When
reading two values from the same machine under the same conditions, however,
two values not exactly in agreement might add confusion to the reading.
Calibration of an Automated Controller
Calibration (or, in automation jargon, standardization) should be done rarely. Stable

electrodes and electronics should not need such standardization often; some operators do so no more than once a year or at the time of the first seasonal opening.
During calibration, the manual test results of pH and chlorine ppm (mg/L) in your
water are entered and displayed on the readout, essentially overriding the probe
results and the calculated ppm (mg/L). The controller is considered calibrated to
match the manual test results.
As much as it may seem a good idea to calibrate often and have the controller
readings match the results of your manual accuracy check, the opposite is true.
Automation can be of little value and even counterproductive if you fiddle with
calibration on a routine basis. Heres why:
Results from color-comparator test kits can vary for the same water sample
depending on the light source used to interpret the comparison or the color
vision of the person conducting the test.
The pH results may be inaccurate if there is chlorine residual in the
sample.
The ppm (mg/L) reading taken from a pool during peak use may be just ready
to drop because of the high organic demand.
These conditions can result in readings that are much less precise than the controller. Youll be miscalibrating, not making things more accurate. A better option is to
trust the controller to do its job without interference unless absolutely necessary.
If you do have to calibrate, do so with the following conditions:
Use the most reliable test kit you have.
Calibrate test when the chlorine residual in the water is between .5 and 1.0
ppm (mg/L), since OPR is standardized best at moderately low chlorine
levels.
Test and set the pH value before you test and set the chlorine value.
Test in the morning, at least an hour after pool blankets have been removed
but before patrons enter the water.
48
Controller Probe Maintenance

To get accurate readings from controller probes, you need to have them in the right place in the
pool system, and you need to keep them clean. Probes should be located
after the filter so that particles in the water dont collect on the surface of the probes,
before the heater and away from sunlight so that readings arent affected by changes in
temperature, and
before the chemical feeders so that chemicals cant damage the probes or create false
readings.
3
Apply a mild soap.
Wipe or brush gently and rinse

with water.
Screw the probe back in, attach

the wire, and open the flow.
You will need to clean the probes of your controller occasionally, perhaps more often if youre
using cyanuric acid in the water. An invisible layer of residue can form on the probes and reduce
their accuracy and response time. Follow the manufacturers instructions for cleaning, which usually include the steps shown here.
The pH electrode should respond
very quickly, but the ORP probe may
read high for several hours. This high
ORP reading will keep your feeders from turning on even though the
water in your pool may need dosing,
giving you lower actual values in the
pool. During this time, manually test
the water and compensate with other
feed methods until the ORP probes
settle down.
A few controllers are fitted with timers
for an auto-flush sequence late at night.
1
2
They switch on a very small acid pump
for about five minutes, thereby cleaning
Shut off the water flow. Unscrew the
Unscrew the probe and remove it.
wire from the bottom of the controller. Do not let the probe get dry.
the probe automatically.
49
Manual Testing
Even though automation with ORP probes will give accurate results, most pool
regulatory agencies still require periodic manual chlorine checks, measured in
parts per million (ppm) or milligrams per liter (mg/L). Of course, they also require
accurate and organized record keeping of these checks. For more on manual
testing and record keeping, see chapter 5.
n this chapter you learned all about chemical feeders and metering
pumpswhat they are and what their job is in managing the quality of
your pool water. You also learned about automation and how automated
controllers measure what really countsparticularly ORP, the true measure
of what is happening in your water to eliminate organic compounds.
Best Practices: Solving Feeder,

Metering Pump, and Controller Problems
Problem
Sanitizing agent is not
entering the water.
Possible causes
Feeder lines are clogged.
Injection point is clogged.
Erosion feeder, liquid tank,
or gas tank is empty.
Water is not flowing through
injection feeder.
Metering pump is not

plugged in.
Controller is not calibrated
or set correctly.
Controller is not plugged in.
Controller is in fail-safe
mode.
To fix the problem
Clean all connections

and tubes on a
regular basis.
Consult manufacturers
recommendations based
on the specific equipment
problem.
Check controllers,
feeders, and fill levels
frequently (at least
at the opening and
closing of the pool)
to identify problems
early.
Maintain filter
pressures and water
flow within normal
operating ranges.
Water flow is not sufficient;

filters need backwashing.
Sanitizing chemical is
leaking from the feeder
pump.
Tubing needs to be
replaced in a peristaltic
pump.
Gasket or O-ring needs to
be replaced in an erosion
or gas feeder.
Inspect and maintain

all tubing, gaskets,
O-rings, and
connection points
on a regular basis.
50
Respond according to
your facilitys emergency
action plan for a chemical
spill, based on the nature
of the chemical leak.
If tubing connections are
loose, tighten them.
Tubing connections are

loose at injection points.
The controller readings

for pH are way off
manual readings, they
are inconsistent, or
ORP fluctuates for no
apparent reason.
Warning! High
concentrations of
chemicals or fumes can
build up in the lines if
feeder lines are clogged.
High concentrations can
build up in the pipework
if metering pumps have
been feeding chemicals
into an injection point
without water flow.
Turn off the circulation

pump and replace tubing,
gasket, or O-rings as
indicated.
Probes are covered with

film.
Maintain balanced
water.
Malfunction.
Check controller
readings often.
Clean the probes.

Turn off and unplug the
controller; then plug
back in and turn on. If
the problem continues,
contact the manufacturer.
Best Practices: Solving Feeder,

Metering Pump, and Controller Problems
Water is not flowing to

the controller or flow
pressure is inadequate.
Power is disconnected
from the controller.
CO2 leak is
suspected
due to high
consumption
rate without
significant
change in pH.
Loose connections at
the regulator or injection
point.
Chlorine gas leak

is suspected.
Loose connections at
the regulator.
Split or hole in tubing.
Monitor water flow and flow

pressure.
Maintain adequate power
source and breaker
switches.
To fix the problem

Fix any problems with the
pumps that are affecting
water flow, backwash the
filters to improve water
pressure, or reset breakers.
If the problem persists,
contact a service technician.
Spray a mild soap solution

around all connections and
along tubing; watch for
bubbling.
Tighten the connections,

replace the regulator, or
replace the tubing.
Check daily for leaks.

Spraying a mist of
household ammonia or
waving a cloth sprayed with
it near the tanks will create a
white mist if there is a leak.
Warning! Exposure to
chlorine gas can be deadly.
If a leak is detected, follow
your emergency plan.
Warning! CO2 will cause

an inadequate supply of
oxygen. If you suspect a
CO2 leak, open all doors to
ventilate the room before
you enter. Wear a respirator
if available.
The controller is
not displaying
any values.
Possible causes
Problem
(continued)
Performance Goal
Use automated equipment to manage and maintain water quality
that is consistent and exceptional.
Best Practices
If you have an automated controller, make sure your feeder
pumps are big enough to keep up with the demand by

employing brief feeds, keeping the pumps off more often
than on.
Calibrate an automated controller only occasionally.
Develop a systematic schedule to clean chemical feeders
and metering pumps.
Monitor controller alarms and respond quickly to correct
the problem.
51
5
3
How to Test
the Water
ests, tests, tests. Get used to it! As a pool plant operator,

you will frequently test the water so you can stay ahead of
water-quality problems. This chapter will help you know how to
conduct many of the tests you will do. Topics on deck:
Types of manual tests, along with instructions for collecting water samples
How to care for your test kit so you will get accurate
results
How to conduct water tests that measure chlorine or
bromine
How to conduct water tests that help determine water
balance such as pH, total alkalinity, calcium hardness,
total dissolved solids, and temperature
How to conduct specialized tests such as cyanuric acid,
minerals, metals, hydrogen peroxide concentration, and
salt concentration
How often to conduct water tests
The benefits and disadvantages of electronic handheld
testing devices
Types of test records you should keep
pool filled with clear water can be deceptive. Did you know that water can
remain clear for a while without any sanitizer? Did you know that plain old ordinary water can be very aggressive, eating away at pool plaster and equipment? To
maintain sanitized water that doesnt ruin your pool, you need to keep the chemical
variables within certain boundaries. You need to test the water frequently, analyze
the results, and make adjustments.
How frequently should you test? The minimum will be established by your local
regulatory agencys pool code. A better idea will be to supplement that frequency
with testing based on how quickly the variable you are testing can change. Common
sense should tell you that testing something daily that you know can change within
an hour is setting yourself up for failure. On the other hand, there is no sense in
testing something hourly if you know it takes days or weeks to see a significant
change.
If you think that all you have to do to maintain water quality is to have a freechlorine and pH reading within range, you are in for a big surprise! In this chapter
we first look at how to get accurate results when doing manual tests. We then
explain in detail how to test for chlorine and bromine as well as for many other water
qualities and chemicals before briefly considering electronic testing devices. Since
documentation is such an important part of your job as a pool plant operator, we
finish with a section on keeping records of test results.
5 How to Test the Water
Manual Testing Methods

When you perform manual tests, you will use a water test kit. The water test kits
available for commercial use vary widely in features, price, and the number of
tests that can be performed. Once you are on the job, you will need to become
familiar with the test kit at your pool worksite. At a minimum, the test kit you use
should contain the tools for performing the fundamental tests using at least three
test methods: colorimetric, titrimetric, and turbidmetric.
Colorimetric tests work on the idea that when you add
a chemical indicator (reagent), the sample turns a certain
range of colors. This test method is also called proportional
color comparison. Some tests, such as chlorine, use the
intensity of a color to reveal the quantity of a substance in
the sample water. Darker samples simply mean more as
you compare that sample to the kits color standards. When
testing for chlorine, a darker yellow color would indicate that
there is more chlorine in the water than a lighter yellow color.
Other tests, such as for pH, also use color comparison, but
with those you compare color shade (for example, is it pink
or orange or yellow?) to the color on the standard rather than
to the intensity of a single color. Because light levels can
affect the way the sample reads, these comparisons should
A color comparison test using intensity
be done in the shade but while looking toward daylight rather
for free chlorine and shade comparison
than under fluorescent lighting. You should use the same
for pH.
level of light each time.
54
Collecting Water Samples

Obtaining pool water samples correctly and from the right source is the first step
to good test results. Depending on your circumstances, you may want to collect
water from the pool vessel or from a tap on the circulation pipe that carries water
from the pool. You can collect the water using the test vial (test cell) or a sample
bottle. First, make sure you have a clean testing vial or sample bottle for each test
you perform. It must be clean to prevent contamination.
55
A downfall of the colorimetric type of test is that it

can be prone to human error
if the person conducting the
test cannot see well or distinguish shades or subtle shade
changes. To avoid this problem, some test kits come with
the color standards mounted
on a removable wheel called
a comparator. You evaluate
the comparator and the test
sample by looking into a viewer
port that uses special lights
that mimic daylight. High-end
kits use a photometer that
runs the sample through a
fixed wavelength of light and
analyzes the result rather than
relying on human interpretation.
Titrimetric tests require you
(a) Drop 7
(b) Drop 8
to titrate, meaning you count
drops looking for an expected In a titrimetric test, such as the one here for total alkalinity, you add drops
of a second reagent to your sample solution until the color suddenly
result. First you add a meachanges. Be sure to count carefully!
sured amount of a standard
solution to the test sample. You
then add drops of a second solution, an indicator, counting until the test sample
suddenly changes color. This obvious change is called the endpoint, and the
number of drops of indicator added for that result is used to determine the concentration of the variable being measured. The tests for both calcium hardness
and total alkalinity are titration tests.
Turbidmetric tests require that you cause the water sample to become cloudy
(turbid) by adding a reagent to the sample. The reagent interacts with the chemical
residual in the water that you are testing. Samples that turn very cloudy indicate a
higher amount of the chemical in the water; minimal cloudiness indicates a lower
level of the chemical. The test for cyanuric acid is a turbidmetric test. Some general
instructions hold for all types of manual testing, so lets look at how to obtain water
samples, how to perform the testing, and how to store and use test kit materials.
To fill a test vial from the

pool, dip the vial, inverted,
into the water to a depth of
about 12 inches (30 cm). This
depth ensures a representative sample, not one from the
chlorine-depleted and contaminant-laden water near
the surface. For accurate
results, take samples from
several locations in the pool,
but not near any return inlets
for pool water.
To fill the test vial from the
circulation line, place the vial
Filling a test vial from the pool.
Filling a test vial from the
under the tap on the pipe. Be
circulation line.
sure the sampling location
allows you to get water as it comes from the pool but before it passes through any
chemical injection points. Open the tap, fill the vial, and close the tap.
To fill a sample bottle from the pool, follow the guidelines shown in the section
titled Collecting Samples in Bottles, or use instructions from a laboratory if the water
is being sent out for testing. For each sample youll need a clean plastic bottle with
a cap; dont use a glass or
metal container.
Once you have the water
Collecting Samples in Bottles
sample, perform the testing
as soon as possible. Dont let
the sample sit for a long time.
Caution: If you are taking a
sample from a spa, let the
spa water cool down slightly
before you test. Heated water
expands, which will give you
1
2
an incorrect sample size.
Wash your hands.
4
Turn the bottle up to release
trapped air and fill the bottle.
56
Submerge the capped bottle 12 to 18

inches (30 to 46 cm). Take the cap off.
Put the cap on and remove the bottle.
Performing the Test

Whether you collected water
samples in test vials or in
plastic bottles, now you need
to actually perform the test.
Here are the basic steps you
will follow when conducting
a test using a kit with a comparator that has printed color
standards:
Conducting Tests
2
1
Make sure the bottom of the curve of the water

(the meniscus curve) touches the line marked on
the vial. Hold it up at eye level to check. This will
be more obvious in larger vials.
Fill the test vial with the water sample.
3
Hold the dropper straight
up and down, not at an
angle. If it is held at an
angle, the drops may not
be the proper size, which
will affect the accuracy of
the test.
Mix the reagent and sample

water by gently swirling the
sample or carefully turning
the capped sample upside
down after you add each
drop of titrate. Dont shake
the vial or cell.
Use the cap, not your

finger, to cover the vial
because your finger could
contaminate the sample.
Add reagents to the water

sample with the dropper
built in to the reagent
bottle.
5
Compare the test vial to the standard.
6
Dispose of the sample down a wastewater drain,
not into the pool.
57
Here are some tips to help you obtain accurate test results:
Dont drip the reagent down the inside of the vial, but drop it directly into the
water. Also, do not let the dropper itself touch the vial or the water. That can
contaminate the reagent in the dropper, which then will contaminate the rest
of the reagent when the dropper is put back in the bottle.
Sometimes static electricity builds up around the tip of the dropper, which
makes it harder to release the drops and might make the drops smaller than
needed. You can fix this by using a clean, damp cloth or paper towel to wipe
around the tip.
If you are doing a color comparison test, stand in the shade and hold the test
vial and the standard up against the lighted sky to match the sample color
to the standard. If you can, hold the vial up toward the northern horizon; this
provides the best light source for reading test results. Holding a white card
a few inches behind the test vial can also help with color matching. Always
perform these comparisons in daylight.
If you are doing a titrimetric test, make sure what you think is the endpoint is
permanent and doesnt fade back toward the previous color. Drop in titrate
until you see no further color changes, and then do not count the last drop.
After testing, be sure to rinse out the test cells with clean water. If any residue
is left, it may contaminate the results of your next test. If the test cells start to
build up any scale or discoloration, use a small brush and detergent to clean
the vials or cells. Rinse them thoroughly with clean water.
Dilution of Samples
Lets consider this scenario: You conduct a free-chlorine test and your reading is 0,
even though you just checked the chlorinator and everything seems to be working
fine. But the readings dont lie, so you shrug your shoulders and add more chlorine.
An hour later, still no reading, and you really are perplexed. What is going on? The
chlorine in your pool is off the charts, thats what! The level was so excessive that
it bleached the reagent, making it colorless.
This bleaching effect can occur with both liquid and tablet reagents. Youll have
to dilute the sample using distilled water and then test again. Then multiply the test
result by the amount of dilution you added. For example, if you filled your test vial
with 50 percent distilled water and 50 percent pool water and obtained a chlorine
reading of 4 ppm (mg/L), the actual chlorine reading is 8 ppm (mg/L). Using dilution to get test results in samples with levels off the scale does not apply to tests
other than chlorine.
Caring for the Test Kit Materials

Follow these tips for proper use and storage of test kit materials:
Store test materials far away from extreme heat or cold and from other chemicals. Keep them at room temperature in a dark and dry place.
Liquid reagents do not last much more than one year; phenol red usually lasts
only six months. To keep track of how long you have had reagents, mark each
bottle with the date on which you first received it.
58
The longer you have a reagent, the greater the chances are that a problem
can develop and your tests will not be accurate. If a reagent shows a changing color or suspended material, the bottle has leaked, or the cap is loose or
encrusted with chemical, it should be discarded. Do not allow test reagents
to freeze.
Buy new test vials or cells about every six months because they may discolor
after frequent use.
After using a reagent, make sure to cap it tightly. Do not mix caps between
reagents.
Use only those reagents that are part of the test kit. Never mix materials
from different test kits, even different test kit models from the same manufacturer.
Can you tell

how long your
facility has owned
reagents and test
vials? Next time
you purchase them,
mark them with the
date of purchase.
Keep all reagents out of the reach of children.
Testing Sanitizer Levels

Testing the level of chlorine or bromine that is in your water is something you will
do on a regular basissometimes several times a day. The frequency of routine
water tests is usually based on code minimums, while more tests must be considered when the pool is busy or during periods of intense sunlight or unusually
high temperatures. Additional testing should always be done anytime you make a
change such as adjusting chemicals or adding new water.
The suggestions provided here for test frequency may not apply in all circumstances. Always follow the requirements set by the pool regulatory agency in your
location.
For more on
disinfection
and sanitizers,
see chapter 6.
Old reagents
Sloppy sampling
Dirty vials or test cells
Misreading results
What Can Affect Test Accuracy?
Chlorine Testing
Why you need to do this test: If you use chlorine to sanitize and oxidize your
water, the chlorine residual in the water can change rapidly. If the level becomes low,
germs may not be killed, the water can become cloudy, and algae can bloom.
How often you need to do this test: Do it every few hours when the pool is
open.
Best range of results: This is determined by your local regulatory code, usually
1.5 to 5.0 ppm (mg/L) free chlorine, 0 to .5 ppm (mg/L) combined chlorine.
59
When you test for chlorine you will obtain results for two components and then use
those results to calculate a third:
Free chlorine is the unused and uncombined chorine remaining in the water
available to oxidize contaminants and deactivate pathogens.
Total chlorine is the sum of all active free-chlorine components in the water plus
the undesirable compounds of chlorine that have combined with ammonia
(known as combined chlorine) and are used up and no longer effective.
Combined-chlorine reading is obtained by subtracting the free-chlorine value
from the total chlorine value. You will subtract the two numbers to obtain a
value for the combined-chlorine reading.
Testing for chlorine is done with the DPD reagent. DPD stands for N,N-diethylp-phenylenediamine. Now you can see why we abbreviate it! Commercial test kits
usually use liquid DPD reagents that come in bottles, but some use tablets or a
powder and liquid combination.
Testing Chlorine With DPD Tablets The tablet test uses two tablets, one to
determine free chlorine and one to determine total chlorine. For the various tests,
you drop each required tablet into the test sample, being sure to avoid touching it.
You then crush the tablet with the provided tool or swirl the sample until the tablet
is completely dissolved. The chlorine-bearing sample will turn a pink or red color,
which you then compare to the scale on the test kit.
Testing Chlorine With DPD Liquid Reagents The liquid test may have two or
three reagents, depending on the kits manufacturer. The reagent used to measure
free chlorine is referred to as reagent DPD #1. (In some kits, you must add two
reagents, #1 and #2, to determine the free-chlorine level.) After you have determined
the free-chlorine level, you then add reagent #3 to find the total-chlorine level. To
use this test, you first add reagent #1 (or #1 and #2) and swirl the sample, which
turns the water a shade of red relative to the free-chlorine residual. You compare
this color to the scale to determine the level of free chlorine. You then add a third
reagent, #3, swirling the sample, which may turn a darker red. Again, you compare
this color with the scale to find the total-chlorine level.
Does your facility

provide a DPD
test kit that uses
tablets, liquid,
or a combination
of powder and
liquid? Make sure
you follow the
manufacturers
instructions
carefully.
60
Testing Chlorine Using DPD Liquid Reagent and FAS Powder The third type
of test, which uses a powder and two liquid reagents, is known as the FAS-DPD
test. (FAS stands for ferrous ammonium sulfate.) This test finds the free-chlorine
and the combined-chlorine levels (rather than the total-chlorine level). First, you
add a small amount of DPD powder to the sample, which turns pink in the presence of chlorine. You then add drops of the DPD-FAS solution until the sample
returns to clear. By counting the number of drops needed to do that, you can find
the free-chlorine level. Then you add drops of the liquid DPD to the sample, which
again turns pink; then add drops of the DPD-FAS solution to turn the sample clear
again. This time the number of drops it takes to eliminate the pink color tells you
the level of combined chlorine.
The FAS-DPD test has many advantages. Counting the number of drops is more
accurate than trying to match a color. In addition, this test can accurately read a
wider range of levels than the other two tests can, from as low as 0.2 ppm (mg/L)
combined chlorine to as high as 20 ppm (mg/L) for free chlorine. It is also helpful
for those who are somewhat color-blind, because they need only see the change,
not the color.
You also can use a DPD test to measure bromine. You follow the same procedures using the chlorine kit, and then multiply the reading by 2.25. (Bromine is
2.25 times heavier than chlorine.) If you have a dedicated bromine kit and scale,
you simply compare the color to the standard on your kit. Curiously, the bromine
test results in total bromine readings only. Free and combined bromine are both
so active that all forms react with DPD test reagents.
Inaccurate Readings A condition that might cause inaccurate sanitizer readings
is high pH. In this case, the sample color may be odd or unexpected, perhaps
blue. If you get an unexpected result, test the pH, adjust it if necessary, and then
test your sanitizer again.
High combined-chlorine levels can cause inaccurate readings. In this case some
of the DPD may oxidize to create a red color, especially at high temperatures. To
detect this, look for color that develops slowly rather than immediately after the
DPD contacts the sample.
Ozone, iodine, and oxidized manganese in the sample can also make test readings inaccurate because they are chemically similar to chlorine and bromine.
Tests to Determine Water Balance

Weve already mentioned that water can be aggressive, and keeping your water
in balance is what keeps that aggression to a minimum. You cant test water balance directly. Instead you must test the things that affect it, such as pH, total
alkalinity, calcium hardness, temperature, and, to a small degree, total dissolved
solids. Once you know those test results, you then factor in how much influence
each has on the balance. Youll learn how to do that in chapter 7. First, lets look
at how to conduct the basic tests.
pH Testing
Why you need to do this test: The testing of pH is probably the most important
manual procedure you will perform. The pH values determine if chlorine is working optimally for the conditions present, and those values are the most important
variable in whether your waters aggressive nature has been neutralized or not.
How often you need to do this test: The timing of your testing is directly related
to the speed of change for whatever it is youre checking. So many things influence
the pH of water that testing a couple of times a day is often not enough. Testing on
an hourly basis is sometimes reasonable in a pool without automated electronic
measurement and control.
Best range of results: The best pH is the lowest pH you can get away with! How
low is limited by your local regulatory agencys pool code. If your water is plenty
high in calcium hardness, theres often nothing wrong with maintaining a low pH
(many states in the United States allow pH 7.0), and countries such as Germany
allow as low as pH 6.5. Low pH and high pH both have disadvantages, but both
can be corrected by the addition of chemicals. The figure shows the most common
range of acceptable pH values that are found in pool code regulations.
61
Acceptable range
Ideal range
Distilled
water
Acidic
7.2
7.4
7.6
7.8
Alkaline
The pH continuum.
For more
on water
balance, pH,
and adjusting
the chemicals
to maintain
them, see
chapter 7.
You can test pH by adding drops of phenol red indicator to a water sample. Phenol
red can be used to test pH only between 6.8 and 8.4, which makes it an excellent
reagent for swimming pools. The drops will turn the sample a shade of yellow,
orange, or red, going from low pH to high pH. You compare the color of the water
sample to the color standard provided with the test kit.
Once you have determined the pH of the sample, you can then find out how
to correct it (if necessary) by using two other reagentsbase demand reagent
(BDR) and acid demand reagent (ADR)that often come with the test kit. If your
pH reading is high, add drops of the ADR reagent; if your pH reading is low, add
drops of the BDR reagent. Add drops until your sample water reaches the desired
color as shown on the standard. The number of drops needed will determine the
chemical dose needed to correct pH.
High chlorine or bromine levels can greatly affect pH readings. If your sample is
dark purple, it probably has high sanitizer levels. In such a case, you will need to collect a new water sample, then add a drop of sodium thiosulfate reagent to neutralize
the disinfectant before retesting. Be careful not to add too much sodium thiosulfate,
because that substance itself also has a high pH and can skew the results.
If your water sample has a pH outside phenol reds range of 6.8 to 8.4, it will not
register properly during testing. If the pH is lower than 6.8, the sample will look as
if it were at 6.8, and if the pH is higher than 8.4, the sample will look as if it were
at that level. This can be very serious, so an electronic test or a broad-range kit
might be necessary to determine chemical doses. In any case, you can add base
demand reagents or acid demand reagents to determine chemical doses to correct the pH level of the water. If the correction is large, that alone tells you that the
pH was way off.
Calcium Hardness Testing

Why you need to do this test: Testing for calcium hardness is quite important in
a modern swimming pool. The level of calcium salts in a pool has a huge effect on
the waters aggressiveness.
How often you need to do this test: The frequency of testing is not high because
the variable itself is somewhat slow to change. Once a week is often adequate,
unless the changes noted are significantsuch as over a 20 percent difference
since the last reading. In that case, test more frequently.
Best range of results: The appropriate level for calcium hardness is 300 to 800
ppm, based on other variables and trends. You need to keep calcium hardness
levels within your chosen range to maintain adequate water balance and control
the aggressiveness of the water.
62
When rainwater seeps through the earths surface, it runs through magnesium and
calcium and dissolves them into the water. The measurement of the amount of calcium in water is called calcium hardness. If the source water for the pool is naturally
hard, you will have to adjust the pH and total alkalinity to balance the water.
The calcium hardness test measures how much calcium is in the water. In one
of the common commercial test kits, you use three reagents to do the test.
What is the water

source for your
pool? Is that water
naturally hard?
1. The first reagent raises the pH of the sample.

This is done to get rid of the effects of any magnesium in the water.
2. Next, you add a color indicator to the sample,
which turns the sample red or purple when it
reacts with calcium.
3. Finally, you add the third reagent, counting the
drops until the sample turns from red to blue.
To determine the amount of calcium hardness,
multiply the number of drops needed to turn the
water blue by 10 ppm.
Calcium hardness test.
Iron or copper in the water sample can give you false readings on calcium hardness. If the color does not continue to change when you put in the third reagent, or
the color ends up being purple, the reading probably will not be accurate. Check
your test kit for instructions on correcting the test.
Total-Alkalinity Testing
Why you need to do this test: As you would guess, total alkalinity is a measurement of all of the alkaline components in water (in ppm or mg/L). This measurement
matters because it indicates the waters ability to resist changes in pH. Keeping
total alkalinity at an appropriate value helps you keep the pH stable and at the
chosen value.
How often you need to do this test: Weekly testing is often OK, unless contributing influences make the total alkalinity change quickly.
Best range of results: The best range is 80 to 120 ppm (mg/L).
When total alkalinity is at the desired level, the pH is likely to remain predictably
stable. If youre using a disinfectant that raises pH (calcium hypochlorite or sodium
hypochlorite), keep the level toward the lower end of this range. If youre using a
disinfectant that lowers pH (chlorine gas, trichlor, or bromine), keep the level toward
the upper end of this range.
The total-alkalinity test determines the level of alkaline components in the sample,
which buffer the water against pH changes. This test also uses three reagents.
1. The first reagent neutralizes the chlorine. (Any chlorine residual will make
the test invalid.)
2. The second reagent turns the water green if alkalinity is present.
3. The third reagent is added, one drop at a time, until it changes the water from
green to red. As with calcium hardness, each drop is equal to 10 ppm.
63
If your water sample contains high levels of chlorine,

the endpoint color will not be reddish pink but rather
yellow or greenish. This indicates that the color indicator reagents have been oxidized. In such a case,
consult the manufacturers instructions for correcting
this.
If you have an outdoor pool and use cyanuric acid
to stabilize your chlorine, you will have to do a cyanuric
acid (CYA) test first and then use that reading to help
determine your total alkalinity. This is because cyanuric
acid inflates the total alkalinity reading you are trying
Total-alkalinity test.
to determine, which is the alkalinity to carbonate in
the water (not CYA in the water). You must remove the
contribution of the CYA from the total-alkalinity test result. Test the water for cyanuric
acid (see the section Testing for Cyanuric Acid later in this chapter); then divide
the result by 3. Subtract this one-third of the cyanuric acid measurement from the
total alkalinity measurement to get a more accurate result. For example, if your
total alkalinity reading were 100 ppm (mg/L) and your cyanuric acid level were 30
ppm (mg/L), your total carbonate alkalinity would be 90 ppm (mg/L).
100 10 [a third of 30] = 90 ppm (mg/L).
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) Testing

Why you need to do this test: Testing a pools TDS levels is never really necessary, except to satisfy operator curiosity and to get a sense of the maturity of the
water. The test is performed easily, however, and is often requested by pool users
or even health inspectors. TDS has been incorrectly blamed for poor water clarity,
weak chlorine function, eye burn, odor, and algae bloom. It remains innocent, as
you will learn in chapter 7.
How often you need to do this test: This seldom needs to be done, unless
required by your local regulatory agencys pool code.
Best range of results: This is not applicable, unless specified in your local code.
For more
on total
dissolved
solids,
see page 96.
Total dissolved solids (TDS) is just what it says: the sum of all solids dissolved in
the water. The constituents that make up TDS are varied and, for the most part,
remain unknown, as we simply measure the gross sum of these metals, minerals, and salts. Calcium and sodium compounds dominate, while magnesium
and dozens of other solubles can also be found. In freshly filled pools, the most
common dissolved solid is calcium in some form, usually a salt or ion. As water
ages, however, the dominant content changes. To check the TDS level, use a
calibrated electronic TDS meter.
Often confused with TDS, incidentally, suspended solids (turbulence, color) are
not measured as part of TDS. Only actually dissolved materials are measured. They
remain completely invisible, as they are truly a part of the liquid. The TDS is what
would be left on the bottom if all the pool water were evaporated!
Monitoring Water Temperature

Why you need to do this test: Temperature affects comfort, scaling, aggression,
and algae growth.
64
How often you need to do this test: In almost all cases, measuring temperature a
couple of times per day is adequate. If theres a heater involved, surely the system
has a temperature-measuring thermostat or controller, making the manual tests a
confirmation that the set point is being maintained.
Best range of results: This is dependent on user preference, which is based on
the type of activity that is being conducted in the pool. When feasible, the water
temperature in indoor facilities should be maintained 3 F (1.7 C) cooler than the
air temperature to help with humidity control and bather comfort.
Wouldnt you agree that comfort is the first and foremost reason to test and maintain
a given water temperature? Whether the coach wants the water somewhat cool,
the recreational crowd wants it moderately warm, or the old folks exercise crowd
desires a toasty pool, temperature is an important variable in the aquatic setting.
Everything else being equal, higher temperatures move the water toward having
a greater scaling tendency, while lower temperatures move the waters saturation
index in the aggressive direction. This water balance is an important concept you
will learn about later in chapter 7. Warmer water also encourages evaporation a
bit and hastens the bloom of algae.
To check the temperature, you can use a commercial water thermometer hanging
on a string from a ladder or other stationary object. Youll need to find a location
that wont be in the way of patrons and wont be tampered with, of course. Another
option is to use a handheld electronic testing device that uses a probe lowered
into the water, or a sensor that is pointed at the water surface.
Specialized Water Testing

Many water tests apply only in certain circumstances; for example, you need to test
for cyanuric acid only if your pool is outdoors and you use this chemical to stabilize
your chlorine. You have to send your water for bacteriological testing only if required
by your pool regulatory agency or if you have had an outbreak of illness at your
facility and a remediation plan has been prescribed. The tests described in this
section are for those special circumstances that may or may not apply to you.
Testing for Bacteria or Biological Pathogens

Why you need to do this test: It is necessary as a quality assurance activity to
verify that good water treatment practices are in place.
How often you need to do this test: Quarterly monitoring is regarded as sufficient
for most pools. Testing should be done more frequently if sanitizer levels have fallen
below the regulatory limits for more than occasional minor deviations.
Best range of results: It depends on the pathogen being tested.
Bacteriological testing requires you to collect water samples to be tested at a laboratory. Use sterilized bottles to collect samples, being careful not to contaminate
the cap or the inside of the bottles. In some areas, you are required to refrigerate
the samples. Each sample must be sent to the lab right away, sometime within 24
hours of collection. Test results are usually available within 48 to 72 hours depending on the type of pathogen being identified.
65
Testing for Cyanuric Acid

Why you need to do this test: Testing for the cyanuric acid (CYA) level in a stabilized pool is critical, mostly to verify that excess values do not accumulate. While
low values of CYA can have significant benefit in an outdoor pool, high valuessay,
over 30 ppm (mg/L)can severely limit the work value of chlorine while affording
almost no additional longevity of the residual.
How often you need to do this test: Testing frequency is directly related to rate
of change. As CYA usually accumulates or depletes slowly, if at all, weekly or even
monthly testing may well be adequate.
Best range of results: The best amount is 0 ppm (mg/L) (in indoor pools), 20 to
50 ppm (mg/L) in outdoor pools.
The test for cyanuric acid is a turbidmetric test. It

relies on the formation of precipitants that make the
water cloudy, or turbid. With one method, you capture a measured pool water sample in a calibrated
tube that has a black dot at the bottom. You then
add a reagent to the sample, drop by drop, creating
the increasing cloudiness. You keep adding drops
until the black dot is no longer visible.
Allow water to cool to about 70 F (21 C) before
testing for cyanuric acid. Higher temperatures will
reduce the formation of precipitates and result in
inaccurate readings. Many pool regulatory agencies
restrict the maximum levels of cyanuric acid that
can be present because higher levels progressively
reduce the effectiveness of chlorine.
Testing for Metals
One version of a turbidity

dot used in a cyanuric acid
test vial.
Why you need to do this test: High levels of iron or copper can discolor the water
and cause staining in the pool.
How often you need to do this test: This test needs to be performed only when
symptoms appear, or if high iron or copper levels are suspected in source water
that will be used to fill or refill the pool.
Best range of results: The best range is the level that wont cause staining in
your pool.
You can do a color comparison test for iron or copper to determine the level in the
water. Adding reagents will turn the sample blue if metals are present; the shade
of blue depends on the concentration of the metal in water. Although these tests
are similar, do not use one to test for the otherthey are not identical.
Testing for Hydrogen Peroxide

Why you need to do this test: Hydrogen peroxide, or H2O2, is rarely used in
U.S. pools but is more commonly used in Europe and Australia as a supplement
to UV.
66
How often you need to do this test: This test should be performed as often as
necessary to maintain compliance with local regulatory requirements.
Best range of results: This will be based on regulatory requirements.
Hydrogen peroxide is sometimes used as a supplementary disinfectant. You can

perform a titration test to determine the hydrogen peroxide concentration levels,
either as a percentage or as ppm (mg/L). The preferred method of testing is to use
a colorimetric disc and comparator viewer.
Testing for Salt Concentrations

Why you need to do this test: If a chlorine generator is in use, it is important to
maintain adequate salinity levels so the chlorination output does not decline.
How often you need to do this test: This test should be performed based on the
manufacturers recommendation.
Best range of results: The best range of results should be based on the manufacturers recommendation.
Typical salt levels are in the 3,000 to 5,000 ppm range. The electrodes produce
chlorine at a constant rate depending on how much salt is in the water. If an onsite chlorine generator is in use, testing for salt is needed occasionally to confirm
that adequate salt (sodium chloride) levels exist for the proper function of the
generator.
Handheld Electronic Testing Devices
Handheld instruments feature advanced technology that can be used to do many

pool water tests, such as those for pH, total dissolved solids, chlorine levels, and
water temperature. Basic battery-powered instruments are available that conduct
single tests, such as for temperature, and more elaborate devices can perform
several tests. Before you invest in a handheld testing device, become familiar with
the benefits and drawbacks of using electronic technology and then learn specific
details about the device you are interested in using.
Here are some benefits of using handheld electronic testing devices:
They are extremely accurate.
They provide fast results.
They can measure a broader range of readings than other test methods.
Some devices have the capabilities to record or print results.
Some devices can upload data to a computer to help you track trends.
They are a convenient method of obtaining results for tests that are difficult
or impossible to conduct through manual testing, such as ORP.
They provide automatic conversion to metric.
They eliminate user error.
67
Here are some of the disadvantages of handheld electronic

testing devices:
They can be expensive.
They must be calibrated regularly to remain accurate.
The unit is sensitive to bumps or drops.
There are limited repair or service options.
The display may be difficult to read outdoors in sunlight.
Despite these drawbacks, the ease of electronic testing and innovations in equipment make this method an attractive option in some
circumstances.
A handheld electronic testing
device can provide accurate and
fast readings for many common
water tests.
Keeping Records of Testing

To prove that you are following local codes, as well as to help you notice trends
and monitor the condition of the pool, you need to keep accurate records of test
results. Write down, on a form or in some other organized fashion, your daily and
weekly test results. Most pool regulatory agencies have forms that you are required
to complete and submit on a regular basis. At a minimum, records should include
the following information and results:
Date
Time each test was conducted
pH
Free chlorine and total chlorine, calculating combined chlorine or total bromine (if used)
ORP (if you have an automated controller or use a handheld testing

device)
Cyanuric acid (if used)
Total alkalinity
Calcium hardness
Temperature
Actions taken
Comments
Operator initials or signature
Keep records on file for the length prescribed by your local regulatory agency, or
for at least one year after the last date of entry.
68
est, test, test. Record, record, record. The only way to know whether your
pool water is being sanitized and oxidized effectively, and is in balance,
is to test frequently. And the only way to spot trends and to prove the safety
of the water is to record your test results in compliance with regulations. This
chapter provided basic instructions for taking water samples and performing the tests. You will find more specific instructions on the testing kits and
supplies themselves.
Best Practices: Solving Water Test Problems

Problem
Possible causes
Cannot get
a test kit
reading for
free-chlorine
residual, or the
test sample
briefly turns
pink when
drops are
added but
then becomes
clear.
Chlorine level is so high

that it is bleaching out
the reagent.
Test results are

inconsistent or
not within the
ranges that
you expect.
Reagents may be old.

Check chlorine levels
frequently.
To fix the problem

To check test results, add
another drop or tablet of DPD
to the sample. If the sample
turns pink temporarily, the level
of sanitizer is high; if it does
not, the level truly is very low.
If the level is high, collect a
new sample, dilute it 50% with
distilled water, and retest.
Bring down the chlorine level
in the pool using sodium
thiosulfate; then retest.
Reagents may be
mismarked.
Check the labels on the

reagent to be sure you are
using the correct one.
Samples are from

different locations in
the pool.
Mark the date of purchase

on the bottle and discard old
bottles.
Samples are from the

surface.
Collect the sample from

water that is well below the
surface.
Sample vials were not

rinsed after last test or
have algae buildup.
Carefully match the water line

to the test vial mark for the
correct sample size required.
Hold the dropper straight up

and down, not on an angle,
and count when the drop
releases from the tip.
Not mixing in between

drops.
Swirl or invert the sample

after each drop to mix, or
according to test instructions.
Delay occured between

the time the sample
was obtained and the
test was conducted.
Conduct tests on a regular,

frequent schedule, using the
best procedures to obtain
accurate results.
Rinse vials after each test

and keep dry to avoid algae.
Drops were not

counted correctly or
were too big or too
small.
Sample came in
contact with your finger.
Sample again, using a clean

container and collecting from
a location away from inlets and
well below the surface. Repeat
the test.
There is too little or too

much water in the test
vial.
Replace the reagents and test

again.
Use the vial cap, not your

finger, to prevent the sample
water from spilling out of the
vial.
Perform the test as soon as
possible after collecting the
sample water.
(continued)
69
Best Practices: Solving Water Test Problems

Problem
Test results
are hard to
determine
using the color
scale printed
on the test vial.
Possible causes
You may be color-blind

or unable to accurately
distinguish shades of
the same color.
Carefully evaluate and

consider the light source
before conducting the test.
(continued)
To fix the problem

Hold the vial up to natural light,
preferably looking toward the
north horizon.
When indoors, compare
against a light source with
enough intensity and against
a plain background. Place a
white paper or card behind the
test vial if necessary.
Viewing the test vial

in direct sunlight,
against a patterned
background, or in low
light conditions.
Use a comparator kit with

color wheels and a viewfinder
to display results against a
lighted background.
Use handheld electronic
testing devices.
Drops are hard
to release from
the tip of the
bottle or are
hard to control.
Static buildup is around

tip.
Clean the dropper tip after

each use and store the bottle
with the cap on.
Wipe the tip with a soft cloth,

then try again.
Replace old bottle with a new
reagent bottle.
Performance Goal
Follow test procedures carefully to get accurate results; monitor

and record the findings so the data can be used to manage water
quality.
Best Practices
Take proper care when using and storing test kit materials.
Follow water test procedures carefully to get accurate

results.
Look for trends in test results so you can be proactive and

stay ahead of water-quality problems.
Test at whatever frequency is required by your pool regulatory agency or more when you are having problems or
bather loads are high.
Record and archive the results of all tests.
70
6
3
How to
Sanitize and
Oxidize the
Water
magine all of the stuff that gets into pool water: sweat, hair,
Iinsects,
urine, shampoo, fibers, cosmetics, lotions, hair spray, saliva,
pollen, mucus, dust, suntan oils, parasites, tree sap,
auto and jet exhaust, vegetation, deodorant, viruses, soaps,
bacteria, acid rain, bird droppings. . . . The list could go on!
What you learn in this chapter will help you kill the germs and
chemically burn up all the other nasty organic stuff to keep your
water sparkling fresh. Topics on deck:
How to use chlorine or bromine to sanitize and oxidize
your pool water
How to supplement chemicals by using ultraviolet,
ozone, and ionization systems
How to evaluate water test results and adjust chlorine
or bromine levels
How to perform breakpoint chlorination and what happens when the organics in the water arent oxidized
completely
How to kill and control algae with chlorine
For more on
recreational
water
illnesses,
see pages
107 to 112.
lthough water may look clean after it goes through a filtration system, it may still
harbor bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms that can cause disease.
Many maladies, known as recreational water illnesses (RWIs), can be transmitted
through the water, especially when the water has been contaminated with fecal
matter. In addition to germs, pool water is continually contaminated with organic
matter, which is any carbon-based material that gets into the water from the environment or the human body. Because germs and organic matter are too small to be
removed during filtration, every pool must have an effective method of disinfection
in addition to filtration.
Chemicals That Sanitize

and Oxidize Pool Water
The most commonly used pool water sanitizers are chlorine and bromine. These
chemicals serve two purposes:
1. They kill pathogens (germs including bacteria and viruses) that can cause
illness.
Oxidize the Water
6 How to Sanitize and
Did you know

that sanitation
+ oxidation =
successful pool
water treatment?
72
2. They oxidize many water contaminants, such as body wastes and other
organic matter that can cause water to smell, become cloudy, or irritate the
skin.
The germ-killing function of chlorine or bromine is the easy part of its job; most
pathogens are eliminated almost immediately on contact with these chemicals. This
germ-killing function is commonly called disinfection, although some in the medical
community prefer the term sanitize to describe what chlorine and bromine do to the
water. Either way, the terms disinfect and sanitize (and disinfection and sanitation)
as they refer to general pool plant operation are commonly used interchangeably
too often to make a distinction.
All pool regulatory agencies require that you use a disinfectant that stays in the
water for hours or even days (has a residual) and continues to work. This means
that you have to test and record the disinfectant levels in the water periodically to
prove that you have kept the residual within established minimum requirements.
The more difficult task is burning off all the organic matter, which is achieved
through a biological process known as oxidation. When chlorine or bromine comes
in contact with organic matter, it attaches itself to the compound and causes it to
break down into carbon dioxide, which is then harmlessly released into the water.
While sanitation comes along for the ride, its oxidation that we really have to work
for.
When there is enough chlorine in the water to oxidize the organic particles as
fast as they enter, the water remains nonirritating and does not have any chlorine
odor. When organic particles enter the water faster than the chlorine can oxidize
them, the organic particles are attached to the chlorine, rendering it useless. These
compounds are called chloramines, and they can no longer sanitize the pool. The
measurement of chloramines is called combined chlorine (CC) because it measures the chlorine that is ineffective as a result of combining with compounds that
have not been burned out of the water. Chloramines are what produce irritation to
bathers and the telltale chlorine odor.
Treatment Options to Sanitize and Oxidize Pool Water
Potassium
monopersulfate is an
oxidizing chemical in
powder form, sometimes
known as nonchlorine
shock.
Chlorine is a chemical
element that is a powerful
sanitizer and oxidizer.
When combined with water,
it forms hypochlorous acid
(HOCl), which is what kills
pathogens.
Bromine is in the same

chemical family as chlorine.
Whats used in pools is a
combination of bromine and
chlorine called hydantoin
bromine, which can disinfect
and oxidize.
Ultraviolet light (UV)
produces radiation that
inactivates bacteria and
breaks down chloramines
and other contaminants.
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)

is a liquid that oxidizes
contaminants when
added to water.
Ozone (O3) is a gas that

is an active form of
oxygen that interferes
with the reactions that
produce contaminants.
Oxidize the Water
Ions are atoms that are

positively or negatively
charged. Silver ions are
capable of killing most
microorganisms. Copper ions
are effective against algae.
Chlorine or bromine remain in the water as a residual and are the most effective treatments. Other chemicals or disinfectant systems are used as supplements.
73
Treatments That Affect Chlorine
Sodium thiosulfate is
a dry chemical that
neutralizes chlorine
when added to water.
Cyanuric acid (CYA) is a
dry chemical that stabilizes
chlorine in the water in
outdoor pools where chlorine
is subjected to sunlight to
help it last longer.
Chlorinated cyanurates (stabilized

chorines) combine chlorine with
cyanuric acid and include tricholo-striazinetrione (trichloroisocyanuric acid),
commonly called trichlor, and sodium
dichloro-s-triazinetrione dihydrate
(sodium dichloroisocyanurate),
usually called dichlor.
Did you know chlorine and bromine are the only treatments that leave a residual in the water that
can be measured? Which does your pool use?
Chlorine
For more
on handling
chemicals
safely,
see pages
126 to 130.
Chlorine (and chlorine compounds that are also often called just chlorine) for
pool water disinfection is available primarily in three forms: gas, liquid, and solid.
All chlorines and sanitizers are hazardous if not handled properly. As a pool plant
operator you must be aware of the potential
dangers of each type and manage that risk.
Lets take a look at each type of chlorine that
you might encounter.
Oxidize the Water
Elemental Chlorine Gas Chlorine gas, a

deadly, green-yellow gas that is much heavier
than air, is stored in pressurized tanks. To release
the gas into the water, you must use a special gas
feeder that regulates how much gas is released
and injects the gas into the circulation line.
74
Gas is the most effective form of chlorine for disinfection. In the pool water, it
forms hypochlorous acid (HOCl) while it tends to lower pH. If the pH is not constantly
maintained with automation, gas chlorine should never, never be a choice. Gas
chlorine is also the most dangerous to use because if it leaks, the fumes can be
deadly. Many locations worldwide have banned its use for these reasons. Where
it is allowed, chlorine gas must be used in a fire-safe, sealed room separate from
the pumps and other pool plant equipment. The room must have forced-air ventilation and a high-chlorine detection system, and procedures must be in place to
regularly check for leaks.
Liquid Chlorine (Sodium Hypochlorite) You are already familiar with liquid chlorineits bleach! However, liquid chlorine for
poolssodium hypochloriteis much stronger than household
bleach. Whereas household bleach is around 5 percent concentration, liquid chlorine is usually available at a 12 to 15 percent, or even
as high as 30 percent concentration, depending on the product.
It is stored in large heavy-duty plastic containers and fed into the
pool circulation system with a feeder, which injects the bleach into
the circulation line.
Sodium hypochlorite gradually loses its strength. After about 30
days, using typical storage methods, you can expect a noticeable
reduction in concentration. In fact, it may even have weakened
before being delivered to your facility, so you may want to check
new shipments with a bleach-strength test kit to make sure youre
getting full-strength bleach. Store it in a cool, dark environment to
slow deterioration.
Does your facility typically use elemental chlorine gas, sodium hypochlorite (liquid chlorine),
calcium hypochlorite (solid chlorine), or bromine for pool water disinfection?
For more
on chemical
feeders,
see pages
42 to 45.
Oxidize the Water
Solid Chlorine (Calcium Hypochlorite) The

solid version of chlorine, calcium hypochlorite, is a
mixture of chlorine, calcium, and oxygen. It comes
in granular, block, tablet, and briquette forms. It
should be stored in a cool, dark place with the
container lid sealed tightly; it remains usable for
about a year if stored properly. Besides being a
water oxidant and sanitizer, calcium hypochlorite
can be used to kill algae. Youll learn more about
this later in this chapter.
Calcium hypochlorite in briquette (small tablet)
form is introduced into the pool through an erosion feeder that supplies a spray of water up into
a large funnel-like trough, eroding the solid tablets
from below. The chlorine-bearing solution is then
injected into the circulation line. Granular calcium Granular and tablet forms of calcium hypochlorite
hypochlorite is often added to the pool directly by
(chlorine).
hand or by mixing it with water to make a solution
then pouring the solution directly into the pool when bathers arent present.
75
Oxidize the Water
For more on
safe chlorine
storage,
see pages
75 and 126
to 128.
Did you know

stabilized chlorines
such as dichlor
and trichlor are not
usually appropriate
for use in public
pools because of
cost factors and
problems with
cyanuric acid levels
becoming too high
over time?
76
The solid form of chlorine has one big drawback. Because it oxidizes so easily,
it can spontaneously explode or catch fire if it combines with any kind of organic
material. This includes common substances such as soda, a damp cloth, cardboard, oils, sweat, paper, soap, or small amounts of water. Even fumes from an
organic source can trigger a reaction, so its important to store calcium hypochlorite
carefully.
Salt Chlorine Generators Who knew that simply adding salt to water and running electricity through it could disinfect an entire pool? In essence, thats what a
chlorine generator does. It uses electrolysis to convert salt (sodium chloride) and
water into the hypochlorous acid (HOCl) needed to treat the water.
Two methods of generating chlorine are currently in use: in-line generation and
the brine method. In the in-line generation of chlorine, you add salt directly into
the pool water to a level of about 3,500 ppm (mg/L) (1/10 of sea water). The level
of salt needed in the water is not enough to corrode pool surfaces, and it cannot
be tasted in the water. The electrolysis takes place in one or more cells located in
a side loop of the circulation system. As the water passes through each cell, the
cell generates bubbles of chlorine gas, which in turn create the desired hypochlorous acid (HOCl). Other chemical compounds are formed too, but those either are
absorbed without effect into the water or vented into the atmosphere.
The newer brine method systems do not require salt in the pool water. Instead, salt
is placed in brine chambers where the electrolysis takes place. Chlorine is formed
and then drawn into the pool water through a venturi in the circulation system.
Cell output is similar in all machines, about 1.25 pounds (almost .57 kg) per internal cell per day. Many of the commercial units are two-celled machines, producing
about 2 pounds (almost 1 kg) gas equivalent daily per machine. Obviously, then,
multiple units are needed for use in large public pools. The newest industrial-quality
systems have as many cells as needed with virtually unlimited output.
Many pool regulatory agencies do not allow chlorine generators to be used as
stand-alone units because most cannot react to the ever-changing levels of organic
matter in water with fluctuating swimmer loads. In those cases, the pool will still
need to have a way to feed gas, liquid, or solid chlorine into the water.
Chlorine Stabilizers Although free chlorine (HOCl) is an effective pool oxidizer
and sanitizer, its longevity is diminished in outdoor pools. Sunlight can destroy the
chlorine residual in a matter of hours, so if you want to lengthen the time the chlorine
stays in an outdoor pool, you might wish to stabilize it. This can be done by adding
a chemical called cyanuric acid to pool water, or in some cases by using a product
that contains both chlorine and cyanuric acid together in solid form.
Cyanuric acid can take up to two days to dissolve. Because of this, it is usually fed by hand into the filter or skimmers or broadcast into the pool water when
no swimmers are present. Once it is in the pool, the only way to lower levels is to
drain some water from the pool and add new, untreated water. It does not disinfect
on its own and it also doesnt stabilize bromine, the other commonly used pool
disinfectant.
Stabilization of chlorine increases its longevity. But when cyanuric acid levels
build up in the water, the acid can have a negative effect and greatly decrease the
oxidation potential of chlorine and increase the amount of time it takes chlorine to
kill some pathogens. Because of this effect on chlorine, cynanuric acid generally is
used at levels of 10 to 30 ppm (mg/L). Some pool regulatory agencies have standards that restrict the amount of cyanuric acid that can be present in the water.
Bromine
Did you know that

cyanuric acid
serves no purpose
in an indoor pool
and should never
be used there?
Bromine can disinfect water, kill algae, and oxidize, although its not as strong an
oxidizer as chlorine. It comes in powder and a tablet or stick form; the granular
form needs the addition of chlorine or potassium monopersulfate to work, whereas
the tablet or stick form combines both bromine and chlorine.
Bromine in powder and tablet form.
Bromine has less odor and is less irritating to bathers than chlorine. It also is
more stable than chlorine at high temperatures, making it better than chlorine for
spa use.
On the negative side, sunlight destroys bromine (as it does chlorine), but theres
no way to stabilize it. In addition, bromine has a low pH, which will have to be carefully managed to prevent damage to pool plumbing and equipment. It can also
smell, turn water green, and cause staining and sudsing. It takes more than twice
as much bromine as chlorine to reach the same sanitizing residual.
Equipment Used
to Sanitize or Oxidize Water
Oxidize the Water
Equipment that provides disinfection without the addition of chemicals to the water
can add more sanitation power to supplement chlorine or bromine. These are
ultraviolet (UV), ozone, and ionization systems.
77
Ultraviolet (UV) Systems
Oxidize the Water
A UV system.
78
UV systems are growing in popularity because they provide a nonchemical

approach to controlling combined chlorine, also known as chloramines. UV light
breaks down the harmful combined chlorine while leaving free chlorine relatively
untouched. This type of system also uses ultraviolet light, not chemicals, to help
disinfect the pool. UV light effectively kills pathogens by altering their DNA, making
them unable to metabolize or reproduce. It is particularly good at killing protozoans
like Cryptosporidium and Giardia. You cannot overdose with UV, and there are no
harmful by-products (Schaefer 2006).
In UV systems, filtered water in the return line runs past special UV lamps to
reduce chloramines and disinfect the water before it enters the pool. UV systems
should be sized to treat 100
percent of the flow. Although not
required, installing the UV in a
bypass will allow you to service
it while the filtration system is
running.
UV systems for pools typically
have a treatment chamber and
a power or control cabinet. Ideally, the system is placed after
filtration and before chemical
injection. The chamber includes
one or more lamps, and quartz
sleeves separate the lamps from
the water. Because the sleeves
develop deposits that block some
of the UV rays, most UV systems
have internal wipers to keep the
sleeves clean. The chamber also
has a monitor that registers the
output of the lamps. The lamps generate significant heat, but the flow of water keeps
the system from overheating. The chamber also includes a temperature sensor
that turns the lamps off if water flowand therefore the coolingis interrupted for
an extended time (Schaefer 2006). However, a signal from a flow meter or switch
should be used to make sure the lamp is on when there is flow and vice-versa.
Some UV systems have low-pressure lamps, but most of those used for public
pools have medium-pressure lamps. Medium-pressure lamps are recommended
because they provide energy at many wavelengths, are 10 to 20 times more powerful than low-pressure lamps, and are able to handle the flows typical of commercial
pools. Pressure refers to the internal gas pressure within the lamp.
UV systems can last 15 to 20 years if they are maintained well. UV lamps typically last around a yearin the range of 10 to 14 months. They will last longer if
they are continuously powered, so avoid turning them on and off unnecessarily.
You can also extend the life of the lamps by operating them at half power when the
pool is closed. If your facility uses a UV system, it will need to be serviced regularly.
Follow the manufacturers operating and maintenance guidelines specific to your

model, but you can expect routine servicing once or twice a year to include draining and inspection of the chamber, O-rings, and quartz sleeves and replacement
as necessary. If your UV system does not have an internal wiper, you will need to
manually clean the quartz sleeves more frequently (Schaefer 2006).
UV-Hydrogen Peroxide Treatment

UV and hydrogen peroxide, when used together, create potent oxidizing agents
that react very quickly against a variety of organic contaminants. For the UV plus
hydrogen peroxide system to be effective, it must operate continuously. Several
countries approve the use of UVhydrogen peroxide treatment within certain
operating criteria.
Ozone Systems
Oxidize the Water
Ozone does an excellent job of killing pathogens quicklyespecially viruses,

spores, and amoebas. Ozone remains in the water as a residual for only short
periods, so it cant be used as a primary disinfectant. Because ozone is unstable
and short-lived, it has to be generated onsite at the pool. Two methods of generating ozone are used: corona discharge and ultraviolet light.
Corona discharge is the method used in most large pools. An ozone generator
contains high-voltage electrical discharges that split apart air molecules, some of
which re-form as ozone. The air running through the generator is first dehumidified,
because moisture in the air can form nitric acid that decreases the production of
ozone. The ozone molecules are venturidrawn into the return water flow, where measurable ozone persists for no more than 15
minutes. In water with an organic demand,
the ozone lasts only a minute or two. Typically there is a four-minute contact tank in
the return system, giving ozone plenty of
time to perform its oxidizing task.
The other type of system generates
ozone by flowing air over ultraviolet light
(UV). These UV systems are best used in
small pools and spas, because they generate much smaller amounts of ozone than a
corona discharge system does. With either
method, the ozone can be introduced into
the circulation system with either an injector
or an air compressor.
Ozone systems do have some disadvantages. Ozone can encourage the bloom and
growth of algae, corrode copper and other
metals, and cause rubber gaskets and O An ozone system.
rings to deteriorate.
79
Ionization
Ions are easily generated in pool water by a device called an ionizer. The generating circuit, which is mounted right on the circulation line, consists of a silver
electrode and a copper electrode. The ions from the electrodes pass through the
water, sanitizing it.
Although ionization kills pathogens, it cannot oxidize. Chlorine or bromine must
be used in addition to ionization. Ionization treatment is generally best for low- to
medium-use pools. It has the drawbacks of requiring frequent cleaning of the
electrodes, possibly leaving green or black stains on pool walls, and sometimes
necessitating the special treatment of discharge water. If the water used in the
pool is highly conductive because of dissolved solids, ionization may not work
effectively.
Evaluating Chlorine Test Results

and Adjusting Levels
Did you know
that its easier,
and acceptable,
to round to the
nearest number
that ends in zero
when making
pool operating
calculations?
You will need to evaluate the test results to figure out what chemicals, and how much
of each, to use to bring your water back to being just right. Lets first discuss the
information you need to evaluate test results, look at making routine adjustments,
then analyze what needs to be done if chloramines are present.
Youve already learned about the three tests you need to do for chlorine levels:
those for free chlorine, total chlorine, and combined chlorine. Taking the tests wont
do any good if you dont know how to analyze the results and determine a course
of action.
Before making any chemical adjustments, you should do the following:
Determine why your readings are not within range. Is your feeder not working? Is your chlorine supply depleted? Is the injection site clogged? Is your
feeder or controller set too low or too high for the demand? Knowing the
reason will help you determine what you need to do to fix the problem so
that it does not recur.
Know the amount of chemical change you want to make. Most chemical pool
products include dosage tables on their packaging. To determine the dosage,
you will need to know how many gallons or liters of water your pool holds
and the amount of chemical change that you want to make. For example, if
your test showed that your free chlorine reading was 1 ppm (mg/L) and you
want to bring the level to 3 ppm (mg/L), you need to increase the amount of
chlorine in the water by 2 ppm (mg/L). Determining dosages using charts is
not difficult if you know this information.
Oxidize the Water
If youve analyzed your water test results and determined that you need to adjust
chlorine levels, it will be helpful to know these practices:
80
If your free-chlorine level is too low, you need to add a chlorine product to
bring the level back within the range required by your pool regulatory agency.
The fastest way to increase chlorine levels is to hand-dose a chlorine product
directly into the pool. You should use either liquid chlorine or calcium hypochlorite mixed into a solution. Pour the chlorine all around the perimeter of the
pool when bathers are not present. Be sure to wear protective clothing and
safety glasses, and keep the bucket or pouring device you are using close
to the water surface to avoid splashback.
If your free-chlorine reading is too high (above the maximum level acceptable
by your pool regulatory agency), you should consider whether the level will
come down on its own within a reasonable time or whether you need to use a
chlorine neutralizing product. If you need to decrease the free chlorine level,
you can add sodium thiosulfate to the water, which will neutralize some or all
of the chlorine. Add this product when bathers are not present.
If your combined-chlorine reading is too high, chloramines are present in the
water, and you will need to decide when to perform breakpoint chlorination.
When taking those routine test-kit readings, you should frequently note the
total-chlorine readings. Ideally they are the same as the free readings, indicating an absence of combined chlorine. If, however, a little insidious chloramine has begun to accumulate, you will need to carefully observe any rise in
the combined-chlorine value over a period of days (maybe even weeks) until
it gets to a point of intolerance for you or your swimmers. Usually CC levels
of 0.4 ppm (mg/L) or more make breakpoint chlorination necessary. To get rid
of CC, you can perform breakpoint chlorination by superchlorinatingadding
a lot more chlorine tothe water.
Did you know that

120,000 gallons
(454,236 L) of
water weigh 1
million pounds
(453,592 kg)?
Increasing and Decreasing Chlorine Levels

To raise chlorine levels by 1 ppm (mg/L) for 10,000 gallons (40,000 L) of
water, add any of the following:
1.3 ounces (40 g) of chlorine gas
2 ounces (60 g) of granular or tablet calcium hypochlorite
10 ounces (330 mL) of liquid chlorine (at 12 percent strength)
Oxidize the Water
For larger pools, there is an easy way to determine dosages. Weighing

1 million pounds, 120,000 gallons is dosed to 1 ppm with 1 gallon of liquid
chlorine, 1 pound of gas, or 1.5 pounds of calcium hypochlorite. You can use
any easy proportional dose, like 2 pounds for 140,000 gallons or .25 pound
for 30,000 gallons. The same proportional method can be applied to metric
measures.
To lower chlorine levels, add 1 pound (450 g) of sodium thiosulfate to every
100,000 gallons (380,000 L) of water. This will reduce chlorine levels by 1
ppm (mg/L).
81
Breakpoint Chlorination
When we talk of breakpoint chlorination, were talking about superchlorination.
Breakpoint is the less customary yet more correct descriptive name for the subject
at hand. Although some consider the two to be different, well use them pretty much
interchangeably. Superchlorination was designed for one thing alone: elimination
of the offensive and unwanted ammonia compounds of chlorine. Secondarily, it
kills any establishing algae colonies, but this is a side benefit that a professional
pool plant operator shouldnt have to deal with anyway.
In pool water, the combining of the good-guy chlorine compound (HOCl) with
ammonia forms ammonia compounds of chlorinewhich are also called chloramines, combined chlorine, the bad guys, and even some nonprintable names youre
free to recall or imagine. Chloramines are lousy sanitizers and oxidizers, have an
offensive chlorine odor, irritate eyes and mucous membranes, dont do much to
preclude algae, waste otherwise effective chlorine, and simply cost money.
Common sources of ammonia in pool water are urine, sweat, and decomposing
organic matter. The first, urine, can be minimized with good education and rules,
handy bathrooms, and time-out breaks. The next two, perspiration and decomposition of everything from sloughed dead skin to leaves, dust, and small dead
animals, are less preventable.
Eye Burn Complaints?
Oxidize the Water
Would you say that eye burn is the biggest water-related

concern of your swimmers? (OK, second to temperature.)
While dozens of things are blamed for common swimmers eye burn, chloramine is so much the dominant
contributor to this classic problem that hardly anything
else is worth addressing. Theres really no better
indicator of the need to superchlorinate, or better
reason to do so, than the eye burn complaint.
In a brief hour or two, successful superchlorination can render innocuousthat is, nonirritatingpool
water that has been producing road-map eyes in two
laps of freestyle. It can tame a staggering chloramine odor in an equally short time. (For a very large
pool or one indoors, youd better set aside a day,
for reasons that will be discussed later.)
A half-ppm (.5 mg/L) of combined chlorine could easily be as offensive as this
description; that water needs the cure
of superchlorination.
82
How to Perform Breakpoint Chlorination

You may have heard of, or even practiced, the routine, calendar-scheduled
superchlorination with a given amount or chlorine product or to a standard
target valuesay, each Saturday, to 10 ppm (mg/L). A more scientific, or
at least more reasonable, schedule is to superchlorinate only when your pool
water needs it and skip it when it doesnt. Lets look at a typical sample set
of conditions that will indicate the need to superchlorinate, and calculate the
level of chlorine to shoot for.
First you must decide when its time to start heaping the chlorine into your
pool, and then plan the work carefully to fit the schedule of programs on the
facilitys calendar. Leaving the psychology of scheduling, downtimes, and priorities up to you, lets at least stress that the pool must be closed during most
of the process.
Everyone has a different idea about when, in terms of a no-longer-tolerable
quantity of chloramine, to superchlorinate. Theres a widely agreed-on .4 ppm
(mg/L) threshold, where eye burn complaints seem to rise rapidly, but the
number is quite objective. The following example uses that value.
Simplified Superchlorination Curve, Breakpoint Example
Oxidize the Water
The example shown in the figure

Chlorine
residual
shows the .4 ppm (mg/L) difference
Breakpoint
1.4 ppm Total
between 1.4 ppm (mg/L) total chlorine
1.0 ppm Free
and 1.0 ppm (mg/L) free chlorine. The
0.4 Combined
simple rule that seems universally
x 10 = 4 ppm
accepted is to multiply the chloramine
target for
value by 10. Youll arrive at the target
All free
breakpoint
level to which you should elevate your
waters chlorine residual.
Free
Total
Look at the curve in the figure, chlorine Combined
showing the rise in total residual in the
Time
1 Day
pool. As that value climbs toward the
10-to-1 level (called the breakpoint), 1.4 ppm (mg/L) total chlorine 1.0 ppm (mg/L) free chlorine
= .4 ppm (mg/L) combined chlorine. .4 ppm (mg/L) combined
note that the combined chlorine
chlorine 10 = 4 ppm (mg/L) target for breakpoint.
climbs some as well, scavenging all
remaining ammonia in the water. When
that point is reached where the chlorine finally overwhelms the ammonia products, the combined
value drops abruptly to 0. From then on, whether the chlorine continues to rise (overshooting
the actual breakpoint) or declines (as chlorine additions are stopped and it dissipates), all the
chlorine is free. The odors gone, the irritant is gone, and, even at residuals as high as 10 ppm
(mg/L)if the local pool code allowsyou can safely let the swimmers swim.
83
Dosages to Achieve Breakpoint

The amount of chlorine required to reach the breakpoint level is easy to calculate by
proportionate dosage. The same methods can be applied to metric measures.
Remember, a 120,000-gallon pool contains 1,000,000 pounds of water. Divide
that 120,000 into the amount of gallons in your pool to get the pool size factor;
youll then know how much pure chlorine to add to the pool. We say pure because
only gas chlorine can be figured pound for pound. Calcium hypochlorite (granular)
needs to be used at a rate of 1.5 pounds equating to 1 pound of gas, while sodium
hypochlorite (liquid) requires 1 full gallon (over 8 pounds) for the same result.
For example, in a 230,000-gallon pool, the pool size factor is just under 2. (Dont,
for heavens sake, use 1.917; none of our pool measurements supports such false
accuracy.) The chloramine level times 10 was 4 ppm, so 2 (the size factor) 4 (the
target) = 8 pounds gas chlorine or equivalent:
You could use 8 pounds of elemental chlorine gas if available; however, it
takes many hours to get it in there, during which time its dissipatingnot a
very good technique.
If you elect to use liquid chlorine, often a wise choice, it works gallon for
pound (if its fresh, 12-ish percent), so 8 gallons could be added directly and
quickly. Breakpoint will be achieved as soon as the chlorine is distributed
evenly throughout the entire volume of the pool. That, in itself, may take a
couple of hours or more if your circulation is poor or if youve added it all in
one spot.
Granular calcium hypochloride is a third choice, with the required 4 ppm multiplied by both the 2 for the pool size and the 1.6 because its not all chlorine
(60 to 65% strength, divided into 1 pound). For our purposes, that result is
13 pounds to add to the pool. (Again, please, not 12.8.)
Continuous-Breakpoint Chlorination
Can the 10-times rule be used to prevent the formation of chloramines? If theres at
least 10 times the chlorine in the water as there is ammonia in the water, chloramines
dont form, so yes, in theory chloramines can be prevented by maintaining a continuous breakpoint. To achieve this level of sanitation, you will need an automated
controller attached to a feed system that is capable of sending enough sanitizer
into the water to stay ahead of the breakpoint. Maintaining continuous breakpoint
is achievable but not practical in all situations.
Consequences of Failed Breakpoint Chlorination
Oxidize the Water
The chemistry of pool water is extremely complex, no matter how we in the teaching
business try to simplify it. Virtually all unpleasant or dangerous chemical compounds
in chlorinated water are the products of incomplete oxidation.
There are two common reasons why breakpoint chlorination may have failed:
1. Air movement, exchange, or refreshment is inadequate for the normal breakpoint chemistry to occur.
2. Superchlorination dosages were too low or not maintained long enough.
84
Common Questions About Superchlorination
How do you know when you reach

breakpoint?
Buy and use a high-range kit. Or dilute a sample
of your pool water with a known ratio of bottled
distilled water and then multiply your standard
kit reading of that diluted sample by that ratio.
You could even count on your calibrated nose:
You know youve hit breakpoint if you detect the
absence of odor. Or, of course, you could simply
be confident in your calculations.
What about pH when superchlorinating?
The answer may be surprising. We think that
everything about chlorine works better at a low
pH; here, however, the more offensive forms of
chloramine are more prone to develop at pH values
near 7 (and certainly so for pH values lower yet).
Breakpoint reactions work best in the 7s, so, for
superchlorination day only, choose the high end
of the decade, say 7.7 to 7.9 or even 8.0. Makes
high-pH chlorine products look pretty good for this
purpose, doesnt it?
Can I superchlorinate under a pool
blanket?
No, no, no. Complete oxidation of chloramines
requires an interface with atmosphere. Where else
will the gaseous products of the process go? (Its
tough on the cover if left in place, too!)
Yes. How about an example: Say you have only a

couple tenths of total chlorine. And lets say only
one tenth is free. Thats a case of 50 percent
chloramine, yetbecause the total value happens
to be very lowthe calculated value of combined
chlorine is only .1 ppm (mg/L). So 10 times that
apparent chloramine level is only 1 ppm (mg/L),
suspiciously low for a superchlorination target.
Theres very little likelihood that youll hit breakpoint when bringing the pool to 1 ppm (mg/L), as
yet-uncombined ammonia will almost surely cause
a proportional elevation of the chloramine as the
total chlorine rises. By the time you arrive at 1 ppm
(mg/L) the chloramine may well show up on the
kit as .4 or .5 ppm (mg/L) rather than 0, holding
that 50 percent ratio and never even approaching
breakpoint! The times-10 rule applies only when
the pools free residual is in the normal range
near 1 ppm (mg/L).
Is breakpoint chlorination the same as
shocking?
No! Dont confuse breakpoint chlorination with
shocking the pool. Although both terms refer
to increases in the chlorine level, breakpoint is
increasing the level to 10 times the CC level,
whereas shocking increases the total chlorine level
to at least 10 ppm. The word shock is a residential
pool term meaning random or periodic but uncalculated elevation of chlorine residual. Shocking
sometimes makes chloramines significantly worse
because the shock target10 ppm (mg/L)may
fall short of breakpoint.
Can chloramines form if the chlorine is
at zero?
No, no more than chloramine can form in a natural
creek or pond. But any ammonia in the pool waits
around until you feed it a little chlorine, and then
theres plenty of the offensive stuff. If you have
heavy chloramine and you let the chlorine dissipate
to 0, is the chloramine gone? Yes. Is the ammonia
gone? Not a chance. As soon as you restore the
chlorine, the amines are back, and back worse
than ever if any organics were added during the
time the chlorine was low.
Oxidize the Water
Look at one small parcel of water, say a water glass

full, with some chlorine in it. Now lets flip a drop of
sweat in that glass. Theres a magical molecularweight ratioa little under 10 to 1that, if matched
or exceeded by the chlorine over any ammonia
present, precludes the formation of ammonia
compounds or chloramines. If the maintenance
of a times 10 level precludes the formation of
chloramine, it makes sense that superchlorination
with the same multiplier will get rid of it. Forcing
the 10-to-1 conditions on a particular pool containing considerable accumulated chloramine should
oxidize it out, leaving the water containing free
chlorine only.
Is there a time when the times-10 rule

doesnt work?
Where does the times-10 rule come

from?
85
When oxidation is incomplete, the chloramines break out into the air (off-gas)
before being burned off, where they become even more irritating than they were in
the water. Incomplete oxidation also can develop other chemicals such as nitrogen
trichloride, chloroform, monochloro creatin, unspecified trihalomethanes, nitrates,
chlorates, and so forth that are released into the air despite your best efforts. If
you want to make a chloramine problem worse, just throw in some chlorine without
calculating the correct dose to achieve breakpoint, and watch what happens!
Performing Breakpoint Chlorination in Indoor Pools
Oxidize the Water
Indoor pools are difficult to superchlorinate. To achieve breakpoint, the water

must have a generous supply of fresh air so that the by-products of oxidation can
be released from the water. Without this interface with the atmosphere, complete
oxidation cant happen. To improve your odds of complete oxidation when youre
indoors, youll need to do whatever it takes to blow fresh air across the surface of
the pool to aid in carrying off whats gassing off.
Brand-new, state-of-the-art indoor pools seem to be particularly difficult. The key
word here seems to be new. Amidst designers denials and claims to the contrary,
tight new pools with efficient new air-handling systems appear to hold the key
to persistent chloramine problems and the almost predictable inability to get rid
of it! Air handling by huge, expensive fans, ducts, and machinery that turn over
and condition the airfiltering out dust, reducing humidity, adding or removing
heat, diluting with small amounts of fresh outside air, even recovering energy in
the processcan cut costs of heating and dehumidifying the pool in half. And,
apparently, it can sometimes contribute to headaches in water and air quality.
Problems have shown up in the last decade that were rare to nonexistent 20
years ago. The most frustrating is highly irritating chloramine presence, measured
and experienced, which either refuses to respond to breakpoint efforts or responds
86
partially, then reestablishes itself in a matter of days. Heres where the challenge
comes in for indoor pool plant operators. When air movement, exchange, or
refreshment is inadequate for the normal breakpoint chemistry to occur, the effort
produces unusual, even unpleasant results. Stubborn chloramine conditions come
about that respond poorly or not at all to your times-10 efforts. Eye irritation may be
ever-present, and combined readingsranging from well over a half part per million before superchlorination to at least a few tenths afterlinger in your logs, with
0 evading you entirely. Programs suffer, and the afflicted operator begins to doubt
himself and his training. Take at least this word of comfortyou are not alone!
The two kinds of chloramines are organic and inorganic, and they respond
differently to high levels of additional chlorine. In cases of heavy people-caused,
organic amine, the superchlorination process doesnt always go to completion,
especially in indoor pools.
What we think is happening when air replacement at the waters surface is
inadequate is much of the monochloramine is upgraded to trichloramine (nitrogen
trichloride)that steroid-injected form of chloramine that causes eye burn in deck
staff as well as in swimmers. This trichloramine gasses off intact, creating the
staggering odor and irritation now characteristic of problem pools indoorsand it
simply doesnt yield to common superchlorination.
Trichloramine can theoretically be neutralized by simply allowing the chlorine to
fade to 0. That process usually takes too much time in an indoor pool, so dechlorination with sodium thiosulfate is the only quick option. A carefully calculated dosage
of thio will reduce the chlorine residual to 0, thereby reducing all chloramines to 0 as
well. Ammonia remains, however, so rechlorinating reestablishes monochloraminethe
easy stuff to superchlorinate out. When the residual rises to a typical 1-to-2-ppm
residual, the chloramine can again be measured, then superchlorination can be
calculated and performed. With any luck, breakpoint will be achieved, eliminating
the monochloramine that comprised virtually all the ammonia compounds present.
When this technique works, youve finally eliminated the un-eliminatable bad guys,
and only HOCl remains. It doesnt always work, however, because the conditions
that allowed the chloramine to build and resisted the original efforts to superchlorinate still exist. Air must be moved and exchanged. Doors and windows must be
opened. Rent or buy box fans, floor fans, turbo fans . . . whatever it takes to get
fresh air across the surface of the pool.
Remedies for Difficult Breakpoint Chlorination Situations

There are some other methods you can try if you are having a difficult time achieving breakpoint chlorination.
Oxidize the Water
Potassium Monopersulfate Potassium monopersulfate is one of the nonchlorine

oxidizers, or oxy-named products, and it has achieved good results in some
indoor pools. When using this nonchlorine shock according to the manufacturers
recommendations, a more complete oxidation may occur and the persistent
chloramine just might go away. To add to the confusion, however, potassium
monopersulfate shows up on a standard test kit as the very stuff youre trying to
get rid ofcombined chlorineso a discriminating test is necessary if you will
be testing to monitor your breakpoint results.
87
Activated Carbon Activated carbonor kiln-dried charcoalis the ultimate water

cleaner. It has a tremendous appetite for many compounds and contaminants in
water, including dissolved gasses and odors. It handles chloramines with ease.
Some pool plant operators have loaded a layer of it in the pools filter, letting it go
to work for a half-dozen turnovers. The object here is to present your pool water
to this carbon without getting the carbon in the pool and making a big mess, so
check your filter for leaks or channelization with a small dose first. Itll work in the
pool as well as in your filter; its just a lot harder to clean up.
Locating a source for activated carbon is probably more difficult than putting
it to use; try your local industrial chemical supplier first. Powdered rather than
granular or chunk carbon works best, mostly because you can rid your filter of it
through backwashing. Pour it into the skimmers, surge pit, or wherever you can in
order to coat the filters.
During the process, chlorinate the pool by hand, directly, to preclude an algae
bloom. (Lets not create another problem here. . . .) Your chlorine wont make it
through the carbon-laden filter; youll have to add more regularly throughout the
process.
At the end of all this effort, you should end up with really clean water in your
pool. Backwash the carbon from your filters thoroughly, and return to normal procedures. If some carbon made it through your filters and ends up in the pool, let
it settle and vacuum it up.
Why dont we use carbon in our filters full time? If it werent for carbons hunger
for chlorine, we would. In Europe, an activated carbon bypass filter is used specifically for chloramine management, where 5 to 10 percent of the circulation water
is constantly being passed through this chamber. Carbon does get saturated and
consumed, requiring additions and eventual changing.
Peroxolytes Peroxolytes, a very new treatment supplement, come in a powder
form and are very stable in storage. However, when peroxolytes are added to water,
they quickly become highly energized radicals that can decompose all organic
compounds in pool water on contact. Some compounds that are not affected by
chlorine, UV, or ozone are easily treated with peroxolytes (Professional Pool Operators of America 2007).
You can use peroxolytes to treat contaminants in the pool overnight or as a
continual preventive treatment using a point-of-use feeder to prevent chloramines
from developing in the first place. Peroxolytes seem to work quickly and effectively,
although the product has only recently begun to prove itself. They often destroy
excess stabilizer, and they may reduce the need for liquid acid to control pH
because they cause a lowering in pH levels.
Controlling Algae With Chlorine

Oxidize the Water
Algae are a symptom of poor water quality management and a direct result of
improper levels of residual chlorine. A well-cared-for pool should rarely, if ever,
have an algae problem. However, there may be times when circumstances out of
your control caused an algae bloom, so it is important that you know the symptoms
to look for and how to kill it.
88
Best Practices:
Solving Pool Water Sanitation and Oxidation Problems
Problem
Sanitizer level is
low (free chlorine
or bromine).
Possible causes
High bather load.
Test sanitizer levels frequently

and adjust them as necessary.
For outdoor pools,

there is influx of
organic matter or
sunshine.
Increase the settings on your

controller, or add an additional
feeder pump to keep up with
demand.
Insufficient dosage.
To fix the problem

Hand-feed a dose of
chlorine or increase
feeder capacity to bring
the level up quickly.
Anticipate high bather loads and

increase the sanitizer level ahead
of time.
When using chlorine in outdoor
pools, add cyanuric acid to slow
the degradation of chlorine by
sunlight.
Free chlorine
level is higher
than upper limits
allow.
Controller set point is

too high.
Bathers are
experiencing eye
burn; chlorine
odor is present.
Combined chlorine
levels are high and
chloramines have
formed.
Allow enough time for levels to

come down naturally.
Add sodium thiosulfate to

neutralize the chlorine.
Keep chlorine at consistently high

levels (continuous breakpoint).
Perform breakpoint
chlorination
(superchlorination) to
eliminate all combined
chlorine.
Superchlorination.
Use potassium monopersulfate

(nonchlorine shock) to oxidize
after high bather loads.
Carefully calculate breakpoint
dosages and test to monitor
progress to be sure breakpoint is
reached during superchlorination.
Install UV or ozone system.
Use as low a dose as possible.
Inadequate testing
and monitoring of the
level.
Test and track buildup.
Persistent eye
irritation, chlorine
odor, and poor
pool air quality in
an indoor pool,
especially after
superchlorination.
Inadequate air
replacement during
superchlorination
has caused failure to
reach breakpoint.
Ventilate the pool enclosure with

fresh air during superchlorination.
Algae are
present.
Spores are in the fill

water or have blown
into the pool.
By-products of
superchlorination
have gassed off
intact but not been
removed from the air.
Position fans to blow air across

the pool and out open doors to
remove chloramines near the
water surface.
Keep levels of chlorine or

bromine at or above minimum
requirements at all times.
Dilute pool water by

draining and replacing it
until cyanuric acid level is
reduced.
Neutralize the chlorine
with sodium thiosulfate,
chlorinate to 1.0 to 2.0
ppm (mg/L), recalculate
breakpoint and
superchlorinate again,
with adequate ventilation.
Lower the pH, scrub and

brush the pool walls and
bottom, superchlorinate,
brush again, vacuum,
backwash, and dose
with adequate chlorine or
bromine.
89
Oxidize the Water
Improper dosage.
Cyanuric acid
has built up to a
level higher than
allowed.
Algae are single-cell plants that thrive in pools with high pH, sunlight, and ammonia compounds. They also like low chlorine levels and warm water. With the right
conditions, algae can take over a pool in a day or two, making the water cloudy
and smelly and surfaces slippery.
Several types of algae abound, but four are a particular problem for pools:
Green algae. Youll find green algae
in outdoor pools that are not disinfected continuously, or in pools
treated with excess cyanuric acid.
In outdoor pools, storms and wind
will often introduce algae into the
pool. Green algae can cover pool
walls as well as float in the water
itself, making the water colored
and turbid. Warning signs of green
algae overgrowth include a slippery
feeling on the side of the pool and
cloudy green water.
Green algae are out of control in this pool!
Oxidize the Water
Yellow (mustard) algae. This type of algae are at home in shaded areas and
at the bottom of pools, and they create high chlorine demand. Although the
substance appears to be powdery like fine dirt on the bottom, or is invisible to
the naked eye, its very difficult to get rid of. This type is resistant to chlorine,
even at high levels, as well as to other sanitizers and algicide treatments.
Warning signs of yellow algae include unexplained increases in chlorine
consumption and an almost-invisible powder on the bottom that returns after
brushing.
Black algae. Cracks and rough
surfaces on pools give this type of
algae a foothold. It can start on the
surrounding deck and be transferred easily into the pool. Because
they grow in layers, black algae
easily harbor microorganisms such
as amoebas and are hard for chemicals to penetrate and kill. This may
be the toughest type to keep from
recurring. Warning signs of black
algae include spots on the bottom
and sides of the pool or black (or
blue-green) patches in rough surfaces or on deck.
Black algae.
90
White water mold. White water mold is not algae, but rather an environmental
fungus from the ground that can enter your pool. If your sanitizer levels are
low and your water is not balanced, it can take hold and be very difficult to
kill. The mold can multiply quickly and coat the interior of your pipework and
filters. To get rid of it, youll probably need to superchlorinate more than once.
Warning signs of white water mold include slimy clumps of what appears to
be tissue paper floating in the water.
Preventing and Treating Algae

Preventing the growth of algae is much easier than killing the algae off later. Follow these suggestions:
Maintain appropriate levels of pool chemicals at all times. Have a chlorine residual of at
least 2.0 ppm (mg/L), and keep the pH between 7.2 and 7.5. These levels are especially
important if you have already treated a prior algae bloom.
Brush all pool surfaces regularly. This includes gutters, skimmers, water lines, and filters.
(Do not use brushes that can scratch.)
Vacuum the pool regularly.
Backwash filters regularly. Check and treat filter elements for algae.
Ask swimmers to shower before entering the pool to reduce the amount of nitrates in the
water.
Keep pool water circulating properly, with no dead spots.
Superchlorinate when needed.
If the pool walls are painted, make sure they are well maintained and smooth.
Respond quickly if you think algae are starting to grow.
In the case of algae, prevention must be a priority. You really do not want algae
to have a chance to form. If a problem is brewing, take quick action to kill algae
by performing these steps:
1. Lower the pH so the chlorine will be more effective.
2. While the pH is falling, brush and scrub off the algae.
3. Superchlorinate with calcium hypochlorite.
4. Brush and scrub the pool again.
5. Vacuum and backwash.

Oxidize the Water
In cases of unique strains of algae, you might need to use an algicide. In general, however, algicides are more appropriate for residential than for public pool
use. Your focus should be on consistently maintaining the chemicals in your pool
at proper levels.
91
If you find that you do have to turn to an algicide, keep these two points in mind
when deciding which algicide to use: Copper- or silver-based algicides are less
effective in areas with hard water, and algicides containing ammonia will accelerate chloramine formation.
n this chapter you learned all about disinfecting your pool to kill germs
and oxidize your water to remove organic compounds. You learned about
chlorine, chlorine stabilizers, and brominewhat they are and what their job
is in your pool. You also learned about supplemental disinfection systems,
including UV, ozone, and ionization systems. In addition, you now know how
to eliminate chloramines from your water through breakpoint chlorination
and have some solutions for managing resistant chloramine buildup. Finally,
you learned about the importance of preventing algae and how to control
it with chlorine. Your facility and your patrons are counting on you to keep
their water clean, clear, and enjoyable.
Performance Goal
Maintain water that continually has adequate sanitizer levels
to kill pathogens, oxidize the organic load, and prevent the
formation of chloramines.
Best Practices
Maintain generous chlorine levels (maintain breakpoint) to

avoid the formation of chloramines.
Perform breakpoint chlorination (superchlorinate) only

when necessary, as indicated by combined chlorine levels
or bather discomfort.
Be sure to reach breakpoint during superchlorination to

avoid creating additional, and sometimes more offensive,
forms of chloramines.
When superchlorinating indoor pools, open doors and blow

air across the water surface to remove the off-gassing out
of the pool enclosure.
When using cyanuric acid in an outdoor pool, monitor levels

closely to prevent buildup that can reduce the ability of
chlorine to sanitize.
Oxidize the Water
Wear personal protective equipment when handling sanitizing chemicals. Follow safe storage and handling guidelines
for these chemicals.
92
7 1
How to
Balance
the Water
fter the water has been cleaned of impurities by a filter,

tested to determine its chemical qualities, and sanitized
to kill germs and oxidize contaminants, theres still one more
step. Youll need to make sure the water is balanced to protect
the pool and equipment from corrosion or scale damage. Youll
learn how to do that in this chapter. Topics on deck:
What properties of the water affect water balance
How to determine if the water is balanced
How to increase or decrease the levels of pH, total
alkalinity, calcium hardness, and water temperature to
achieve water balance
How to sequence and add chemicals to adjust water
balance
7 How to Balance the Water
ou cant tell whether your water is balanced by looking at it, and your chlorine
readings have nothing to do with water balance. Instead, there is an interdependent relationship between pH, total alkalinity, calcium hardness, total
dissolved solids, and water temperature that you can use to predict if your water
will be aggressive or have a tendency to form scale.
What Is Water Balance?

Water that is balanced has neither scaling nor aggressive tendencies. This balance
occurs when these components are all within certain ranges:
pH
Calcium hardness (CH)
Total alkalinity (TA)
Water temperature
Total dissolved solids (TDS)
Some of these components have more influence on water balance than others.
For example, temperature and total dissolved solids have minimal effect unless
those values are very high.
It is important for you to know how to evaluate your water test results and make
adjustments so you can maintain water balance in your pool. Lets look at how each
component affects the others and the role that each plays in water balance.
pH
Did you know

that sanitizing
chemicals almost
always change the
pH of pool water?
94
Just as pH is the most important factor in determining how well your chlorine works,
it has the biggest influence on whether your water is balanced. Water with too low
of a pH relative to the other water balance parameters can be corrosive or have
a tendency to dissolve plaster and metals. Water with too high a pH can make
calcium salts precipitate out of the water, forming scale that can clog plumbing,
heaters, and other equipment
over time. It also can cause the
water to become cloudy and irritate bathers eyes. The stability
of pH is dependent on the total
alkalinity of the water. If TA is low,
pH can be easily affected by
bather loads, other chemicals,
and even the acid in rain. The
readings will bounce and pH
will be difficult to control.
Chlorine gas and bromine
lower pool water pH, so youll
have to use soda ash or caus Unbalanced water can cause calcium scale
buildup on pool equipment and fixtures.
tic soda to raise your pH and
keep it within an acceptable range. Calcium hypochlorite (granular or tablet) and

sodium hypochlorite (liquid) raise pool water pH, so youll have to use muriatic
acid, sodium bisulfate (dry acid), or carbon dioxide to lower your pH and keep it
within an acceptable range.
Calcium Hardness
Calcium hardness, or the measure of
calcium salts in the water, has a great
influence on water balance, right up there
with pH. The source water you use to fill
your pool has a consistent level of hardness depending on your location. In most
instances your source water will not have
enough natural calcium hardness to keep
your water balanced. You will need to add
chemicals to your pool water occasionally
to raise the calcium hardness level to an
ideal range.
Low levels of calcium hardness can
contribute to corrosion damage to cement, Unbalanced water can be aggressive and can cause
corrosion damage to pool equipment and fixtures.
plaster, or grout, as well as metal surfaces,
especially when pH and TA are low. High
levels of CH are not detrimental as long
as pH and TA are within ideal ranges. If pH and TA are high, then high CH can Did you know
contribute to scaling, filter calcification, and clogging of the heater. Over a long
pool water loves
time, poorly balanced hard water may roughen the surfaces of the pool. While high
hardness is in most cases desirable, water balance must be managed carefully, calcium? If it does
with pH generally low.
not have enough,
As the temperature of the water rises, calcium becomes less soluble and scaling
the water will
is more likely, so controlling calcium hardness is especially important for spas.
Total Alkalinity
Total alkalinity and pH have an interdependent relationship. Total alkalinity is what
causes pH to be stable and able to resist change. At low levels of total alkalinity,
the pH can be affected easily and change rapidly. Water with a low total alkalinity, just like water with a low pH, will be corrosive. If certain minerals are in your
pool water, they may turn the water green if the total alkalinity is low. Finally, if total
alkalinity is very low, it may cause bathers eyes to burn.
High total alkalinity can, if calcium hardness is also high, cause water to become
cloudy by precipitating calcium carbonate into suspension. Like water with a high
pH, it may create scaling that can clog circulation plumbing and equipment. If the
TA of your source water is higher than 170, it can cause pH to resist the lowering
effects of carbon dioxide, and you will have to use muriatic acid to control the pH
of your pool water.
aggressively seek
it and eat away at
concrete, fixtures,
and pool equipment
trying to find it!
95
Note: Due to rights limitations, this item has been removed.
Water Temperature
For more on
how to test
for these
components
of water
balance,
see pages
61 to 65.
Water temperature is the least important factor in water balance, but it plays a
part. Higher temperatures move the water toward being more basic (alkaline) and
increasing scaling; lower temperatures move the water toward being more acid
and increasing corrosion.
The water temperature would have to change at least 20 F or 11 C to influence
the water balance calculations. Most pools keep water within a relatively narrow
range, so the temperature contribution to water balance will be constant. Water
temperature does, however, become a factor if you are determining water balance
for a spa pool or in a winterized pool where the temperatures are much warmer or
colder than the average pool.
Did you know that

Total Dissolved Solids
sea-water pools
Total dissolved solids (TDS) have a minimal effect on water balance in pools. The
filled with ocean
longer the water has been in use, the more likely it is that the TDS level is high.
water, at 33,000
High values indicate little, except they do give you a sense of the maturity of the
ppm TDS, can
water.
An old wives tale says that the upper limit for TDS is no more than 1,500 ppm
maintain balanced,
(mg/L) higher than the level at which the pool started. TDS in your fill water starts
clear water with
out being mostly calcium and magnesium salts, but as water ages, common sodium
full effectiveness of chloride takes over. A few thousand ppm (mg/L) becomes common in pools that
chlorine and high cant dilute or replace water. That level is rather harmless even though, at levels
well above 2,000 ppm (mg/L), galvanic corrosion of metals must be prevented by
oxygen reduction
excellent grounding of rails, filters, and other metal systems. The only practical
potential (ORP)
way to reduce TDS is to dilute, assuming your makeup water has significantly less
values?
TDS than your pool.
96
Determining Water Balance

The tests that you conduct on your pool water will show whether the values of
each component are too low or too high for your water to be in balance. Lets first
discuss how to evaluate your water test results and calculate water balance, and
then look at making adjustments.
By now you should be able to easily predict that water with a high pH, high total
alkalinity, and high calcium hardness will cause scaling damage, and water with a
low pH, low total alkalinity, and low calcium hardness will cause corrosion damage.
But what would you predict if one or two of the values were high and the others
low? Then its not so apparent, especially when you consider that the components
are interdependent but dont have equal influence on water balance.
Over the years, several methods have been created to calculate water balance
using mathematical formulas. The first water balance calculation was developed
by Dr. Langelier in the 1930s, and all current methods are based on or influenced
by the calcium saturation index (CSI) he created. The method you use to determine
water balance will depend on the requirements set by your local regulatory agency,
how precise you want to be, or personal preference. Since not all of the methods
agree with each other, the most important thing is not which calculation you use.
What is important is that you be aware of the need to have balanced water, that
you find a method that works for you, and that you follow it!
Quick Balance Check

The quick balance check (QBC) is a practical method that provides you with a
simple way to see if your water is within a reasonable balance. It is based on Dr.
Langeliers principles without being overcomplicated when theres no reason to be,
such as when you are not having any problems and there hasnt been any significant change in your water. The QBC method helps you spot trends and provides
a signpost indicating a water balance problem might be developing.
To do a quick balance check, multiply total alkalinity by calcium hardness (TA
CH). If the result is below 25,000, increase your TA or CH, whichever is more
out of the ideal range. If the result is above 30,000, lower the TA until TA CH is
between 25,000 and 30,000.
Calcium Saturation Index

If you prefer a more precise indication of water balance, or if your local regulatory
agency requires, you can calculate water balance using an index. An index is a
way to come up with a number that represents the interrelationship between various things that affect each other. In the case of water balance, that index weighs
and manipulates the interaction between pH, calcium hardness, total alkalinity,
and to a small degree temperature and total dissolved solids. When its calculated,
the index gives you a single number that represents what your water is doing.
Theres no reason to calculate this by hand, since a variety of resources such as
slide rules, wheels, software programs, and online calculators can give you the
calcium saturation index for your water. But lets look at how the most widely used
formula works.
97
In the early days, calcium saturation index (CSI) or calculations to determine

water balance were done by hand using a complex table of factors. A factor is a
number assigned to the test results for TA, CH, and temperature. For example, if
your TA result is 100, it has a factor of 2.0; if it is 150, it has a factor of 2.2, and so
on. To complete the calculation, the total alkalinity factor (AF), calcium hardness
factor (CF), and temperature factor (TF) are used in this equation: The saturation
index (SI) is the same thing as the calcium saturation index (CSI).
Did you know

SI = pH + TF + AF + CF 12.1
you dont have to
If the result is 0, or within 0.5 to +0.5 either way, the water is considered balanced
calculate water
using the saturation index.
balance by hand?
Other Indexes
There are slide
rules, wheels,
Over the years, other indexes have been developed that are modifications of the
software programs, CSI. The most common are the Ryznar stability index (RSI) and the Palintest. These
indexes use different calculations and are a matter of personal preference. The
and online
Ryznar places a heavier emphasis on the importance of a high calcium hardness,
calculators that can and water balance using this method usually requires a CH reading of 500 ppm
(mg/L) or more.
do it for you!
Adjusting Chemicals
to Achieve Water Balance
If adjustments need to be made to bring your water into balance, you will need
to figure out what chemicals, and how much of each, to use. Generally, calcium
hardness, pH, and total alkalinity have the most effect on water balance, so you
will adjust these most often to get back in balance. Table 7.1 provides information
on dosages and chemicals used to achieve water balance.
Table 7.1
Adjusting Water Balance

pH
To raise
To lower
Total alkalinity (TA)
Add sodium carbonate (soda

ash) or sodium hydroxide
(caustic soda) according
to dose determined by pH
demand test.
Add sodium bicarbonate.
Add calcium chloride.
Dose: 14 pounds per 100,000

gallons to increase TA 10 ppm
Dose: 24 lbs per 100,000

gallons to increase CH 20 ppm
(6.5 kg per 400,000 L to

increase TA 10 mg/L).
(11 kg per 400,000 L to increase

CH 20 mg/L).
Add muriatic acid or sodium

bisulfate (dry acid) according
to dose determined by pH
demand test.
Add muriatic acid.
Dilution:
Dose: 2 gallons per 100,000

gallons to decrease TA 10 ppm
Partially drain (backwash to

waste) and add new water.
Carbon dioxide gas can be

used for maintenance dosing.
(8 L per 400,000 L to decrease

TA 10 mg/L).
Add sodium bisulfate.
Dose: 21.5 lbs per 100,000
gallons to decrease TA 10 ppm
(10 kg per 400,000 L to
decrease TA 10 mg/L).
98
Calcium hardness (CH)
Treatments That Affect Water Balance
Sodium carbonate is a dry

chemical known as soda ash
that raises pH.
Calcium chloride is a
dry chemical that raises
calcium hardness.
Sodium hydroxide is a dry

chemical known as caustic
soda that raises pH.
Sodium bicarbonate is a
dry chemical that raises
total alkalinity and can
raise pH.
Sodium bisulfate is a
dry acid that lowers
total alkalinity.
Carbon dioxide (CO2 )

is a gas that lowers pH.
Muriatic acid is a liquid

chemical that lowers total
alkalinity and lowers pH.
Broadcasting or Diluting Chemicals Into the Pool

In some cases, you may add chemicals
to the pool by hand rather than through a
feeder. Depending on the chemical, you
may either broadcast it into the pool water
or dilute it before pouring it in.
To Broadcast Chemicals
1. Wait until theres little or no wind so
that you have control over where the
chemical lands.
2. Open the chemical container or
package according to the instructions.
3. Pour the chemical slowly in a wide
swath over the pool. Release some
of the chemical near a water inlet to
help disperse it.
(continued)
99
broadcasting or diluting chemicals into the pool
(continued)
To Dilute Chemicals
Fill half or more of a 5-gallon (19 L) bucket with pool water;

then add the chemical to the water.
Mix the appropriate chemical into the water with a stick or

paddle made of a material that will not interact with the chemical. Do not reuse a stick that has been used to mix a different
type of product, or you may cause a chemical reaction.
4
Pour the mixture evenly over the deep end of the pool.
Clean the bucket and store the remaining chemical properly.
Read and follow any instructions you see on the chemicals package. In some cases, you may be
warned not to add the full amount of chemical all at once. In that case youll have to add it several
times with breaks in between. For safety reasons, add chemicals when no one is in the pool.
100
The order in which you add chemicals, and sometimes even the method, can
determine whether you are successful in making the changes you are trying to
achieve. Because pH, total alkalinity, and calcium hardness are so interdependent,
a mistake with one can cause a ripple effect. Here are some suggestions to keep
in mind:
Adjust total alkalinity before you adjust pH, because the level of total alkalinity
may change the pH level.
Pour acid into the deep end of the pool, in one location rather than distributed
around the pool.
After youve added a chemical, retest after a turnover period before making
any additional chemical adjustments.
Dilute acid in a ratio of 1 part acid to 10 parts water before adding it to the
pool. Remember, when making a solution always add the chemical to the
water, not the water to the chemical.
Put in only half of the dose of calcium chloride at a time.
If you have to increase total alkalinity (TA) and calcium hardness (CH), use
sodium bicarbonate to raise the TA and then wait 24 hours before adding
calcium chloride to raise the CH.
When adjusting the total alkalinity (TA), raise it no more than 50 ppm (mg/L),
or lower it no more than 10 ppm (mg/L), in a 24-hour period.
When increasing calcium hardness (CH), dont raise it more than 50 ppm
(mg/L) every 8 hours.
When adjusting pH, dont raise or lower it by more than .4 on the pH scale
at a time.
Did you know that

chemicals used to
raise pH can make
the water cloudy
for a time if added
too fast?
he water at your facility should be kept in balance to be healthy for your

pool and its patrons. Every week (or maybe every month, according to
your pools trends and influences), test the water and calculate the CSI. If
you find a reading out of whack, adjust the levels of one of the five possible
culprits: pH, total alkalinity, calcium hardness, total dissolved solids, and
water temperature. Table 7.1 will help you with this. A balanced pool is a
healthy pool, and its up to you to keep it that way!
101
Performance Goal
Monitor your water balance regularly to prevent damage to the
pool structure and pool circulation system.
Best Practices
Keep water balanced, adjusting the water to stay in ranges

that are most likely to result in well-managed water.
Keep pH between 7.4 and 7.5.

Keep TA between 80 and 150.
Keep CH above 300.
Keep TA CH between 25,000 and 30,000.
102
8
2
How to
Control
Exposure to
Pathogens
T
he chances of you or others being exposed to illnesscausing pathogens at your pool is very small if you pay
close attention to sanitation. Even though the statistics are on
your side, the consequences of illness transmission could be
deadly, so its important to know how to reduce the likelihood of
your patronsor even youbecoming exposed. In this chapter
you will learn what you can do as a pool plant operator to reduce
the spread of disease. Topics on deck:
How to clean up blood or other bodily fluids from hard
surfaces or from grass or sand to prevent infection to
you or others from bloodborne pathogens
What recreational water illnesses are and how to disinfect
after a vomit or fecal accident
How to prevent the spread of pathogens by contact or
through the air
How to educate your patrons about healthy hygiene practices that will keep them and others from getting sick
8 How to Control
Exposure to Pathogens
Can you think of

more ways bodily
substances can
contaminate your
pool?
104
hink of all of the ways germs can spread at your facility. Patrons can contract
bacteria, viruses, or microorganisms through the air, by walking on the deck
or touching other surfaces, or from ingesting water as they lounge, play, or swim
in your pool or spa. You could come in contact with the same germs during your
maintenance and cleaning responsibilities.
Even if your pool water looks clear and clean, many types of bacteria, viruses,
and microorganisms may be present. Although chlorine will immediately kill most
of them, rare pathogens can survive chlorine for several days before being killed.
Such pathogens may also be found in the water from pool play elements such
as water sprays or on the surrounding deck or changing room floor. Part of your
job as a pool plant operator is to do what it takes to eliminate them from the pool
environment.
Sources of possible contamination include the fluids and substances that come
from an infected persons body such as blood, vomit, and fecal matter. (Yes, you
can count on having to clean up these substances at your pool almost daily!)
Some other pathogens live on decks or changing room floor surfaces and can
be transmitted by contact. These can cause skin diseases such as rashes and
athletes foot.
Bodily substances can get in or around your pool in many ways: bloody noses,
vomiting in the pool, vomiting on the deck or in the changing room, diarrhea in the
pool or before making it to the toilet, vandalism (intentional bowel movements in
the pool or in areas other than the toilet), leaky diapers, accidents by children
or adults who dont have bowel
control, and residual fecal matter
on the body from poor hygiene.
Because you will be the one to
clean up sources of contamination, you need to become aware
of what are called universal
precautions. These are precautions everyone needs to
follow who might be exposed
to blood, vomit, or feces in
the course of doing their jobs,
including health care workers,
rescuers, and pool operators.
Taking universal precautions
means that you assume that all
bodily fluids or substances contain pathogens and should be
treated accordingly. This means
that you should wear personal
protective equipment whenever
youre cleaning up such fluids
or substances. Personal protective equipment includes items
such as goggles or a face mask
Remember that any

bodily fluids could
contain pathogens
and should be
handled with great
care.
8 How to Control
to protect your eyes, mouth, and nose; gloves to protect your skin; and shoes to
protect your feet from exposure to bodily fluids that may be on the ground. You
also will be required to follow special procedures when cleaning up bodily fluids,
which we will explain further later in this chapter.
The three types of pathogens well look at here are bloodborne pathogens, those
carried in vomit or feces, and those transmitted through direct contact or through
the air. Well describe some of the particular bacteria and viruses involved and
give you guidelines for how to prevent their spread.
Bloodborne Pathogens
Some of the serious pathogens carried in human blood include HIV and hepatitis.
However, these pathogens are killed by small amounts of chlorine in pool water.
Thus, if there is blood in the water, you do not need to evacuate the water (unless
seeing the blood is upsetting to patrons). However, blood on the deck or other hard
surface does need to be cleaned immediately and the area disinfected.
Recommended Cleanup Procedure

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC),
headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia, United States,
recommends a solution of nine parts cool water and
one part household bleach to clean up any bodily
fluids (add bleach to the water and mix gently). Here
is the recommended cleanup procedure (Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention [CDC] 2006a):
1. Block off the area of the spill from patrons until
cleanup and disinfection are complete.
2. Put on disposable latex gloves to prevent contamination of hands.
3. Wipe up the spill using paper towels or absorbent material and place in a plastic garbage
bag.
4. Gently pour bleach solution onto all contaminated areas of the surface.
5. Let the bleach solution remain on the contaminated area for 20 minutes.
6. Wipe up the remaining bleach solution.
7. All nondisposable cleaning materials used,
such as mops and scrub brushes, should be
disinfected by saturating with bleach solution
and air drying.
105
8 How to Control
For more
on personal
protective
equipment
and handling
chemicals
safely, see
pages 126
to 130.
8. Remove gloves and place in plastic garbage bag with all soiled cleaning
materials.
9. Double bag and securely tie up plastic garbage bags and discard.
10. Thoroughly wash hands with soap and water.
If you prefer to use a commercial disinfectant rather than a bleach solution, go
to the following Web sites to find those recommended by the U.S. CDC: www.epa.
gov/oppad001/chemregindex.htm and www.fda.gov/cdrh/ode/germlab.html.
Cleaning Fluids From Grass or Sand

To clean up bodily fluids from grass or sand (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention [CDC] 2006a; YMCA of the USA 2006), follow these steps:
1. Block off the area of the spill from patrons until disinfection is complete.
2. Put on disposable latex gloves to prevent contamination of hands.
3. Wipe up the spill using paper towels and discard the towels in a biohazard
bag.
4. Gently pour bleach solution (or full-strength bleach if available) onto all
contaminated areas of the surface.
5. Completely cover the area of the spill with clean dirt or sand, or dig out the
contaminated dirt or sand, clean it, then dispose of it in the biohazard bag.
Removing Your Gloves

Once you have finished with cleanup, heres how to remove your gloves (White 2006):
1
Grasp one glove at the base of the palm,
pulling it slightly away from the hand; then
pull the glove up and slide the hand out so
that the glove comes off inside out.
106
2
Cup the removed glove inside the
palm of your gloved hand.
8 How to Control
3
Slide a finger (or fingers) of your bare
hand under and inside the base of the
remaining glove. Pull the glove up and
slide your hand out so that the glove
comes off inside out, with the first
glove inside.
4
Discard the soiled gloves in a biohazard disposal bag or container.
Wash your hands immediately
with warm running water and soap
or with waterless antibacterial
cleanser.
Recreational Water Illnesses (RWIs)

The term recreational water illnesses was developed by the CDC to cover all diseases resulting from pathogens in vomit or fecal matter released into or near the
pool or in the air above the pool. Fecal matter or vomit may enter the pool when
bathers have diarrhea or are ill and vomit, when children or incontinent adults do
not wear diapers that will keep fecal matter out of the pool, or when someone is in
danger of drowning and involuntarily vomits or has a bowel movement. If people
inadvertently swallow pool water while theyre swimming, they may swallow pathogens as well. Here are some of the pathogens from fecal matter that might be found
in pool water, as described by the CDC:
Cryptosporidium. This parasite, when ingested, can give victims watery diarrhea, stomach cramps, nausea and vomiting, and fever. Symptoms generally appear 2 to 10 days after infection, and they may persist for one to two
weeks.
Giardia. This also is a parasite, and it causes symptoms of diarrhea and
nausea as well. Symptoms may last two to six weeks or more. This pathogen
is very common in small amounts in both pool and drinking water.
Shigella. This bacterium causes fever, diarrhea, and stomach cramps. It can
be transmitted when people drink or swim in contaminated water, and contamination can occur when someone with the disease swims in the water.
107
8 How to Control
E. coli. A particular strain of E. coli generates a toxin that can cause severe
bloody diarrhea and abdominal cramps. (In rare cases it can lead to a complication called hemolytic uremic syndrome, in which red blood cells are killed
and the kidneys fail.) It is transmitted in a manner similar to Shigella, when
water is contaminated by infected feces.
Hepatitis A. This virus causes liver disease. Transmission usually occurs when
something contaminated with fecal matter ends up in a persons mouth. Symptoms include fever, fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, abdominal discomfort,
dark urine, and jaundice (a yellow tint to the skin and eyes).
Remember, despite
all the gross
bodily substances
we humans deposit
into the water,
well-maintained
pools are not
health risks!
As you can see, these are very serious illnesses. Once you have spotted fecal
matter, you need to take immediate action to remove it and clean the water. Before
discussing cleanup, we need to make a distinction between diarrheal fecal matter
and solid fecal matter. Diarrheal matter is more likely to contain infectious germs
than solid matter is, and it is also more difficult to remove entirely from the pool. A
solid (formed) stool is less likely to contain dangerous germs, and it can usually
be removed from the pool without breaking apart. You still need to evacuate and
chlorinate the pool, but with a solid stool you need to evacuate for less time and
chlorinate to a lesser extent than in the case of diarrhea. The guidelines described
in this section will help guide you.
Pool water is not for drinking!
108
The CT value for Giardia is 45, which should be used for solid stools; the value
for Cryptosporidium is 9,600, which should be used for diarrheal matter. Any
combination of chlorination level and time that meets these values is acceptable.
Achieving the CT level is necessary to ensure that all pathogens have been killed
before you readmit bathers to the pool. You can use tables 8.1 and 8.2 to quickly
determine CT levels.
Earlier you learned about breakpoint chlorination. Superchlorination, as we discuss it in this chapter, and breakpoint chlorination are different: Breakpoint chlorination is used to burn off the residual used up chlorine that has attached itself to
organic matter but is still in the water (known as chloramines). Superchlorination
means raising the ppm levels of chlorine to very high levels for a certain amount
of time to increase the level of sanitation.
For more
on using
chlorine,
see pages
72 to 92.
Table 8.1 Giardia Inactivation for Formed Fecal Accident

Chlorine levels (ppm)
Disinfection time*
1.0
45 minutes
2.0
25 minutes
3.0
19 minutes
*These closure times are based on a 99.9% inactivation of Giardia cysts by chlorine, pH 7.5, 77 F (25 C). The closure times were derived from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Disinfection Profiling and Benchmarking Guidance Manual. These closure times do not take into account dead spots and other areas of poor pool water
mixing.
From Centers for Disease Control [CDC] 2006b.
Table 8.2 Cryptosporidium Inactivation for Diarrheal Accident

Chlorine levels (ppm)
Disinfection time
1.0
6.7 days
10
16 hours
20
8 hours
From Centers for Disease Control [CDC] 2006b.
The information provided by the CDC does not replace or supercede that provided by your pool
regulatory agency. If the laws that govern the management of fecal incidents in your location are
different, follow those regulations.
109
CT value = C T
8 How to Control
When a fecal accident occurs, you will need to have swimmers evacuate the
pool and then superchlorinate the water for some period of time before reopening
the pool. The level of chlorination and the amount of time you chlorinate depend
on the type of accident. You can alter either the level of chlorination or the amount
of time you chlorinate as long as you meet the CDCs recommended CT value. CT
value is the concentration (C) of free available chlorine in ppm multiplied by time
(T) in minutes (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC] 2006b):
The CDC has set up the following guidelines for dealing with fecal accidents,
depending on whether the matter is diarrheal or solid (Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention [CDC] 2006b):
For Diarrheal fecal matter

8 How to Control
1. Direct everyone to leave the pool. If you have multiple pools that use the same
filter, all pools will have to be shut down. Do not allow anyone to enter the
contaminated pool(s) until all decontamination procedures are completed.
2. Remove as much of the fecal material as possible
using a net or scoop and dispose of it in a sanitary
manner. Clean and disinfect the net or scoop (e.g.,
after cleaning, leave the net or scoop immersed in
the pool during disinfection). Vacuuming stool from
the pool is not recommended.
3. Raise the free available chlorine concentration to
20 ppm* (mg/L) and maintain the pH between 7.2
and 7.5. This chlorine and pH level should be sufficient to inactivate Cryptosporidium and should be
maintained for at least eight hours, equivalent to a
CT inactivation value of 9,600.
4. Ensure that the filtration system is operating while
the pool reaches and maintains the proper chlorine
level during disinfection.
5. Backwash the filter thoroughly after reaching the CT
value. Be sure the effluent is discharged directly to
waste and in accordance with state or local regulations. Do not return the backwash through the filter.
Where appropriate, replace the filter media.
6. Swimmers may be allowed back into the pool after the required CT value
has been achieved and the chlorine level has been returned to the normal
operating range allowed by the state or local regulatory authority.
7. Establish a fecal accident log. Document each fecal accident by recording the date and time of the event, note whether it was in the form of stool
or diarrhea, and note the chlorine levels at the time or observation of the
event. Before reopening the pool, record the pH, the procedures followed
in response to the fecal accident (including the process used to increase
chlorine levels if necessary), and the length of time patrons were restricted
from the water.
*Many conventional test kits cannot measure free available chlorine levels that are this high. One method for measuring high available
chlorine levels is to use chlorine test strips that can measure free available chlorine in a range that includes 20 ppm, such as those
used in the food industry. Another method is to dilute your water sample with chlorine-free water (such as drinking water from a tap, or
a bottle of distilled water). Fill the vial with 50 percent pool water and 50 percent chlorine-free water. Use the DPD kit as directed, but
double the reading. For example, if your 50 percent solution reads 3.0, the actual free available chlorine would be 6.0. For very high
readings you may need to dilute your sample to a higher percentage of chlorine-free water.
110
For Solid (Formed) Stools or Vomit (Full Stomach Contents)
1. Direct everyone to leave the pool. If you have

multiple pools that use the same filter, all pools
will have to be shut down. Do not allow anyone
to enter the contaminated pool(s) until all decontamination procedures are completed.
8 How to Control
2. Remove as much of the fecal or vomit material

as possible using a net or scoop and dispose
of it in a sanitary manner. Clean and disinfect
the net or scoop (e.g., after cleaning, leave the
net or scoop immersed in the pool during disinfection). Vacuuming stool from the pool is not
recommended.
3. Raise free available chlorine to 2.0 ppm (if
less than 2.0 ppm) and ensure that the pH is
between 7.2 and 7.5. This chlorine concentration
was selected to keep the pool closure time to
approximately 30 minutes. Other concentrations
or closure times can be used as long as the CT
inactivation value is kept constant.
4. Maintain free available chlorine at 2.0 ppm and
pH at 7.2 to 7.5 for at least 25 minutes before reopening the pool. Your pool
regulatory agency may require higher chlorine levels in the presence of
chlorine stabilizers. Ensure that the filtration system is operating while the
pool reaches and maintains the proper free available chlorine concentration
during the disinfection process.
5. Establish a fecal and vomit accident log. Document each accident by
recording the date and time of the event, note whether it was in the form of
stool or diarrhea, or full stomach contents, and note the chlorine levels at
the time or observation of the event. Before reopening the pool, record the
pH, procedures followed in response to the accident (including the process
used to increase chlorine levels if necessary), and the contact time.
For more
on testing
free-chlorine
levels,
see pages
59 to 60.
Here are some of the pathogens that might be found in pool water contaminated
by vomit or direct contact, as described by the CDC:
Adenoviruses. Although these viruses usually cause respiratory illness, they
can also cause abdominal, eye, and urinary tract problems, and rashes. They
can be transmitted by contact with someone who has an adenoviral illness,
by getting fecal matter in the mouth, or sometimes through water.
Noroviruses (also known as Norwalk-like viruses). This is a group of viruses
that causes symptoms of stomach flu or inflammation of the stomach and
intestines. Transmission can come through drinking contaminated water,
touching contaminated surfaces and then putting the hands in the mouth, or
direct contact with an infected individual.
111
8 How to Control
You also need to distinguish between vomit of full stomach contents, which
is likely to be caused by illness and so contain infectious pathogens, and small
amounts of vomit caused by overactivity or swallowing too much pool water. You
can simply remove small amounts of vomit and not treat it the same as you would
a fecal incident. In such cases, you do not need to evacuate the pool or superchlorinate.
If you need to clean fecal matter or vomit from the deck or other surfaces of the
pool area, follow the guidelines described previously for the cleanup of blood.
Contact and Airborne Pathogens

Bacteria and viruses can be found not only in water, but also on the deck and other
surfaces and in the air. Here are some of those common pathogens:
Legionella pneumophila. The Legionella pneumophila bacterium causes two illnesses,
Pontiac fever and legionellosis, also known as Legionnaires disease. Pontiac fever is
the milder of the two, with symptoms much like those of the flu. Legionellosis has similar
symptoms, but it can progress into pneumonia. This bacterium is transmitted by water
vapors, which may come from spas, pools, or spray elements in the pool. People inhale
the bacterium from the vapors in the air, which may travel a good distance from their
sources.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa. This bacterium can
cause hot tub folliculitis, a painful skin disease that
first causes an itchy rash that turns into a bumpy
red rash. The rash may be worse underneath
swimsuits, where the water is in longer contact
with the skin. Although the rash may go away
after a few days to a week, this bacterium also is
capable of causing more serious illnesses such
as urinary tract infection, blood poisoning, and
pneumonia. Patrons can catch this bacterium in
either spas or pools.
Plantar warts. Warts are caused by contagious

viruses. Bits of skin from people who have warts
can contaminate floors or decks and transmit the
virus to the uninfected.
112
Athletes foot. This fungal infection causes scaling of the skin and itching between the toes. Like
warts, it is spread by bits of infected skin.
Molluscipoxvirus. This virus causes a mild skin

infection. It will slowly go away over months by itself.
Best Practices:
Preventing the Spread of Contact and Airborne Pathogens
Problem
Patrons
complain of
itchy skin.
Possible causes
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
(hot tub folliculitis).
Molluscipoxvirus.
To avoid and fix the problem

Regularly disinfect the pool deck and changing room floors.
Keep the disinfectant levels in pools at recommended levels
consistently.
Athletes foot.
Dont allow bathers with athletes foot in the pool area.
Plantar warts.
For spas, do the following (YMCA of the USA 2006):

- Maintain free-chlorine levels of 3.0 to 5.0 ppm around the
clock.
- Dont use dichlor or trichlor as a disinfectant.
- Require people to take a shower before entering the spa.
- Drain the spa weekly.
- Clean the spa filter whenever it reaches the manufacturers
recommended pressure for cleaning.
Patrons
complain of
respiratory
illness.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Legionella pneumophila.
Flush shower and spray heads and their supply lines with
disinfectant regularly.
Maintain a free-chlorine level of 2.0 ppm around the clock.
Once a week, increase the chlorine in the pool to 5.0 ppm,
then reduce chlorine to normal levels.
Keep a negative airflow so that air leaves the pool area
rather than hanging over the surface of the pool. Running the
heating and cooling system continuously, rather than shutting
it down at night, will help.
For spas, do the following:
- Maintain a free-chlorine level of 3.0 to 5.0 ppm around the
clock.
- Once a week, increase the chlorine in the spa to 10.0 ppm,
then reduce chlorine to normal levels.
Patrons
complain of
diarrhea and
vomiting.
E. coli.
Cryptosporidium.
Maintain free-chlorine levels according to the CDC guidelines

around the clock.
Giardia.
If an outbreak is suspected, obtain water samples for testing.
Shigella.
Notify your public health officials (and in the United States,

notify the CDC).
Noroviruses.
113
8 How to Control
Note: Due to rights limitations, this item

has been removed.
8 How to Control
Patron Education
Its difficult to keep your pool free of RWIs by yourself; you need the help of all your
patrons to be effective in preventing such illnesses. We suggest that you actively
educate your patrons about healthy behaviors at the pool that will keep them and
others from getting sick.
The CDC has a 12-step program for public pool owners and staff on RWI
prevention, from which the following suggestions are drawn. First, they suggest
promoting the following six points (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
[CDC] 2006c):
Does your facility

make it easy and
convenient for
patrons to shower,
change diapers,
and wash hands
frequently?
Dont swim when you have diarrhea.

Dont swallow the pool water.
Practice good hygiene. Take a shower before swimming, and wash your hands
with soap and water after using the restroom or changing diapers.
Take your kids on bathroom breaks or change diapers often.
Change diapers in the bathroom and not at poolside.
Wash your child thoroughly (especially the rear end) with soap and water
before swimming.
Hand these points out to patrons on a flyer and post them prominently where
patrons can see them before they enter the pool. Enforce these points when you can,
and be able to explain courteously to patrons why these points are important.
Here are some additional suggestions for patron
education that may be implemented by the management at your facility (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention [CDC] 2006c):
For large groups, present a safety and RWI
orientation before they enter the pool area.
If the group includes many infants and toddlers, such as a group from a day care center,
make sure caregivers know that you exclude
children who have diarrhea and that the children
should stay in the pool specifically designated
for them.
To help parents get their children to the bathroom on a regular schedule, have hourly breaks
during which you test the water for disinfectant
and encourage bathroom use. Make sure that
your bathrooms are clean and stocked with toilet
paper and ample soap for handwashing.
See that your diaper changing facilities are
clean, safe, and convenient to parents. If possible, install diaper-changing cabanas with soap
and running water close to the kiddie pools.
114
Stay in communication with your local health department and other aquatic
facilities so you know when an outbreak of an RWI occurs. That way, youll
be able to take additional measures to protect your pool.
n one hand, your pool or spa facility is likely very sanitary because of
the disinfection systems you use. But on the other hand, illness and
disease can spread on the pool deck and in the water if you are not aware
of the risk and do not pay careful attention to sanitation. In this chapter you
learned what you can do to eliminate these bacteria, viruses, and microorganisms from the pool environment and reduce the risk of exposure to
you and your patrons.
8 How to Control
Performance Goal
Clean up immediately after accidents that leave blood, fecal
matter, or vomit in the pool or pool area. Keep the pool and pool
area clean and disinfected to prevent the spread of disease, and
provide information to your patrons about healthy behaviors for
keeping the pool clean.
Best Practices
In cases of fecal or vomiting accidents in the pool, clear

the pool immediately and follow CDC guidelines or those
published by your pool regulatory agency.
Keep water disinfectants at recommended levels continuously.
Treat any bodily substance you encounter as contaminated,

and use universal precautions to protect yourself from
possible exposure.
Disinfect the pool deck and pool area floors frequently.

Educate patrons on steps they can take to keep themselves
and their families free of RWIs.
115
9
3
How to
Operate Safely
Y
our role as a pool plant operator carries a lot of responsibility. The pool environment can be a dangerous one, and it
is important that you know the regulations you are expected to
follow to operate safely and the consequences that can happen
if you dont. The pool plant is your workplace, and workplace
safety is a primary concern. This chapter helps define the role
you play in the health and safety of yourself and others. Topics
on deck:
How various safety information, guidelines, standards, and
regulations may apply to you as a pool plant operator, and
the licensing and inspections that might be connected
with these
What your responsibilities are in terms of electrical safety
How to handle pool chemicals safely
How to reduce the risk of injury from entrapment by pool
drains, slips and falls due to wet surfaces, and bites or
stings from insects and small animals that get into the
pool
What guidelines you should follow to keep yourself safe
around the water
What barriers are needed to prevent unauthorized people
from entering the facility
Why it is important to complete checklists for daily opening
and closing of the pool as well as incident reports
s a pool plant operator, you are responsible for the safe mechanical operation
of the pool equipment, the maintenance of the pool area, and the quality of the
water. You have duty of care obligations for what happens in your pool as it relates
to your job responsibilities.
The best way to reduce patrons risk of illness or accidentand avoid possible
legal actionis to follow all laws and codes for pool operation that apply in your
location. If you work in a location that does not have a published pool code, standard
for training, or competency requirement, start by learning about the guidelines for
safe pool operation created by regulatory agencies in other states, provinces, or
countries similar to yours. Then take into account all safety precautions necessary
around a poolprecautions for electrical, chemical, physical, and water safety.
Guidelines, Standards, and Regulations

9 How to Operate Safely
Lets begin by talking about the differences among general information, guidelines,
standards, and regulations. Knowing the differences will help you avoid confusion
and know which sources of information apply to you. We will also discuss licensing,
permits, and inspections. A list of sources for information, guidelines, standards,
and regulations in the United States and several other countries can be found in
the appendix.
General Information
General information about safety and risk management at an aquatic facility can
be found in training texts, brochures, position papers, and similar educational
documents created by national training agencies. The information found in these
documents is usually developed for trainees in specific certification courses, but
it can help you be informed about a wide range of safety issues. It will also help
you understand some of your facility managements decisions and policies.
In some cases, manufacturers or pool industry suppliers provide excellent
information about the safety of certain products or equipment. One example would
be the Chlorine Institute, which provides general information on the safe use of
chemicals. In other instances, professional organizations publish and distribute
information. One example would be the Professional Pool Operators of America
(PPOA), which provides information on issues such as advanced water care,
automation, and other topics important to pool plant operators.
Guidelines
Guidelines are sets of suggested best practices prepared by an organization,
agency, or manufacturer for use by others. Some guidelines are meant only for
those people who are trained by that organization or who purchased equipment
from that manufacturer; other guidelines are for use by anyone. Following guidelines is not compulsory, and the issuing organization or manufacturer assumes
that you may need to adapt the guidelines to site-specific needs and take other
actions. However, when specific guidelines become widely used, those guidelines
may become part of the expected standard (or duty) of care. Guidelines do not
replace or override legislation.
118
Legal Terms in the United States
In the United States, if you are ever sued because of something that happened at your pool, it likely will be for negligence; that is, for not taking steps
to do your job as youve been trained to do it. Doing your job properly is a
legal duty that you assume as part of your role.
If an accident were to occur at your pool, to prove you were not negligent,
you would have to be able to show that you had properly maintained the
facility at the time the accident happened. You would have to prove that you
were meeting the standard of care based on the codes published by your
pool regulatory agency or laws and the general expectations of a trained
pool plant operator.
If you were charged with negligence, it would be either willful negligence,
meaning that you were well aware that what you did or did not do could put
others in danger, or unintentional negligence due to a factor such as lack of
knowledge, bad judgment, or lapsed attention. It also could be negligence of
omission, meaning that you didnt do what you were supposed to, or negligence
of commission, meaning that you did something you shouldnt have done.
When you are sued, the person bringing the suit has to prove that you owed
him or her a duty and that you did not carry it out (i.e., that you breached that
duty). In addition, that person must demonstrate that he or she suffered an
injury or loss that was due to you not carrying out your duty.
Sources for pool plant operator guidelines include manufacturers of pool equipment, who provide guidelines for safe use; chemical manufacturers, who provide
material safety data sheets (MSDS) for the handling of chemicals or chemicalcontaining products; and agencies such as the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, which publishes guidelines for water quality and the prevention of
recreational water illnesses (RWIs).
Standards
Official standards are documents that contain specific technical directives or
parameters and that have gone through a peer-reviewed process before being
recognized as official. In the United States, standards for the operation of swimming pools and bathing places are created using the American National Standards
Institutes (ANSI) consensus-based process. The Association of Pool and Spa Professionals (APSP) is the organization recognized by ANSI to publish and distribute
these standards in the United States. The American Society for Testing and Materials
develops standards for pool equipment such as swimming pool fencing, vacuum
releases, and safety covers, and the National Sanitation Foundation International
has a standard for certifying pool and spa equipment. Similar standard writing
processes and organizations exist in many countries.
Public health regulatory agencies may adopt all or part of these published standards into codes. Standards publications can be used as a basis for operating
procedure when no regulatory oversight exists.
119
Regulations, Codes, and Statutes

Regulations, codes, and statutes require compliance. They may have the force of
law, and noncompliance may lead to fines, facility closure, or even legal action.
The specific ones that apply to your facility depend on your facilitys location, the
presence or absence of a pool code, and the types of equipment and chemicals
you use. Specific building or electrical codes depend on the type of construction
or repairs you intend to perform. Many codes require that certain repairs be performed by licensed professionals.
Licensing and Permits
You may be required to obtain a license or permit for your facility before it can be
opened for use by the public. Check with the regulatory agencies in your location
to determine whether operating licenses or permits are required. Oftentimes, multiple permits are required for different levels of government, and special permits
or inspections may be required for water slides or other pool features.
Stay aware of the latest in this field by reviewing general information, guidelines,
standards, and regulations from various sources periodically. Always comply with
the regulations and codes that govern your facility, and when possible, follow the
highest (strictest) standards to effectively manage health and safety at your facility.
A list of resources for general information, guidelines, standards, and codes can
be found in the appendix.
Inspections
If you are in a location governed by pool operating codes, you can expect
inspections to verify that you are complying with the regulations. How often you
are inspected depends on the availability of inspectors, but usual schedules are
quarterly to annually. Inspectors often check for the following:
Water chemistry is in compliance with code.
Water clarity is acceptable. A common test is the ability to see a 6-inch (15
cm) contrasting red and black disk or the drain at the deepest point in the
pool.
Rules are posted according to code.
Safety equipment is stationed and maintained properly.
Lavatories and locker rooms are clean and sanitary.
Filters are functioning properly.
Gates and security fencing are in place according to code.
There are no obvious safety hazards.
Water chemistry records are on file and maintained properly.
Required permits and training certificates are displayed according to
code.
A risk assessment has been conducted.
Operating procedure has been developed and is in practice.
120
Now lets take a look at some of

the specific things you can do as a
pool plant operator to reduce the
risk of injury to yourself and others
at the facility.
Electrical Safety
Because using electricity around

water can lead to dangerous electric
shocks, you need to take precautions to prevent such shocks to
both you and patrons. Some ways
you can do this are ensuring that
all outlets have ground fault circuit
interrupters (GFCIs), making sure
all electrical equipment is grounded Expect that your facility will be inspected.
and all metal items around the pool
are bonded, checking that underwater lighting is intact, and following other precautions. Your facility also should have a plan for what to do when thunderstorms
hit.
Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters (GFCIs)

All outlets around a pool or other source of water should have ground fault circuit
interrupters. (They also should have spring-loaded covers to prevent water from
getting into the outlets.) A GFCI is a device that detects any change in the current
going into and coming out of a circuit. If there is a surge, as
when someone is being shocked, the device opens the circuit
to cut off the power. You can identify outlets with an interrupter
by looking for test and reset buttons. Periodically check
each outlet to make sure the GFCI works by either hitting the
test button or using a circuit/GFCI tester.
Your power panel also has a circuit breaker with a GFCI,
which should be checked from time to time by a certified
electrician. If your power panel is within reach of patrons, lock
the panel door.
Grounding and Bonding

Grounded electrical equipment has a connection between it and
the earth (at 0 voltage) that allows small currents to discharge

safely into the ground. This prevents shocks to those using
the equipment.
Bonding is connecting all the metal equipment and structures
in the pool area on one wire loop to bring them all to the same
electrical potential. If all elements on the loop are at the same
An outlet with a ground fault circuit

interrupter.
121
potential, touching two metal elements will not create a shock even if a current
is present. By running the current through a large number of metal objects, you
disperse electricity that might otherwise be dangerous.
Have a certified electrician inspect your electrical system if you are having any
electrical problems, if you renovate your facility, or if you add large metal structures
such as a slide.
Underwater Lighting
When was the last

time you inspected
the light covers of
underwater lights
to check for cracks
or leaks?
Because electricity and water are a dangerous combination, it may seem as though
underwater lighting fixtures are a bad idea. However, these fixtures have several
features that make them safe and convenient to fix. Underwater light fixtures are
sealed with gaskets to keep water from coming in contact with the bulb behind
the lens. They are also seated into a bucket called a light niche. This niche has
room for several feet of electrical cord to be coiled behind the fixture. This makes
it possible to bring the fixture up on the deck for service or repairs.
Now that you know what makes underwater light fixtures safe and convenient
to fix, you need to be familiar with special considerations regarding these fixtures.
Very important is the fact that underwater light fixtures are kept cool by the surrounding water. Without this water, they would overheat. For this reason, never
operate underwater lighting out of the water for more than a couple of seconds
(Poolcenter.com, Electrical Page, n.d.).
Broken or improperly maintained underwater lighting can be a source of electric
shocks in pools. Although you will need a licensed electrician to fix any electrical
problems with this lighting, you can periodically look for cracks in the light covers
and check to see whether water has leaked into the covering.
Check for cracks or leaks in underwater lights.
122
Replacing underwater lights

If you have checked a light and know that it has burned out, you can replace it if you know how to do
that for your brand of light. Heres a common procedure for replacing underwater lights (Poolcenter.
com, Electrical Page, n.d.):
1. Shut off power at the breaker and at any other
switches.
2. Because most fixtures have enough cord coiled

inside the light niche to bring them out of the
water for repair, you do not have to lower the
water level. Lie flat on the deck and reach into
the water to work on the light. If the light is out
of reach and the water is shallow, enter the pool
and stand on the bottom. If the water is deep, be
sure to wear a flotation vest or lifejacket. Never
enter the water to make a repair while you are
alone. Remove the screw at the top of the light
(at 12 oclock), and then use a flathead screw An underwater light fixture.
driver to pry the fixture out of the niche. Most
fixtures have a tab at the bottom (at 6 oclock)
that you may need to pry to remove the fixture. Bring the fixture up onto the deck.
3. Carefully remove the screws (on older models) or clamp (on newer models), and gently pry
the glass lens out of the front of the fixtures. Use quality tools that are the proper size to avoid
stripping any of the soft metal screws or bolts. Screws on very old fixtures may be corroded
from years of water and chemical exposure and break easily.
4. After removing the lens, remove the bulb. Most will twist out counterclockwise. Some spa lamps
or small halogen lamps for pools have small bulbs that you need to push in and then twist to
remove. Older bulbs sometimes break during removal, so cover the bulb with a soft cloth before
turning and removing it. Use the cloth to wipe all interior surfaces clean and dry. Replace the
bulb with one specifically made for the fixture. Dont substitute with something else.
5. Before reassembly, turn on the power very briefly (for one to two seconds) to check that the
bulb or lamp is working. Remember that these fixtures overheat quickly when not submerged
in water.
6. Replace the rubber gasket around the lens before reassembling the fixture. Make sure the
screws are very tight. Follow any printed instructions on the lens to make sure the lens is properly aligned with the fixture.
7. Submerge the light and check for air leaks (a few bubbles may come off the fixture ring). If you
have no bubbles streaming out of your gasket, you have a good seal.
8. Replace the fixture into the niche. First coil the cord around the back of the fixture; then locate
the bottom tab (on the fixture) and tab receiver (on the niche). Line them up and insert the tab
into position, and push the fixture flush into the niche. Now fit the top screw back in through
the light bezel ring and into the threaded hole in the niche (not always an easy task). Tighten
the screw down just snug (not too tight). Test your light again.
Your brand of lights may require alternate procedures, so become familiar with the manufacturers
guidelines before you begin.
123
Precautions for Using Electrical Equipment

Here are some additional precautions to follow when you use electrical equipment
around the pool:
If you are using power tools or appliances, use only those that are designed
for outdoor use.
If a tool or appliance has a grounding (three-prong) plug, plug it into only
grounded outlets.
Use extension cords designed for outdoor use, and cover the cord with a mat
or carpet to avoid a trip hazard and to keep the item from being accidentally
pulled into the pool.
Never place an electrically powered device (such as a pool vacuum) in the
water when swimmers are in the pool.
Do electrical work only when no one is in the water. Alert everyone in the facility that this work will be taking place. Know the location of the power shutoff
switch for the building in case of an emergency.
Avoid using equipment with long metal pole handles near power wires.
If an electronically powered device falls into the water, unplug it before you
attempt to retrieve it.
Avoid the combination of being wet (or standing in water) while touching a
metal object and an electronically powered device at the same time.
Weather Safety
If your pool workplace is outdoors, you are at risk of
encountering severe weather. Electrical storms, severe
thunderstorms, tornadoes, or tropical weather conditions
can all create dangerous conditions. Severe weather can
also threaten if you are indoors, and you need to be aware
of weather emergency plans for that location.
Electrical Storms
Lightning sensors, which can be permanently mounted or portable, let you

know when its time to leave the pool
area.
124
Whenever you are outdoors, be aware of the potential for

severe weather, which can produce deadly lightning. Monitor
severe weather conditions by listening to weather forecasts,
especially on weather radios. If storms are approaching, avoid
using long metal poles such as those used for vacuuming the
pool. Lightning can come out of a blue sky ahead of the storm,
and the pole could conduct the lightning. You can also use
a portable lightning strike detector that will give audible and
visual signals when lightning strikes nearby. Some aquatic
facilities have more sophisticated lightning detection systems
mounted on a rooftop that sound a warning siren if lightning
is in the area.
Best Practices: Solving Electrical Safety Problems

Problem
Water and electricity
create the risk of
electrocution.
Possible causes
Electrical appliances or tools

are used near the water.
Make sure all electrical outlets near the pool have

GFCIs and have spring-loaded covers.
Damage to underwater lights.
Allow only waterproof electrical appliances and tools

in the pool area, and dont use them in the rain.
Use of pool vacuum while

swimmers are in pool.
Electrical work is being done
in or near the pool.
Run the automatic pool vacuum only after hours.

Regularly check underwater lights for damage, and if
any is found, have it repaired immediately.
Do any type of electrical work only when no swimmers
are in the water.
Power supply is interrupted.

Bulb is burned out.
Fixture or wiring is corroded or
the connections are damaged.
Check the ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI)

outlets. If you find that a GFCI, fuse, or breaker
continues to trip and the light will not turn on, call an
electrician to determine where the problem is.
If all switches are on, but the underwater light doesnt
turn on, remove the light to check for a burned-out
bulb (only after turning all switches/breakers off).
Replace the bulb if needed.
If changing the bulb still doesnt make the light work,
call an electrician.*
Underwater lights
have water in the
lens.
The gasket is damaged and is

not making a watertight seal.
Regularly check each light for water in the lens (the

bulb may continue to burn even if surrounded by
water). If you see water, remove the fixture from its
niche and place it on the deck. Allow the lamp to dry
out; then replace the gasket.*
Electrical equipment
such as a pool
cleaner trips the
breaker.
The GFCI outlet is overloaded.
Remove any electrical equipment that is plugged into

nearby GFCI outlets. Have the equipment checked for
malfunctions that cause an excessive load demand or
power surge.
Equipment plugged
into an outlet does
not get power.
The GFCI outlet is overloaded.
A short in the equipment is

causing the breaker to trip.
Other breakers or switches are

tripped.
The equipment is
malfunctioning.
Check the GFCI outlet. If the red button has popped

out, power will not be supplied to the outlet. Push in
the button. If it continues to trip, call an electrician to
find out where the problem is.*
*From Poolcenter.com, Electrical Page, n.d.
If lightning is detected, alert others in the pool who may be unaware and leave
the pool area. The danger of lightning applies even if you are indoors! During
an electrical storm, dont touch shower or sink handles or any metal objects that
could conduct the lightning, and avoid using a landline telephone. Know the
severe weather and evacuation policies for your facility whether it is indoors or
outdoors.
Tornadoes
Tornadoes can form quickly and hit with little warning. Learn the emergency warning system that is in place for your location and pay attention to it when storms
125
Underwater lights
are not working.
are approaching. Be aware of the best places to take cover at your pool plant and
have an emergency weather plan.
Tropical Weather
For more
information
about how to
prepare your
facility for a
hurricane
or typhoon,
see pages
176 to 177.
If you are in a location where weather patterns produce tropical storms, hurricanes, or typhoons, an established preparation plan is a must. Use prudent safety
practices as you prepare for a storm or are cleaning up after a storm. Follow all
evacuation orders and make arrangements for alternate forms of communication
with your coworkers so that you can coordinate an organized return to the pool
workplace after the storm.
Chemical Safety
Part of your job as a pool plant operator is to handle the strong chemicals used to
disinfect and balance the pool water. This poses risks to you and to those around
you at your facility. By following the manufacturers instructions on the outside of
the chemical containers and using the guidelines in this section, you should be
able to store and use pool chemicals safely.
Entry Into the Body

Pool chemicals can get into your body in four ways:
Chemicals most easily
enter your body through
Through
the eyes
the skin. Chemicals are
(optical)
most easily absorbed in the
genital area and around the
head, and abrasions, cuts,
Through
or rashes can provide easy
the
mouth
Through the skin
(oral)
(dermal)
entry for chemicals into
your body. Liquid chemicals
are absorbed more easily
Through
than granular or powdered
the lungs
(respiratory)
chemicals are.
Your eyes are sensitive
to many chemicals and can
easily absorb large quantities of them. If you splash
chemicals as you pour them, come in contact with vapors or powders in the air,
or rub your eyes when you have chemicals on your hands, you can introduce
chemicals into your eyes.
Chemicals can get into the air in many forms, such as powders, gases, vapors,
and droplets. You can easily inhale these as you are applying chemicals to the
pool water. Once the chemicals enter your lungs, they can quickly move to your
bloodstream or attack the mucous membranes in your nose, throat, and lungs.
You might think its not likely that chemicals will get into your mouth, but you
might splash while pouring liquid chemicals. You also might swallow chemicals if
126
you drink, eat, or smoke without washing your hands and face
after handling chemicals.
To prevent chemicals from entering your body, take these
precautions:
Wear a long-sleeved shirt, long pants, and appropriate

personal protective equipment (PPE) when you work with
chemicals. PPE should include waterproof gloves to protect the hands and chemical goggles or a face shield to
protect the eyes. If you will be working with a chemical that
can be inhaled, wear a respirator approved by your occupational safety agency. Wear waterproof boots to keep
chemicals off your shoes so they arent absorbed, and if
necessary, wear a waterproof apron or rain suit to protect
your clothing. Be sure to wash all the clothing you wear
while working with chemicals in a load separate from other
clothing. Wear gloves during handling and laundering.
Never eat, drink, or smoke while working with pool chemicals, and wash your hands and face immediately after
working with them.
Know where you can access water to wash chemicals
off your skin or eyes right away in case of spills or other
accidents that expose you to a large dose of chemicals.
Table 9.1 shows how to reduce the risks of handling chemicals
and what to do in case of exposure.
Wear personal protective equipment any time you handle pool

chemicals.
Table 9.1 Prevention and First Aid for Exposure to Chemicals

Route of entry
Skin
To reduce the risk of injury

Wear at least waterproof gloves and boots,
and, if handling chemicals frequently or
for long periods of time, wear waterproof
coveralls or apron.
Pour liquid chemicals slowly so they dont
splash.
Eyes
In case of exposure
Brush off any dry chemical.
Remove contaminated clothing right away.
Wash affected skin with soap and water.
Seek medical attention if needed.
Wear safety goggles.
Remove contact lenses.

splash.
Use an eyewash station and flush the eyes

with water for 15 minutes.
Lungs
Wear a respirator approved by your

occupational safety regulatory agency.
Leave the area and get fresh air right away.

Follow instructions for use of chemicals and

do not mix chemicals.
Mouth
Wear a face shield.

splash.
If needed, seek medical attention; then

contact the local poison control center.
127
Storing Chemicals Safely
Do not use
empty chemical
containers to store
other chemicals or
other items.
Keep all chemicals locked up in a storage room. The room should be well
ventilated, controlled for humidity and
temperature, and well lit. Post large
warning signs near this storage room,
as well as No smoking signs outside
and inside the room. Keep all chemicals
(including test kit chemicals) out of the
reach of children.
Store all chemicals in their original
containers with the original labeling.
Keep the containers tightly closed,
using bands or locking devices on dry
chemical containers. Stack all chemical
containers off the floor on pallets, but no
higher than shoulder height.
Make sure water cannot reach the
chemicals, because even small amounts
of moisture can set off unwanted reactions. This means keeping chemicals
safe from rain, wet floors, or other
This acid container is stored safely
sources of water that might leak into
behind doors that lock.
the storage area. Store them away from
doors and windows, and wrap them with
waterproof covers. Consider storing smaller containers inside larger containers to
create a double wall and prevent spills from being released into the environment.
If you do, make sure the larger containers are new and have not been used to
store other chemicals. (Also keep chemicals away from sunlight, which may cause
some chemicals to degrade.)
Have a separate labeled location for each chemical in the storage room. The
same goes for the plastic or metal scoops or measuring cups used in applying the
chemicals. Each scoop or cup should be used with only one chemical and no other.
Otherwise, theres a potential for bits of one chemical to mix with another, which
could cause a fire, explosion, or toxic fumes. Store chlorine products far away from
acid products, oils, paints, dirty rags, gasoline, or any other chemicals. If liquid
and solid chemicals must be stacked, store the liquids beneath the solids.
Periodically check for leaks in containers. If chemical spills occur, put the cleaned
up material in a separate designated container to avoid mixing it with other chemicals. Try to avoid mixing in scraps of sawdust, paper, or other organic materials,
because these materials might set off a fire in chemicals that oxidize.
Using Chemicals Safely

Before you begin handling a pool chemical, check the manufacturers safety
instructions and the material safety data sheet for that chemical to see what PPE
to wear. Keep all PPE clean and undamaged.
128
When you are applying pool chemicals, always add the chemical to the water,
not the water to the chemical. Never mix chemicals together.
Before refilling a chlorine tablet erosion feeder, carefully check that the tablets are
the correct product. Never mix tablet types or mix them with other chemicals, and
dont allow their fumes to mix with those of other chemicals (particularly ammonia,
which can create irritating fumes). Mixing di-chlor or tri-chlor with common calcium
hypochlorite will almost certainly cause an explosion!
After you have used up the chemical in a container, dispose of the container as
directed by the manufacturer and local codes. Never refill a container or pour a
different chemical into the used container.
In most places where it is allowed, chlorine gas must be used in a fire-safe,
sealed room separate from the filter room, and the room must have forced air ventilation and a high-chlorine detection system. A self-contained breathing apparatus
(SCBA) must be available nearby in case it is needed. The tanks must be checked
daily for leaks. Waving a cloth with household ammonia on it or spraying a mist of
ammonia near the tanks will create a white mist if there is a leak.
Follow these tips for handling chlorine gas:
Store cylinders upright, and keep them strapped or chained to a wall or other
stationary object. Storage should be well away from heat or flames.
Dont try to open or heat any of the valves or plugs in the cylinder.
Leave the valve bonnets in place when the cylinders are not in use.
Date each cylinder as it comes in, and use the oldest one first.
When you move a cylinder, do not lift it by the bonnet. Handle it with great
care. Use a hand truck to move it from one spot to another, and lift it into
place with a lifting clamp or cradle rather than a rope or other device that
might slip.
129
When changing tanks, always have another staff member nearby. Wear a
SCBA mask when you perform this task.
Every time you change a tank, you must replace the old lead washer with a
new one. Get rid of the old one to avoid reusing it.
Change tanks only when the pool is closed, so no swimmers are present.
Your facility should have an emergency action plan for a gas leak. If a gas leak
occurs, youll need to evacuate the pool area and call your emergency response
number, the fire department, and the local hazardous materials team.
Best Practices: Solving Chemical Safety Problems
Problem
A chemical
explosion or fire
occurs.
Possible causes
Mixing of chemicals.
Contact between some
chemicals and water or
organic substances.
To fix the problem
Follow the guidelines for

safe storage in the previous
Storing Chemicals Safely
section.
If the fire is small, with no

toxic fumes, and a fire
extinguisher is readily
available, use it to put out
the flames. Otherwise,
immediately leave the area
and call your emergency
response number. Explain
the nature of the problem
and what is actually
happening on the scene.
Never mix chemicals.

Take care when using
chemicals to not
contaminate them with
water or sweat, and use
only plastic or metal
scoops, measuring
cups, or buckets to
move chemicals (nothing
organic, such as paper).
Follow the manufacturers
instructions for storage and
use of the chemical.
Follow any other

procedures that are in your
facilitys emergency action
plan.
Physical Safety
Common physical hazards in a pool area are entrapment by pool drains, slips
and falls due to wet surfaces, and bites or stings from insects and small animals
that get into the pool. Here are some ideas on how to eliminate or minimize such
hazards.
Entrapment
Pool drains can generate enormous amounts of suctionso much that a person
caught in the suction may not be able to break free, even with the help of others.
This can result in injury or drowning. Drains that are submerged in shallow water,
such as those in spas or wading pools, are especially dangerous because they
are within easy reach.
Drains can entrap swimmers by catching and tangling long hair, trapping fingers
or limbs, or holding down the entire body with vacuum. Evisceration (sucking the
intestines out through the anus) can also occur if someone (especially a child) sits
130
on a drain. Drains are not the only potential source of entrapment. Any uncapped
outlet, such as those used for suction cleaning, can trap a body part and cause
severe injury.
Because entrapment and possible evisceration is a serious problem, agencies
worldwide that are concerned with product and consumer safety have issued
guidelines on how to prevent entrapment by drains. For existing pools or spas in
the United States, the following guidance was developed by the U.S. Consumer
Product Safety Commission in 2005:
For more on
main drains,
see pages
15 to 16.
If conditions allow, rework the suction (drain) system to include either a minimum of two drains per pump with ASME/ANSI A112.19.8 listed covers or
drain design configurations that prevent a seal from occurring (large aspect
cover), and consider installing a secondary backup system that relieves the
entrapping suction and/or shuts down the pump should an unanticipated
condition arise and a blockage occur (e.g., an SVRS*, or Safety Vacuum
Release System, which automatically releases pump vacuum when a sudden
rise in vacuum occurs, or other technology).
Where rework is not possible or practical, ensure that an ASME/ANSI
A112.19.8 listed cover is in place, that the flow through the drain (outlet) grate
does not exceed 1.5 feet per second, and that a secondary backup system
that relieves the entrapping suction and/or shuts down the pump when a
blockage is detected (e.g., an SVRS) or other technology is installed.
For wading pools that include a fully submerged suction outlet, install multiple
drains with ASME/ANSI A112.19.8 tested covers and an SVRS* backup system
or other technology due to the shallow depth of water and easy access to
the pool drains. Alternative designs that prevent entrapment hazards from
occurring are also acceptable as noted under new construction.
*The device should meet the performance requirements of the ASTM International F2387 and/or ASME/
ANSI A112.19.17 standard.
A diffuser cover reduces the risk of entrapment by a

wading pool drain.
Multiple drains and solid covers reduce

the risk of entrapment by a spa pool drain.
131
If the drain cover does not display the appropriate markings for maximum flow
rate and labeling that indicate it has been tested to the ASME/ANSI voluntary
standard, shut down the pump and replace the cover.
Develop a comprehensive maintenance program for each facility that
addresses the following:
If the drain cover or grate is cracked, broken, or missing, immediately
shut down the pump(s) and replace the grate or cover.
The covers should be anchored in accordance with the manufacturers
specifications and supplied parts (e.g., noncorroding fasteners).
The practice of color coding or labeling plumbing and equipment should
be incorporated into all facilities. The most important aspect of a labeling
or coding program is to provide the location, identification, and marking
of the On/Off switch for the circulation pumps.
The checklist on page 133 can help in the implementation of this program.
Slips and Falls
For more
on mixing
a bleach
solution,
see pages
128 to 129.
132
Falls are a major cause of accidents around

pools. Many surfaces near a pool, such as
steps, decks, and springboards, may be wet
and slick. If puddles form, algae or mildew
may grow and make the surface slippery.
If slippery areas appear, scrub them with a
stiff bristle brush and a cleaner or detergent.
If the surfaces have a rough silica coating
to improve traction, dont brush them, but
instead clean them with a bleach and water
solution (one part bleach, nine parts water).
You can eliminate slippery cement surfaces
by grinding them to increase the friction.
For floors, place a commercial floor covering on top of the surface, or add deck strips.
For springboards and starting blocks, you
can send them back to the manufacturer to
be resurfaced. For walls and long flights of
stairs, add handrails.
The deck is a likely place for falls to occur. Use warning signs to alert patrons
To prevent falls, keep the deck free of equipto wet floors.
ment and clutter. In some locations, youre
required to keep an area of clearance around the edge of the pool of several feet,
so if thats true in your area, be sure to enforce it.
Check the deck each day for standing water or slippery spots, and post wet floor
warning signs until you can correct it. If any of the deck surface is damaged, note
this for management and post warning signs around the damaged area. In addition,
make sure that ladders, ramps, and handrails are undamaged and firmly fixed.
Pool and Spa Entrapment Hazards Checklist

Pool Name:
Date:
Completed by:
Pool Builder:
Items to Be Checked in Filter (Plant) Room and Pool Before Filling

and After Periodic Maintenance and Cleaning Procedures
Proper suction drain covers installed and inspected for breakage (Main and wading
pool covers should be labeled in accordance with ASME/ANSI A112.19.8.)
Suction drain covers firmly and properly affixed using manufacturers recommended
parts
If applicable, SVRS or other device tested and operational according to the
manufacturers instructions
Proper return covers installed (main and wading pools)
Skimmers checked (baskets, weirs, lids, and flow adjustors) for blockage
All skimmer throats checked for blockage (main and wading pools)
All valves and filter lines labeled and functional
Vacuum covers or fittings in place (if applicable)
On/Off switch to circulation pump clearly and conspicuously labeled
Daily Checklist
Main drain, vacuum, inlet covers, and/or fittings in place, secured, and unbroken
(hourly) (main and wading pools)
Skimmers checked (baskets, weirs, lids, and flow adjustors) for blockage (hourly)
(main and wading pools)
Warning/alert signs in place around the pool with emergency instructions and
phone numbers
On/Off switch to the pump clearly and conspicuously labeled and the location of
pump clearly identified
From Human Kinetics, 2008, AquaTech: Best practices for pool and aquatic facility operators (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics). Adapted from the U.S. Consumer
Product Safety Commission, 2005, Guidelines for entrapment hazards: Making pools and spas safer (Washington, DC: Author), 17. Available: http://www.cpsc.
gov/CPSCPUB/PUBS/363.pdf.
133
Wildlife in the Pool

Dont be surprised to find insects and small animals in your outdoor pool, from tiny
spiders and paddle bugs to birds, snakes, frogs, bats, and rats. In some locations,
alligators have been known to take a dip in the pool! Some may just be floating in
the pool, whereas others may get stuck in skimmer baskets or strainers.
Because youll be the one removing them, here are a few tips for safe removal:
If an animal is floating in the water, pick it up with a net rather than your bare
hands. If the animal is still alive, it could bite or scratch you.
If the animal is large or aggressive or you suspect that it might be diseased,
contact the animal control resource in your location to capture and remove it.
Before cleaning a strainer basket, inspect it carefully. Dont stick a bare hand
into a leaf-filled strainer basket; you dont know what might be in there that
could bite or sting you.
Pool Workplace Safety

To keep yourself safe when you are cleaning, repairing, or maintaining the pool, you
need to follow the same rules that apply to patrons when in or near the water. Your
pool regulatory agency will determine the specific rules that need to be prominently
posted for all to see. You also need to use common sense and make responsible
decisions. Here are some guidelines for pool workplace safety:
Never enter the water alone to clean the pool or make
repairs; always have someone else with you.
Make sure pieces of safety equipment such as poles
or throwing devices are available in case you or
someone else needs assistance.
Never step onto or swim on top of or under any type
of pool cover.
Avoid reaching out over the edge of the pool to keep
from falling in.
If you are a nonswimmer or weak swimmer, wear a life
jacket whenever you are near the water. If possible,
learn how to swim well.
Do not enter the water when the water is turbid
or when chemicals are not within recommended
limits.
Do not use slides or other attractions unless you have
been given special permission.
Your local regulations may dictate what
rules need to be posted at your facility.
134
Know the location of an emergency phone, or carry

a cell phone in a waterproof case.
Best Practices: Solving Physical Safety Problems
A person is entrapped in a
drain or suction inlet.
Possible causes
Main drain has too
much suction.
A drain or inlet cover is
missing or broken.
Injuries have occurred,

caused by slips and falls.
Wet spots have

developed around the
pool.
Algae and mildew have
invaded wet areas,
making them slick.
Surfaces that were once
roughened to provide
traction have become
smooth over time
through use.
Damaged areas on
the deck have created
uneven surfaces.
To fix the problem
Check every day to

see that drain covers,
grates, and inlet plugs
are securely in place
and undamaged. If
there is a problem,
immediately clear
out the pool and shut
down the pump so the
problem can be fixed.
If someone becomes
entrapped, shut down
the pump immediately
to stop the suction
so the person can be
removed.
Check for standing

water or slippery spots
daily, and post warning
signs if you find such
spots.
Dry wet spots and

scrub or use bleach
and water to clean
slippery areas.
Add handrails to walls

and long flights of
stairs, and check all
handrails, ladders, and
ramps daily to make
sure they are secure
and undamaged.
Be sure to know where

the pump emergency
shutoff switch is
located.
Problem
If some areas have

been worn smooth,
grind them or add
rough coverings to
provide traction.
Repair damaged or
uneven surfaces.
Keep the deck free of

clutter.
If any of the deck
surface is damaged,
post a warning sign and
restrict access to the
area.
You are bitten or stung by

wildlife.
Insects, snakes, or
small animals have
entered the pool or are
trapped in the skimmer
basket.
Before you clean out

a strainer basket,
check carefully before
inserting your hand,
especially if the basket
is filled with debris.
If an animal is in the
water, remove it with a
net.
If the animal is large,
aggressive, or exhibits
signs of disease, call
animal control.
If you are bitten or
stung, try to capture or
identify the animal or
insect that injured you.
Seek medical attention
if you begin to have a
severe reaction to the
bite or sting or know
the animal or insect is
poisonous or may be
infected with disease.
135
If you are aware of the presence of hazards, you have a duty to warn others.
That might include physical or chemical hazards, environmental conditions (such
as the presence of high bacterial levels), or behaviors that might be hazardous.
Post warning signs, put up cones or barriers, or do both. If you are in a multilingual
community, you may want to post warnings in both the predominant language and
the communitys second and third languages.
Facility Security
What type of
barrier keeps
unauthorized
people away from
your pool or spa?
Are all your gates
self-closing and
self-latching?
All public pools must have barriers to prevent unauthorized people from entering.
For indoor pools this is easily taken care of by walls and locked doors, but outdoor
pools require physical barriers such as a fence and gate. The pool regulatory
agency in your location usually sets the standards for safety barriers at public
pools. Some generally followed guidelines include these:
The top of a pool barrier should be at least 48 inches (122 cm) from the
ground.
A barrier should have no indentations, protrusions, or cutouts to reduce the
potential for a person to get a foothold.
Swimming pool barriers should be equipped with a pedestrian gate or gates
that restrict access to the pool. A locking device should be included in the
gate design. Gates should open out from the pool and should be self-closing
and self-latching.
Your facility may have an
alarm system or systems to
alert police or managers of
intruders. This could include
water or deck sensors, electronic eyes, or even sonar.
Some facilities also have
video surveillance systems.
Finally, never allow patrons
to enter the pool area unless
the facility is officially open
and under the responsibility
of the appropriate personnel. Lock doors and gates
when the pool is not open
for use by patrons.
Follow local regulations for fences and gates around the pool.
136
Best Practices: Solving Pool Workplace Safety Problems

Problem
Being in the water
creates an inherent
risk of drowning.
Possible causes
Entering the water with

weak swimming ability.
Follow safety rules and have an emergency plan in case

you or someone else unexpectedly falls into the water.
Falling into the water

unexpectedly.
Never enter the water when you are alone.
Disregarding the stated

rules or behaving
irresponsibly.
If you are a weak swimmer, wear a lifejacket when working

near the water.
If you encounter a person in the water who is exhibiting
signs of struggle, do not enter the water. Instead, extend a
flotation device or pole to the person and use it to bring the
person to the side.
Patrons arent aware

of risks or dangerous
conditions, and you
have a duty to warn
them.
Entering shallow
water without caution
creates an inherent
risk of spinal cord
injury.
Patrons have not been

warned or informed.
Post a warning sign, restrict access, or if necessary, close

the facility until the problem can be fixed.
Patrons dont read

or understand the
language spoken at the
facility.
If a warning sign is damaged or missing, notify the

appropriate personnel to get a replacement.
Patrons dont
pay attention to
warning notices or
announcements.
Have a plan to notify management or authorities about

patrons who exhibit irresponsible behavior.
Diving, especially diving

headfirst into shallow
water.
Always enter the water feet first, regardless of the water

depth.
When feasible and indicated, post warning signs or make

announcements in more than one language.
Have an emergency plan in case a patron appears injured

after diving into shallow water and lifeguards are not
present.
Call your emergency response number. Manually stabilize
the persons head, neck, and spine, and minimize
movement until help arrives.
A pool creates an
inherent interest
to trespassers or
vandals.
Vandals enter the pool

after hours to cause
damage.
Trespassers enter the
pool after hours to swim.
If you encounter a trespasser in the facility, immediately

contact authorities.
Install high fencing or solid wall barriers that are difficult to
scale.
Have an alarm or security system to alert you to any
intrusions.
Keep all gates and doors locked and secured when the
facility is not open to patrons, even when you are inside.
Keep the area well-lit.
Contact law enforcement authorities to conduct random
checks.
137
If the person in the water appears to be unconscious,

immediately call your emergency response number. If you
and others can safely remove the person, do so and begin
CPR until emergency responders arrive.
When Should You Close a Pool?
Closing a pool because of hazards is time-consuming and costly in terms of

lost revenue, but sometimes it must be done for patrons safety. Closure is
different from removing patrons from the water for a short time until a hazard
is removed. Closure means requiring all patrons to leave the facility and not
return until authorized by management. Your pool regulatory agency will likely
identify specific conditions that require closure, but usually a facility should
be closed under the following conditions:
For more
on how to
manage fecal
accidents,
see pages
110 to 112.
A fecal (diarrhea) incident, which requires several hours of disinfection according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
guidelines.
The pool chemicals are not within acceptable range.
The water is turbid, and the bottom is not clearly visible.
Dangerous hazards are present that cannot be readily repaired, such

as a broken or missing drain cover.
There are dangerous environmental conditions such as lightning or

poor air quality.
Water temperatures or air temperatures are dangerously high or low.
Record Keeping
To comply with regulations, as well as to have supporting documents in the event of
an accident or incident, you should keep good daily records of the use of chemicals
and pool opening and closing procedures. If you are involved in any way with an
accident, injury, or altercation, you should file an incident report.
Your records of chemical use should conform to the requirements of your pool
regulatory agency, but they probably should include at least the following:
Date and time
Chemical readings prior to application
Name of person applying the chemical
Name of chemical applied
Amount of chemical applied
Location of the application (e.g., deep end, shallow end, perimeter)
For more
on record
keeping,
see page 68.
138
These records will help you to estimate the amount of each chemical to purchase
next year and also help explain what happened if a chemical use problem occurs.
Keep these records on file for several years.
Most facilities have a checklist of tasks

that must be performed before the pool is
opened each day, as well as another list for
closing. By checking off the tasks as you do
them, you ensure that you dont forget anything and create a written record of what you
did in case of later problems. Following procedures for closing is particularly important,
because you will be ensuring that no one is
left in the pool area overnight, that no one is
still in the pool, and that all doors or gates
and windows have been locked. You should
sign off on this list and record the date.
In the case of an accident or a problem
with a patron such as fighting or stealing,
your facility may have an accident and incident report form. This form asks for information about who was involved, what happened
when, and how the accident or incident was
handled. If you are involved in an accident
or incident, you should contact the facility
management immediately and complete the
form as soon as possible after the event and
in as much detail as possible. Having a clear
and detailed description may be crucial if
the event leads to a lawsuit. Make sure you
hand in the report to the appropriate person
on your staff who will see that it gets to the
authorities if necessary.
Finally, you should be aware of the written emergency action plans your facility
has established to handle accidents or various types of emergencies, such as accidents or illnesses that require emergency medical help, earthquakes, tornadoes,
fires, and other dangerous situations. Know what your role is in these emergencies
and the general outlines of what should happen during each type of emergency.
s a pool plant operator, you are responsible for knowing your duty of
care obligations based on the codes or laws established by your pool
regulatory agency and the general expectations of a trained pool plant
operator. Many of these expectations are described in this book and the
accompanying AquaTech course. Pay attention! Your safety and that of your
patrons depends on it.
139
Performance Goal
Part of your job as a pool plant operator is to be aware of
potential hazards to yourself and others and to take the
appropriate steps to minimize harm. Hazards include electrical,
chemical, and physical hazards, as well as dangerous behavior.
Keep good records of the steps you have taken.
Best Practices
Stay up-to-date on current guidelines, standards, regula9 How to Operate Safely
tions, and codes formulated by aquatic and other related

agencies.
Check your GFCIs and underwater lights periodically. Have

an electrician check your entire electrical system if you are
having problems.
Be alert to severe weather in your area, follow your facilitys

emergency weather plan, and leave the pool area when
lightning is detected.
Wear appropriate clothing and PPE when working with chemicals, and follow all precautions
for the storage and use of chemicals. Wash your hands and face immediately after working
with chemicals, and wash your contaminated clothing separately, wearing gloves as you
prepare to wash them. Never eat, drink, or smoke around chemicals.
Check the drain covers at your facility every day to make sure they are securely fastened
and intact.
Check the pool area every day for standing water, surface damage, or unnecessary clutter. Remove hazards if you can, and post warning signs if you cant take care of hazards
immediately. If some surfaces are worn or slippery, clean them or add rough surfaces that
provide traction.
Remove animals floating in the pool with a net, and never put your hand into a skimmer to
clean it before checking for stinging or biting insects or animals.
Follow the same safety rules that patrons do. Use common sense in working around water
and pool hazards.
Keep gates or doors to the pool locked when the pool is not officially open for use by patrons.
Check that self-closing and self-latching gates are in working order.
Keep thorough records of the use of chemicals, opening and closing procedures, and accidents or incidents. Know your facilitys emergency action plans.
140
10
3
How to
perform
routine and
preventive
Maintenance
A
re you a Mr. Clean or a Ms. Fix-It? If so, this chapter is tailormade for you! As a pool plant operator, you are responsible
for cleaning, maintaining, and often repairing the equipment in
the aquatic facility. Youll also need to play detective if your pool
water is not crystal clear and the cause is not readily apparent.
Topics on deck:
What you might include on daily, weekly, monthly, or
longer-term maintenance schedules
How water temperature and air temperature and humidity
are controlled, especially for indoor pools
Which standard maintenance and equipment supplies
you will use regularly
What the different types of pool covers are and what
they are used for
What to do about cloudy, colored, or staining water
caused by minerals or chemicals
large part of your role as pool plant operator is to provide timely maintenance
to the pool and its systems. On a daily basis, you must keep the pool and
the surrounding area clean and sanitary and inspect for any hazards that might
endanger patrons. If you find any hazards or potential problems, it also is your job
to fix them or to see that they get fixed by the appropriate service professional.
You may also be responsible for the regular maintenance needed to keep pool
equipment running well and to extend its useful life. When you understand the
interaction between the mechanical systems at your pool and daily operation, youll
be able to anticipate foreseeable problems that might otherwise surprise you. For
example, if you know its going to be a hot summer day at your outdoor pool, with
lots of bathers, you might plan for the demand by lowering the water temperature
if possible and making sure your chlorine feeders are set high. Staying ahead of
problems is always better than struggling to find a solution!
Because so many daily, weekly, and monthly tasks must be done to keep the pool
in good condition, we recommend that you list them to make sure you complete
them on schedule and dont overlook any. In this chapter we describe a number of
tools and cleaning supplies that have been designed especially for pool maintenance. We also talk about how pool covers can protect the pool and save money
by cutting down on the use of water and energy.
Maintenance Tasks
Preventive Maintenance
10 How to Perform Routine and
Having a proactive rather than reactive approach to maintenance tasks will help
you avoid any interruption in operation. To do this, first make a list of all the areas
and equipment that require maintenance at your pool worksite. Then list how you
might inspect and maintain each area or piece of equipment on the list. Be sure to
read the manufacturers maintenance suggestions for all pool equipment. Finally,
break it all down according to how often each maintenance task must be done: Is it
daily, weekly, monthly, or on some longer schedule? Develop checklists for each of
those periods of time, and use those
checklists regularly. When you have
completed this analysis youll have a
practical programmed maintenance
schedule to follow.
Here wed like to suggest some of
the common maintenance tasks you
may need to perform on a regular
basis if you are responsible for the
open or close of the pool. If any of
these tasks must be done on a different schedule according to your
pool regulatory agency, those standards take precedence.
You may need to scrub off the
scum line weekly or as needed.
142
Youll need to periodically

clean any automated
controller sensor probes.
Maintenance Checklist
Daily Opening
As you come into the pool area, lock the gate or door behind you. Turn off any security
lights and security alarms.
Walk around the pool area looking for broken equipment or vandalism.
If you use a pool cover, remove it and look down into the pool to make sure you can see
the main drain clearly. Check for stains or algae on the pool floor, visually inspect the
inlet and outlet covers for damage, and look for anything else that may be a potential
problem.
If you use an automatic pool cleaner, remove, clean, and properly store it.
Remove any leaves or debris floating on the surface with a skimmer net. Make sure the
pool water level is high enough for proper automatic skimming.
Empty and clean the skimmer baskets or gutters.
Manually test the pool water for pH, chlorine levels (free and combined), ORP (if you
have a handheld meter to test for that), and water temperature.
If you have an automated chemical controller, check it and record the readings, including the ORP in millivolts (HRR or redox).
Check the amount of chemicals available in feeders or the supply to metering pumps.
Check to make sure your disinfectant and pH dosing systems are functioning properly.
Make sure lines are open and that there are no leaks or odors.
Adjust the chemical or temperature levels as needed.
Check pump operations and record the pressure and vacuum gauge readings.
Check the flow meter and record the reading.
Clean the hair and lint strainer if necessary.
Make sure all valves in the pool circulation system are in the proper position.
Check and record filter pressure readings. Backwash if necessary.
If you dont have an automatic pool cleaner, vacuum the pool if needed. If you use a
portable vacuum, clean and properly store it when you are done. If your vacuum sends
the pool water through the filter, check the filter pressure gauges when you are through
and backwash if needed.
Check the surrounding deck for broken tiles or standing pools of water. Hose spray
the area and disinfect any standing pools of water. Remove any debris that restricts
drainage.
Check slides or play features for broken stairs, loose fittings, or obvious hazards.
Place the deck furniture. Hose or wipe down if needed.
Put out umbrellas (if outdoors). Make sure safety equipment is in place. Put out any
equipment that is to be used for programs or special events where it is needed.
Check the waste containers. Empty the waste if needed and put in new liner bags.
Clean the changing rooms. Disinfect benches, toilets, sinks, showers, countertops, and
fixtures. Make sure theres enough soap and toilet paper.
Unlock the doors or gates to the pool just before the official opening.
From Human Kinetics, 2008, AquaTech: Best practices for pool and aquatic facility operators (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics).
(continued)
143
(continued)
Daily Closing
Pick up any trash, debris, or misplaced items.

Rearrange or put away deck furniture.
Take down and secure umbrellas (for outdoor pools only).
Empty the waste containers, rinse them, and store them.
Take the last chemical readings for the day and adjust the chemicals as needed.
Record the chemical readings, along with water temperature and clarity.
Make sure the pool water level is high enough for proper skimming.
Check the scum line and brush clean if needed.
Check the main drain to make sure its visible, secured, and intact.
Put away any equipment and check to see that safety equipment is where it
belongs.
Check pump operations and record pressure and vacuum gauge readings.
Check the amount of chemicals available in feeders or the supply to metering
pumps. Check to make sure the disinfectant and pH dosing systems are functioning properly. Check the chemical lines to see that there are no leaks or odors.
Clean the changing and toilet areas. Make sure all faucets are turned off.
Check all areas of the facility to make sure everyone has left.
Make sure no people or items are in the water and place the cover on the pool if
you have one.
Turn on security lights and set the alarm system.
Check and lock all doors and gates.
Weekly (or as needed)

Disinfect all waste receptacles.
Scrub off the scum line.
Check diving boards, ladders, slides, lifeguard chairs, and similar items for loose
bolts, missing pieces, damage, or hazards.
Clean the filtration and pump room and any other areas of the facility that are your
responsibility.
Check that fencing is secure and that self-closing gates and latches work properly.
Inventory supplies and reorder.
Spray down or pressure wash and disinfect the surrounding deck.
If needed, breakpoint chlorinate the pool.
If needed, backwash the filter or clean the filter media.
Monthly (or as needed)
Clean the chemical feeders, metering pumps, tubing, and injection sites.
Disinfect diving boards and starting blocks.
Change filters in HVAC units.
Check emergency generators, alarm systems, and so forth.
144
(continued)
Periodic Maintenance
Lubricate pool circulation pump(s).

Clean any automated controller sensor probes.
Service pool heaters, generators, HVAC units, or other mechanical equipment.
Drain and paint the pool vessel.
Clean cloth coverings on DE septa.
Clean chemical feeder tubing and injection points.
Inspect the sand in any sand filters.
Temperature and Humidity Control
Humidity and temperature control are an integral part of indoor pool plant operations
and can have a direct effect on maintenance and air quality. In an enclosed indoor
pool, the surface area of the water is usually larger than that of the land area.
Because water evaporates into the air, the air in an indoor pool area needs to be
dehumidified. The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers (ASHRAE) (1999) suggests that the relative humidity in indoor pools be
kept between 40 and 60 percent. This is comfortable for swimmers, and it prevents
higher levels of humidity that can result in mold or mildew, condensation, and corrosion. At various times throughout the year, you may need to adjust the percentage
of fresh air that is mixed with treated air to maintain your desired humidity level.
At indoor aquatic areas, you need to monitor and control temperature, humidity,
recirculation of the air, and the ability to remove contaminants from the air.
145
The pool area also needs to be kept warm. As recently as a few decades ago,
pool facilities were mostly bricks and mortar and had natural air leakage. Energy
consumption was not a concern, and building insulating factors were just starting
to be considered important. However, with the advent of natural gas and electric
heating systems and the constant increases in the cost of energy, buildings now
have R-values, or ratings, and builders attempt to make them as airtight as possible. Heated air is usually recovered and used again.
Today we need to be able to not only heat and cool the pool area, but also
recirculate air, filter out large contaminants such as dust, and dehumidify air as
necessary. The units that accomplish all this are called HVAC, which stands for
heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning.
Reducing the Effects of Chloramines

in the Air
For more on
UV systems,
see pages
78 to 79.
Although HVAC units can do a lot to keep indoor pool areas comfortable,
the one thing that they cant do is remove chemical gases from the air. The
HVAC circulates the air that is pulled into it, so if chloramines are present, they
travel through the system. When water evaporates from a chlorinated pool,
especially when the water is agitated or splashed, chloramines are released
into the air. When these chloramines are trapped in the air in the pool area
and are not circulated out and replaced with fresh air, they can become
extremely dangerous to patrons. People with asthma-related conditions are
especially affected by chloramines.
So far, the best way to eliminate existing chloramines is to use a UV (ultraviolet) light system that destroys them as the pool water flows past. The best
way to prevent chloramine formation is to maintain continuous breakpoint
chlorination. If chloramines are present, the best way to minimize the effects
on patrons is to increase the percentage of fresh air that is brought into the
HVAC system. Check with your HVAC service professional to find the right
combination of fresh air mix that does not reduce the effectiveness of the
system.
Become familiar with the preventive maintenance required for your HVAC equipment. If you are not specifically trained to work on the equipment, develop a good
working relationship with a reliable service provider who can offer you expert
diagnostics and repair.
Heating the Water

Boilers are often used to heat pool water before it returns to the pool. Boilers usually
operate with natural gas, and they should be serviced only by a trained professional.
If a boiler pilot light goes out, natural gas may continue to be released into the air
until the gas is turned off. If you smell natural gas, do not enter the mechanical
146
room where the boilers are located. Instead, call a service technician immediately,
and evacuate people from the facility.
Solar panels are another way to heat water at indoor or outdoor facilities. These
systems capture energy from the sun and transfer it to the water as it passes
through the panel. Solar heating systems require very little maintenance, but you
need to keep the water chemistry balanced. Improper pH and calcium hardness
can cause mineral buildup in the solar collector and may make the plastic parts of
the collector brittle. Using a scale inhibitor on a regular basis will prevent mineral
buildup in the solar collector. To winterize a solar heating system, uncover the drain
plugs to remove the water and blow air through the collector.
Cooling the Water

Aerators are used at outdoor pools located in hot climates to cool the water and
maintain it at a comfortable temperature. Instead of returning filtered and treated
water to the pool through the regular inlet valves, aerators route the water through
a pipe system that is mounted on the deck or along the gutter. The pipe has small
holes that force the water up into the air, much like a fountain. Aerators are usually
turned on at night when the air temperature is cooler, reducing the temperature of
the water as it passes through the air. Aerators can also be designed to remove
water from the pool, pass it through the system, and return it to the pool rather than
tapping into the inlet line.
Maintenance Equipment and Supplies

Regardless of the type of pool you operate, there are some essential supplies
and equipment that you cant do without. In this section we describe the types of
equipment you can expect to see: automatic pool cleaners or manual vacuums;
poles, nets, and skimmers; hoses and pressure washers; blowers; and cleaning
supplies.
Semi-Automatic and Automatic Pool Cleaners

Semi-automatic and automatic pool cleaners remove dirt and fine debris from the
bottom of the pool. These cleaners are placed in the pool overnight, where they
move around the bottom in random patterns. Some cleaners have the ability to
move up the walls.
Semi-Automatic Cleaners Semi-automatic cleaners attach to either the vacuum
side of the pool pump or the suction side of the pool pump. Vacuum side cleaners
attach through a hose placed into a suction port, either the one for the skimmer or
a separate vacuum port. The cleaner moves randomly by itself around the pool,
propelled by a device that pulses water. As it moves, it sucks small debris into the
hose and the circulation system. The debris is caught in the strainer basket, and
smaller particles flow to the pool filter.
Cleaners that attach to the pressure side of the pool pump may use an existing
return port or have a dedicated line with an additional booster pump. Water flows
Never use a
semi-automatic
or automatic
pool cleaner
when patrons
are in the pool.
147
into the cleaner and moves three ways. First,

one jet of water pushes the debris off the walls
and floor into the water. Another jet creates
a venturi port that sucks up the debris into
a bag, and a third jet of water pushes the
cleaner around the pool.
A semi-automatic pool cleaner.
Automatic (Robot) Cleaners Robot cleaners are self-contained and self-propelled.

They plug into a wall outlet and have a long
cord that allows them to move around the pool.
They have an internal filter that can easily be
cleaned, and they effectively cover the bottom
of the pool. One advantage of robot cleaners
over other types is that they operate independently from the pool circulation system. The
dirt and debris remain in the cleaner instead
of being sent to the pool filter.
Manual Vacuums
A manual vacuum requires a person to move the vacuum head around the pool.
A wheeled vacuum head is mounted on a long telescoping pole, and a flexible
vacuum hose is attached to the vacuum head. The assembly is lowered into the
pool, and the hose is filled with water to remove any air pockets. It then is attached
to a suction source. The person doing the vacuuming moves the pole back and forth
to control the movement of the vacuum head over the pool bottom and walls.
Two types of manual vacuum systems are availablebuilt-in and portable selfcontained:
Be sure to fill the vacuum hose with water

to remove air pockets.
148
Portable vacuum systems help filter your pool water.
A built-in vacuum system has a hole (a vacuum fitting) in the bottom of the
skimmer or on the pool wall about 2 feet (60 cm) under the surface. The
pool pump pulls in water through this hole, and when the end of the hose is
attached, water and debris are sucked into the circulation system.
A portable self-contained vacuum system has a separate pump that provides
suction, as well as its own cartridge filter. When the hose is attached to the
port on the unit, water is pulled up through the hose, cleaned as it passes
through the filter, and returned to the pool through a discharge hose. A benefit
of a portable self-contained system is that it can be used as a supplemental
filter.
Poles, Nets, and Skimmers

A number of tools have been developed to help you clear the pool of leaves and
other debris that is floating or too large to vacuum. These include telescoping poles,
brushes, leaf rakes and skimmer nets, and leaf vacuums (Poolandspa.com n.d.).
Telescoping poles. The handle for all your pool cleaning

tools is the telescoping pole. These aluminum or fiberglass
poles come in various sizes, but one that can extend to
about 16 to 17 feet (5 m) is adequate for most pools. One
end of the pole has a grip or a rounded tip to hold. The
other end has two small holes that go through each side.
This allows you to attach various tools to that end, such
as brushes, nets, and vacuum heads.
Brushes. You can use a wall brush to rub dirt and stains
off pool walls. A wall brush has an aluminum frame that
fits onto the telescoping pole. The bristles may be either
nylon or stainless steel, and they may either be straight
or slightly curved. Curved bristles help to reach into corners and other tight spots. If you use a brush with steel
bristles, check it often for breakage or rust so it doesnt
stain plaster pool walls.
Leaf rakes and skimmer nets.

Leaf rakes and skimmer nets are
used to remove leaves and other
debris from the pool. The net is on
a frame, which can be attached to
your telescoping pole. A leaf rake
has a deep net, and a skimmer
net has a shallow net. A rubber or
plastic gasket around the edge of
the net protects the net from wear
and keeps it from scratching the
pool walls.
Leaf rake.
Skimmer net.
149
Leaf vacuums. Another method of cleaning up leaves and

other debris in the pool is a leaf vacuum. This tool, which
also can be attached to the telescoping pole, is useful for
picking up large quantities of debris. The leaf vacuum uses
water pressure from a garden hose, which squirts through
tiny jets up into a fabric bag in a metal or plastic housing.
The water jets create a vacuum at the bottom of the bag that
sucks up leaves and debris. The finer the mesh in the fabric
bag is, the more dirt the bag will collect. There are also leaf
vacuums that use electricity to power a propeller that creates
suction for picking up leaves and small debris.
Hoses. To clean deck surfaces, furniture, and bathroom

areas, you will need to have several good-quality hoses and
spray nozzles, and adequate water pressure. To keep your
hose in good condition and avoid annoying kinks, store it
on a reel or coil it on the ground in a circle. Drying the hose
before coiling will prevent slime and algae buildup on the
hose surface. Avoid extending the hose across an area used
by patrons, because it could create a tripping hazard.
Pressure washers. Pressure washing can remove soil and algae that are embedded
deep in the deck surface, restoring the decks color and attractiveness. This type of
cleaning is also effective on building surfaces, tile floors, shower walls, and some types
of outdoor furniture.
Lets look more closely at pressure washers. The effectiveness of a pressure

washer is determined by the force of water that is generated. The higher the pressure power, the better the pressure washer will clean. Some pressure washers come
with an attached reservoir that you can fill with cleaning solution. If you choose to
use a solution, be sure that it is one meant for use around a swimming pool and
that it will not make deck surfaces slippery or contaminate the water.
Take the following precautions with pressure washers:
The most powerful pressure washers run on gasoline rather than electricity,
and these washers will emit gas fumes. Do not use a gas-powered pressure
washer indoors unless you have a generous source of fresh air available to
clear the air of fumes.
The highly pressurized water spray can cause injury, so keep the nozzle
pointed away from others or yourself.
Blowers
Gas- or electric-powered blowers are one of the most timesaving pieces of
maintenance equipment you can have. Using a blower to remove leaves or
debris from the pool deck and surrounding areas will take a fraction of the time
150
that it would take to sweep or water spray. When using a blower, be sure to wear
safety goggles and keep away from other people.
Cleaning Supplies
General cleaning products that are essential for cleaning the changing and toilet
areas include a disinfectant to kill surface germs and remove algae or mold, toilet
bowl cleaner, urinal cakes, floor cleaning products, and a general purpose cleaner
to remove fingerprints and smudges.
Special cleaning supplies you may use in pool-area cleaning include calcium
and mineral deposit removers, soap and body oil scum removers, and products
to clean stainless steel.
Calcium and mineral deposit removers are products designed to remove
buildup that can cause stains or discoloration. Read the product label to
determine the best product for your particular problem. Some products work
on more than one type of problem, such as those that remove calcium, lime,
and rust deposits.
Soap scum removers are useful in shower areas. Allow the product to sit on
the surface for a few minutes, and then rinse the area well with clear water.
Stainless steel cleaners are essential, because

stainless steel must be constantly maintained
to prevent discoloration, especially at an indoor
facility. If left unattended, watermarks can
become impossible to remove, and oxidation
buildup on stainless steel surfaces can cause
pitting and eventually weaken the structure.
Stainless steel is most often found on lifeguard
stands, railings, fixtures, equipment, and decorative elements. Products that effectively work on
steel surfaces that are in relatively good condition include Sheila Shine, Maas Metal Polish,
Peak, Naval Jelly, Bon Ami, and WD-40, among
others. Follow the application instructions on the
product for the best results. Wax can also be
applied to stainless steel for additional protection and to extend the time between cleaning.
Any commercial brand of soft paste wax such
as those developed for cars or boats will work
fine. Using products such as these on a regular basis will keep your stainless steel in great
condition. Avoid getting these products on the
deck surface, though, because they can coat
the ground and create a slippery surface.
Body oil scum removers are designed for use on pool surfaces at the water
line. Place a small amount on a soft brush and scrub around the entire pool
to prevent or remove bathtub ring buildup.
Constantly maintain stainless steel to keep it

from becoming discolored or oxidized.
151
What is the
condition of the
stainless steel at
your facility?
Does it need some
TLC (tender loving
care)?
If your stainless steel is discolored or tarnished or has water stains on the surface,
an effective way to clean it is to use a commercial metal polish. If your stainless
steel has light rusting but little pitting, you will need a stronger metal cleansing
agent and may have to repeat the process several times.
If your stainless steel has heavy rusting or has become scratched or pitted,
you will need to manually restore the surface. This is done with a combination of
cleaning and mechanical polishing. Follow these steps:
1. Coat the surface with a metal cleaning product according to the manufacturers recommendation.
2. Let the product sit for about 10 minutes to penetrate the surface.
3. Apply a little cleaning product to the pad of an electric polisher (or you can
hand-rub if a polisher is not available), and rub the stainless steel using a
side-to-side motion until the discoloration is gone. Always work in the direction of the existing grain pattern. You may have to repeat the process several
times for heavily oxidized surfaces.
4. Wipe the surface clean.
Once you have cleaned or restored your stainless steel, you will want to preserve
the finish and prevent corrosion from recurring. The best way to do this is to put
a physical barrier of wax on the surface. The wax protection should last about six
months.
Tile soap (used with a tile brush), pumice stones, and acid spotters are helpful
in removing stains from pool tile, plaster walls, or the pool floor (Poolandspa.com
n.d.):
Tile soap can be purchased from a pool supply vendor. It is mixed with muriatic acid, and it can be used to remove stains in tiles. You can use a small
tile brush with a somewhat abrasive foam pad to apply the soap. Although
the advantage of using tile soap is that it will not foam when it gets into the
pool water, it also can corrode whatever tools you use to apply it. Thoroughly
rinse any tools you use to apply the soap.
Pumice stones, made of volcanic ash, can be used to remove scale or stains
from pool walls without much scratching. The stones are likely to crumble as
you use them, so be sure to vacuum after use.
Use an acid spotter to target particularly stubborn stains on the bottom of
the pool. This has a disk that attaches to your telescoping pole and a plastic
hose that connects to a container of muriatic acid. The acid is drawn down
into the disk, which is positioned over the stain. There are also commercial
stain removing products packaged in a dissolvable bag that is placed over
the stain.
152
Pool Covers
Pool covers can serve several purposesthey can prevent people and animals
from falling into the water during the off-season, they can keep the pool warm and
prevent evaporation, and they can protect the pool from the elements in winter. A
different kind of cover is used for each purpose.
For more on
attaching
and removing
safety covers,
see pages
169 and 172.
Safety covers are basically barriers to keep people and

animals, as well as large debris and leaves, out of the pool
during the off-season. These polypropylene mesh covers
are attached to brass anchors in the deck with stainless
steel springs. They are built to support large amounts of
weight. Water can pass through the cover, but not solid
objects. In the United States, such safety covers must
meet the requirements of ASTM standard F 134691
(adopted in 2003).
Evaporation covers are placed on the pool overnight and

removed before opening the pool in the morning to minimize heat loss and evaporation. An evaporation (or bubble)
cover is much like bubble wrap.
Solar covers made of dark plastic can help reduce evaporation and heat loss and also capture some solar heat. A
solar blanket (or insulated vinyl cover) has a thin layer of
flexible insulation sandwiched between two layers of vinyl
(U.S. Department of Energy 2006).
153
Vinyl winterizing covers protect the pool during the winter

months. These are large vinyl fabric covers that are
weighted with sand or water bags or held down by a cable
or strap system. Their main purpose is to keep organic
matter from getting into the pool. Some vinyl winterizing
covers dont let water through, so they can collect a lot
of water, debris, and algae on top and be hard to remove
when the pool reopens. This type of cover can be dangerous, especially for small children, who could slip into the
standing water and be unable to get up or get out. If you
use a vinyl cover, install a pump to automatically remove
any water and eliminate the drowning risk. These types
of covers are usually used on smaller pools and are not
appropriate for most commercial use.
Liquid pool covers are not fabric or mesh, but rather a

mixture of liquid biodegradable chemicals that float to the
waters surface and are attracted to each other, creating a
thin film over the water. This cuts back on water evaporation, which in turn retains heat in the water and reduces the
amount of replacement water needed. The liquid is added to
the pool water every day. When the water surface becomes
still, the film barrier forms. When swimmers enter the water,
the surface tension breaks apart and the harmless chemical
disperses into the water. Use of a liquid pool cover may be
helpful in places where its difficult to install and remove a
solar blanket or evaporation cover every day.
What type of pool

cover is used at
your facility? Is it
in good condition?
Although some covers warm the water by absorbing the suns energy, the real
energy savings come from the reduction in evaporation. The amount of energy it
takes to replace, circulate, dehumidify, heat, and treat new water is much greater
than what is needed to maintain the temperature of existing water. Using a cover
can reduce pool heating costs by 50 percent for outdoor pools and by 80 percent
for indoor pools. These covers may be laid on the pool manually, have a reel system
that still requires some manual guidance, or be part of an automatic system that
fits in a track along the sides of the pool (U.S. Department of Energy 2006).
Cross sections of three types of solar blankets.
Bubble or solar cover
Vinyl cover
Insulated vinyl cover
154
Best Practices: Solving Routine and

Preventive Maintenance Problems
Problem
The pool is
losing water.
Possible causes
Leak in the pool or circulation system.
Backwash valves or filter air release valves
have been left open.
High bather loads have caused excessive
splash out.
Air temperature is lower than water
temperature, causing rapid evaporation.
Low air humidity is causing rapid
evaporation.

Have a leak detection company check for
leaks.
Raise the air temperature 2 to 3 degrees
above the water temperature, and use a
pool cover when the pool is closed to slow
evaporation.
If you have an indoor pool and youre using a
dehumidifier, set it so air humidity is higher to
slow evaporation.
Not enough airflow.
Increase airflow if possible.
HVAC system is not set properly or working

properly.
Check the HVAC system and correct if

necessary.
Air temperature is cooler than water

temperature.
Increase the air temperature or lower the

water temperature so the air is 2 to 5 degrees
warmer than the water, but no more.
The indoor
humidity is too
low.
HVAC system is not set properly or working

properly.
Check the HVAC system and correct if

possible.
The water
temperature is
too high.
Thermostat is set too high.

Thermostat is not working properly.
High outdoor temperature and direct sun.
Thermostat is set too low.
Thermostat or automatic controllers are not
working properly.
Pilot light is burned out in the boiler.
Debris or mineral buildup has clogged the
solar system.
Inadequate water flow.
Check the thermostat setting and, if set

appropriately, check that it is working
properly.
The water
temperature is
too low.
If the outdoor air is humid, introduce more

fresh air into the treated air/fresh air mix.
The indoor
humidity is too
high.
Install an aerator.
Check temperature readings several
times throughout the day so that you can
notice any downward trends and fix the
problem before the temperature drops to
uncomfortable levels.
Check the flow rate and, if it is low, fix the
cause (such as the need for backwashing or
a misaligned valve) and then reset the heater.
Call a licensed service technician for
problems with natural gas boilers
The water
level is too
high.
Fill water valve was left on.

Pumps are down so water usually in the
circulation system returns to the pool.
Surge pit fill valve is broken or stuck.
Place a wristband near the fill valve and put

it on every time you turn the water on as a
reminder to turn the water off.
Look into the surge pit for any obvious
malfunction and call a service technician if
needed.
(continued)
155
Best Practices: Solving Routine and

Preventive Maintenance Problems
Problem
Possible causes
(continued)
Leaves and
debris are
not being
skimmed from
the surface.
Water level in pool is too high or too low.

Filter needs to be backwashed, or pumps are
not circulating water.
Check and clean the skimmer baskets

daily. Monitor the strainer baskets and filter
pressure daily, and clean or backwash them
before the flow rate is affected.
Algae are
growing on
the deck.
Standing water.
Disinfect the deck each night prior to closing

using a chlorine solution sprayed on the
surface. (A garden sprayer is very useful for
this purpose.)
Skimmer baskets are clogged with debris.
Heavy rainfall or storms.

High temperatures.
Heavy user load.
Lack of preventive care and cleaning.
Keep the pool water at a level at or slightly

above the skimmer intake.
Each morning, spray down the deck using

a hose with a pressure nozzle or a pressure
washer.
Spot treat small algae patches by brushing
them with a stiff-bristled brush and applying
chlorine solution as needed.
A scum line
has developed
on the wall.
Hard water.
Poor water balance (encouraging algal and
bacterial growth).
Bathers not showering before getting into the
pool.
Rapid evaporation.
For methods of countering hard water or

adjusting pool water balance, see chapter 7.
If the problem is scale, apply scale inhibitor.
Brush the pool walls with a pool cleaner
frequently.
Post a rule stating that bathers must shower
before entering the pool.
Cut down on evaporation by using a pool
cover after the pool closes.
The automatic
pool cleaner
does not pick
up debris.
Problem with the cleaner pump motor,

including a short.
The manual
pool vacuum
does not
maintain
suction.
Strainer basket is clogged with debris.
Hose is twisted or caught on something.

Pool pump isnt circulating water.
Filter needs to be backwashed.

Hose has a hole, and air is getting into the
line.
A gasket is worn around the strainer basket
on a portable vacuum.
If water doesnt spray out of the top when

you raise the automatic pool cleaner to the
surface, disconnect the cleaner and lift it out
of the pool. Check that the pump impeller is
not blocked; then plug the cleaner in to see
if the impeller rotates. If it doesnt, you may
have a short in the cleaner (Poolcenter.com,
Robot Cleaners, n.d.).
Clean the strainer basket and/or backwash
often when vacuuming large amounts of dirt
or debris.
Check the hose for any holes or splits along
the flexible ribsthese may be difficult to
detect. Duct tape can provide a quick fix, but
replace the hose as soon as possible.
Open the lid on the strainer basket and
reseat the gasket. If you are unable to get a
good seal, replace the gasket.
156
Cloudy Water
There may be times when you think that all of your pool systems are working properly but the water is cloudy, its an odd color, or stains are forming on the pool shell.
Youll need to investigate to determine the cause! Other than filtering problems,
common causes of temporary cloudy water are dirt in the water, calcium carbonate
precipitate, paint from the pool walls, and leaks from the DE filter.
Dirt. Outdoor pools are always subject to blowing dirt, and a fine layer may
have settled to the bottom and not made its way through the filter. The water
might look clear until swimmers enter and stir it up. To get rid of dirt, brush
and vacuum the pool every morning before swimmers enter the pool.
Calcium carbonate precipitate. Raising pH quickly, or raising it slowly but to
a high level, can cause precipitate (a substance once suspended in water
that separates out) to form, clouding the water. If you feed calcium hypochlorite through an erosion feeder, it may create precipitate, especially in
hard water.
Paint on pools. If painted pool surfaces are not maintained and repainted
when necessary, the paint can begin to flake into the water. This, too, will
cloud the water, and bits of paint will collect in the strainer or filter as well.
This can be a disaster if you have a sand filter, because you may have to
remove the sand to clean it all out.
DE leaks. Tears on the cloth on the septa in a DE filter will allow DE to escape
into the pool. It not only clouds the water but also can irritate bathers eyes.
Other possible causes of cloudy water include minerals suspended in the water.
Preventing Cloudy Water

To prevent cloudy water, try these tips:
Vacuum the pool regularly before swimmers enter the water.
Keep the sanitizer, pH, and other chemical readings within acceptable
ranges.
Backwash the filter at the manufacturers recommended pressures.
Make sure the water level is high enough for the gutters.
Keep the pool area swept and clean.
Use wind barriers whenever possible to block outside particles from blowing into the water. If you can, plant shrubs and trees around the perimeter to
block incoming dirt.
157
If your water is already cloudy, youll need to do some detective work to figure
out the cause. Here are some things to check:
Check chlorine and pH levels. If chlorine is high and pH is low, you may have
metals or calcium carbonate suspended in the water. If chlorine is low and
pH is high, you may have debris in the pool that is not oxidizing. If the water
is green, you may have green algae.
Check the water flow through the flow meter. If it is slow, look for problems
with the circulation system that may be reducing the efficiency of the filter.
Check the DE filter for obvious tears in the cloth covering the septa.
Check your procedures on the last backwash. Mistakes may allow dirt to get
into the pool.
Notice whether the cloudiness happens late in the day. If so, this may mean
either that the filters are too dirty, the disinfection and filtration systems cant
keep up with the high bather load, or the pool is dirty and swimmers stir up
the dirt.
Check for air leaks in the circulation system. Air in the pool water may look
like suspended material.
If you have checked and corrected everything on this list and have decided that
you simply have dirt that isnt being removed, you can turn to water clarifiers. These
are usually applied directly into the pool, but read the manufacturers instructions
to determine what conditions are necessary for effective use.
Many commonly used organic water clarifiers, called cationic clarifiers, have
a positive charge. Because the dirt particles have a negative charge, they are
attracted to the clarifier to form larger particles that the filter can more easily remove
from the pool.
Aluminum sulfate (alum) or poly-aluminum chloride also can be used as water
clarifiers. In this case, when the chemical is added to the water, it forms a gel
that traps particles. If you use this method, first add the chemical to the circulation system for a few hours; then shut off the flow for as much as a day. The large
masses of trapped particles will sink to the bottom of the pool, where you can
vacuum them up. Water clarifiers work best when the pH of the pool water is
between 7.6 and 7.8.
158
Best Practices: Solving Water Clarity Problems

Problem
Water is cloudy after
backwashing.
Possible causes
Mudballs and tunneling
allowing debris to get
back to the pool.
Calcified sand bed,
which is not filtering.
Backwashing done on
more than one tank at
a time, with insufficient
flow to filter dirt.

Check the filter
bed periodically for
mudballs, tunneling, or
calcification.
To fix the problem

To fix mudballs,
tunneling, or
calcification, see
chapter 3.
Follow the
manufacturers
instructions for properly
backwashing.
Valves left open at

the wrong time during
backwashing.

adding soda ash.
Soda ash dissolves

slowly, causing
temporary clouding
when hand-fed into a
pool.
Use caustic soda.

Slurry-feed soda ash
through an automatic
pump after the filter.
Decrease the pH if a
high pH is the cause.
If not, you may have
to wait for the water to
clear on its own.
Water is cloudy after high

bather loads.
Metals are suspended

in the water.
Test the fill water for

metals.
pH has risen above 8.0.
Test the pH frequently

and keep it below 8.0.
The filter is dirty.
Have patrons take

showers before entering
the pool.
The filter is too small to

handle the loads.
The pool needs
brushing and
vacuuming.
Backwash the filter

at the manufacturers
recommended pressure
levels.
See next section on

colored water. Lower
pH if necessary.
Clean the filter if

needed. If the problem
is due to bather load,
vacuum the pool
frequently or increase
the chlorine residual.
Vacuum the pool on a

regular basis before
patrons enter the pool.
Monitor chlorine
residual levels and raise
as necessary.
Restrict bather loads.
Water is cloudy and smelly.
High combined chlorine

levels.
Algae or bacteria.
Keep disinfectant levels

at recommended levels
consistently to exceed
demand.
Breakpoint chlorinate
the pool.
Have bathers shower

before swimming.
Breakpoint chlorinate
the pool as needed.
(continued)
159

adding chlorine.
pH is above 8.4.
Best Practices: Solving Water Clarity Problems

Problem
Water is cloudy for no
apparent reason.
Possible causes
Cloudy water has many

possible causes. See
previous entries in this
table.
Check the circulation

system regularly for
water flow and air leaks.
Backwash the filter
at the manufacturers
recommended pressure
levels.
Keep the water in
balance.
Check the filter
regularly. For a sand
filter, look for mudballs,
tunneling, and
calcification. For a DE
filter, look for torn cloth
on the septa.
(continued)
To fix the problem

Use the list of items
described in the text
to help determine
the problem. Once
you know what the
problem is, select from
the solutions given in
this table. If you cant
find the source of the
problem, you can use
water clarifiers to help
remove the existing
material in the water.
Check the paint on

the pool walls to see
whether its flaking off.
Vacuum the pool

regularly.
Colored Water and Staining

Color in pool water is the result of oxidized metals in the water, usually copper, iron,
or manganese. These minerals may come in with the fill water, be a result of poor
water balance that makes the water corrode metal parts of the pool, or come from
water treatment chemicals such as metal-based algicides.
Here are some of the colors you might see in pool water:
Green or blue-green water, if turbid or dark green, is the result of algae. If
it is translucent or light blue-green, it is the result of copper or iron ions that
tint the water. High levels of chlorine or other oxidants or high total alkalinity
may cause these metals to stain the pool.
Red or red-brown water is caused by iron or manganese in the water.
Brownish black dark water is caused by iron in the water.
Royal purple translucent water is caused by manganese in the water.
You need to correct colored water quickly if you want to prevent staining. First,
you must figure out where the metal is coming from. If your water is so imbalanced
that it is corroding metal in the pool, you need to get it back in balance and keep it
there. If fill water contains metals, you can add a large cartridge filter for fill water
only that will remove the metals. If that isnt possible, you could bring in a truckload
of water without minerals for pool startup.
160
Once youve stopped the source of the metals, you can use sequestering or
chelating agents to clear up the water. Sequestering agents keep the metal in
solution so its not visible, whereas chelating agents take the metals out of solution
so they can be filtered or vacuumed out. You can purchase these products from
your pool supply company. The containers will provide specific dosage and use
instructions. Follow these directions carefully.
Stains are different colors depending on the metal involved:
Chlorine and iron form a brown stain.
Chlorine and manganese form a blue-gray stain.
Dissolved copper stains can be gray, black, or blue-green.
Copper and cyanuric acid combined can form light violet stains.
Some copper- and silver-based algicides also can produce stains.
If staining has already occurred, you can do a wash of the pool with muriatic
acid the next time the pool is drained. This is a painstaking job that must be done
carefully to prevent damaging any metal in the pool system.
Best Practices: Solving Water Color and Staining Problems
Water is blue
or blue-green.
Possible causes
Copper or iron.

Keep water balanced to
prevent corrosion of metals.
To fix the problem

Use sequestering or
chelating agents.
Problem
Water is red or
red-brown.
Iron or manganese in the

water.

prevent corrosion of metals.
Check fill water for mineral

levels.
Use sequestering or
chelating agents.
Check fill water for mineral

levels.
Water is
brown-black.
Manganese in the water.

prevent the corrosion of
metals.
Use sequestering or
chelating agents.
Check the fill water for mineral

levels.
Pool wall is
stained.
For brown stains:

Combination of chlorine and
iron.
Calcium level in water too low.
For blue-green, gray, or black
stains:

prevent the corrosion of
metals.
Drain the pool and

wash the pool walls with
muriatic acid.
Check the fill water for mineral

levels.
Dissolved copper.
For blue-gray stains:
Combination of chlorine and
manganese.
For light violet stains:
Combination of copper and
cyanuric acid.
161
Documentation and Record Keeping
For more
on record
keeping,
see pages
68 and
138 to 139.
Besides the record keeping mentioned in chapter 9 related to safety, your pool
workplace may need to keep various government-mandated documents on hand
that relate to operation and maintenance. After 12 months these documents can
usually be archived, but they must be kept for the time period required by your
regulatory agency. Other important documents to keep on hand are manufacturers
equipment manuals for reference purposes and copies of the data plates on each
piece of equipment in case repair or replacement is needed.
Its also a good idea to keep a log of problems encountered, queries, equipment
and supply purchases, cleaning regime, and any other special happenings during
the day. This record can be passed down to the next pool plant operator to come on
duty so that there is good communication and smooth transition of responsibility.
ave you made your list and checked it twice? You should use checklists
for daily, weekly, monthly, and longer-term maintenance. You should also
make sure you have the equipment you need to maintain the aquatic facility
and that you know how to use the equipment properly. An organized and
consistent maintenance program will save on repairs and prevent problems,
and if you are a Mr. Clean or a Ms. Fix-It, youll feel very satisfied as well.
Performance Goal
Keep your pool facility clean and comfortable for patrons safety
and enjoyment, and regularly maintain the pool systems to save
on repairs and prevent problems.
Best Practices
Create checklists for opening and closing and for other
routine maintenance tasks. Complete those tasks according to schedule.

Get the tools and supplies you need to properly maintain
your pool and surrounding area.
In cool climates or indoors, use a pool cover to slow evaporation and keep the pool warm.
In warm climates, use an aerator to cool the water.

As much as possible, control humidity levels while maintain
162
ing the highest mix of fresh air in an indoor pool.

Know what types of repairs require professional help.
Know how to diagnose and fix the causes of cloudy, colored,
or staining water.
11
3
How to
Perform
Seasonal
and Special
Maintenance
L
ike the superhero that transforms in seconds from being meek

and mild to possessing incredible powers, your aquatic facility is capable of transforming into different settings to meet the
circumstances. From time to time you may need to transform
your pool into a venue capable of handling hundreds or thousands of people at a competition or special event, prepare it to
withstand severe weather conditions, or completely shut it down
and then get it back in service. Youll learn how in this chapter.
Topics on deck:
How to prepare for a competitive eventthe equipment
you might need and adjustments you might need to make
to the water and air temperature
What steps you should take to winterize your facility and
to reopen in the spring
How to prepare your facility when a hurricane, typhoon,
or other extreme weather is imminent
n the last chapter we looked at regular pool maintenance tasks; here we discuss
some special maintenance situations. If you need to prepare your pool for competition, you will need to set up your venue according to guidelines for the event.
If you work at an outdoor pool that closes for the winter, you will have to winterize it
at the end of the swimming season and then reopen it in the spring. Finally, if your
pool is in an area where hurricanes or typhoons occur, youll have to take steps
quickly to preserve your facility whenever a storm is imminent.
Preparing for a Competitive Event

If your facility is going to host a competitive swim meet, you will have to make sure
your pool and pool area are properly fitted with all the essential equipment. Check
with the meets governing body to make sure your pool and your equipment meet
their requirements.
In the United States, sanctioned competitive swim events are held in three venues:
50 meters (long course), 25 yards (short course), and 25 meters (short course
meters). The long course season is in the summer, and the short course season
is the rest of the year. International competitions are always held long course or
short course meters.
Meets often require additional lighting, especially if the meet is held at night. You
may need to install floodlights temporarily. If you dont have permanently installed
bleachers for spectators, you may have to bring in portable ones and also provide seating for the competing swimmers and swim meet officials on deck. Meets
require a good sound system capable of transmitting announcements and music
to the crowd.
Some pool equipment you may not normally use but may need for the meet
includes floating lane dividers, backstroke flags, a recall rope, and starting platforms. The following guidelines apply for competitive swimming in the United States.
These guidelines may differ in your country.
11 How to Perform Seasonal
and Special Maintenance
Floating lane dividers, or lane lines, designate

the swimming lanes with antiwave disk floats
strung on a plastic-coated cable. The cable is
attached to a take-up reel spool that hooks into
an eyelet at each end of the lane and is kept
under tension. According to USA Swimming
(2005), the last 15 feet of the line is one color
to signal to the swimmers that they are near the
wall. In addition, a red or contrasting color disk
is positioned 15 meters out from each wall to
indicate where swimmers doing the backstroke
should surface. At some competitive swimming
venues, a 2-inch-thick line might also be painted
on the pool bottom to indicate the 15-meter
mark.
164
Backstroke flags are triangular flags that are hung on

a nylon line or cable above the pool at both ends of the
pool. According to USA Swimming (2005), the flags
must have two or more contrasting and alternating
colors and be 6 to 12 inches wide at the base and 12 to
18 inches in length. At least three flags must hang over
each racing line. The backstroke flag line is held up by
stanchions on the deck. For 50-meter or 25-meter pools,
stanchion posts are located 5 meters (16 feet, 5 inches)
from each end of the pool, and flags must be a minimum
of 1.8 meters (5 feet, 11 inches) but no more than 2.5
meters (8 feet, 3 inches) above the waters surface.
For 25-yard pools, stanchion posts are located 15 feet
(4.57 meters) from each end of the pool, and the flags
must be 7 feet (2.13 meters) above the waters surface.
The height is measured from the waters surface to the
horizontal line from which the flags hang.
A recall rope is a line that hangs above the pool, not too far from the starting end. Officials hold the line up, and if theres a false start, they drop it as a signal to swimmers.
According to USA Swimming (2005), for 50-meter pools, the recall rope is placed in the
center of the course; for 25-yard pools, the recall rope is placed near the turn end of the
backstroke flags.
Starting platforms, also known as

starting blocks, are elevated platforms
from which swimmers dive at the start
of competition. The size, style, and
construction material vary, and various
swimming governing bodies have regulations for the type of platforms needed
for certain levels of competition. Starting
platforms must be securely anchored
into the deck or bulkhead and be covered with permanent nonslip material.
Check the requirements of your pool
regulatory agency and the governing
body of the competition regarding the
depth of water and starting block height.
In most instances, a water depth of at
least 4 feet (1.22 meters) is required
to allow racing starts off a starting
platform. Only trained competitive swimmers should use starting platforms, and
always under the direction of a coach.
165
For more
on ground
fault circuit
interrupters,
see page 121.
If not permanently installed, you may have to bring in portable electronic equipment such as a scoreboard, a swim timing system, computers, pace clocks, and
underwater speakers (for recalling swimmers following false starts). Make sure the
equipment and its lines are all waterproof, and make sure all your outlets around
the pool have ground fault circuit interrupters. Make space for the equipment, and
be sure nothing is blocking the view of the scoreboard from competitors or the
audience.
Other equipment you may need includes the following (Gabrielsen 1987):
Diving judges flash cards
Stopwatches
Stands at finishing end for judges
Electronic touch pads and accompanying recorder
Splash curtains in front of the bleachers to protect spectators
Racks or storage bins for storing racing lines
Spray device or bubbler to agitate the waters surface for divers
If you are hosting a large meet, you may have to provide space for radio, TV, or
press coverage of the event. If possible, have plenty of electrical outlets, Internet
connections, printers, and communication equipment available for them to use.
Make the competing swimmers, coaches, and officials as comfortable as you
can. Secure an area where teams can set up staging areas so athletes can rest and
perhaps receive massages. If you can arrange it, have a heated area where divers
can wait for their turn to dive. Provide a hospitality area for coaches and officials
with food and drink. Anticipate the increased demand on toilet facilities and have
166
plenty of paper supplies in stock. Plan to empty waste containers frequently and
have a place to store the increased trash load.
Remember the basics, thoughkeep the pool water clean and clear and the
water and air at a comfortable temperature for both swimmers and spectators.
Check chloramine levels about three days before the event, and perform breakpoint
chlorination if needed. If you do perform breakpoint chlorination, clear the indoor
air of the breakpoint by-products; use a large commercial fan to send air across
the waters surface and blow the by-products out of the building. Lower the free
chlorine level to within accepted ranges for competition, using sodium thiosulfate
for fast results.
USA Swimming regulations specify that during a sanctioned competition water
temperature should be between 78 and 80 F and the air temperature in indoor
facilities, measured within 8 feet above the deck level, should not be lower than
76 F, with 60 percent relative humidity and air velocity at 25 feet per minute (2005).
Regulations may be different in other countries. Check with your countrys governing body for swimming. If the water temperature at your facility is routinely kept
higher than 80 F (27 C), begin lowering the temperature a few days before the
event. Lower the temperature using any combination of turning down the heating
set point, turning off the heater, or adding fresh water, depending on how quickly
you need the temperature to drop.
Is your facility in a
moderate climate?
If so, read this
section carefully to
decide whether you
should drain your
pool.
167
If your outdoor pool is in a climate where winters have long periods of hard freeze,
youll need to drain and winterize your pool at the end of the swim season. If its in
a more moderate climate, youll need to decide whether to drain the pool for the
winter. If you leave water in the pool, youll also have to decide whether to keep
the water circulating. In locations that have several weeks or more of hard freeze,
draining the pool is usually the best choice. If water is left in the pool during the
off-season, the decision of whether to keep water circulating is usually based on
economic factors and the desire to minimize preparation time prior to reopening.
At first glance, the decision of whether to keep the water in the pool would seem
to be a simple one. Water freezes, so you want to take it out. However, completely
draining the pool causes some problems. The largest one is that if the surrounding
water table is high, it may exert force on the floor and walls of the pool and push
it up out of the ground. Most pools have hydrostatic relief valves in the lowest part
of the pool that allow the groundwater to enter the pool rather than press on the
pool. However, if the valves get clogged or there arent enough valves, the pool
shell can still pop out. This should not happen in pools that have well points around
the pool in the deck that are connected to a suction pump. That pump draws the
groundwater away, relieving the pressure.
Draining the pool causes other problems as well. Small amounts of water between
joints and cracks in the pool will expand and contract as the water freezes and
thaws, damaging the pool structure. Lack of water can also be damaging to pool
linings, especially plaster. Finally, an empty, uncovered pool may be attractive to
children who want to play, particularly skateboarders.
Winterizing
To prepare your pool for the winter, follow these steps:

1. Adjust the water and chemical levels. If you are going to cover the pool,
adjust the water level according to the recommendations of your pool cover
manufacturer. If you are in a cold climate, lower the water at least enough
so that the skimmers are uncovered so they can be drained (see item 5). If
you plan to drain most of the water, leave at least 1 foot (30 cm) of water at
the shallow end. If you leave your underwater lights in the wall rather than
removing them for the winter, keep the water at least 1 foot (30 cm) above
them so that surface ice does not break the light covers. Vacuuming and
backwashing to waste is one method of lowering the water while at the same
time performing end-of-season maintenance tasks. If you have a vacuum
system built into your pool, cap off all inlets when you are finished vacuuming.
2. Adjust the chemical levels. If you are leaving water in the pool over the
winter, adjust the pH, total alkalinity, free chlorine, and calcium hardness to
within acceptable ranges as you close, and check the balance throughout
the winter.
3. Remove ladders, diving boards, and in winter climates, underwater pool
lights. Store ladders and diving boards in an indoor location if possible. Turn
off the power to the underwater pool lights at the circuit box; then remove
the lights from their niches if possible. Inspect the lights for damage or
leakage, fix them as needed, and then lubricate them (if recommended by
the manufacturer). Box or cover them up, and store them in a warm, dry
place.
4. Cover the pool. Regardless of whether you drain the pool, you probably will
need a pool cover. This will prevent debris from entering the pool, protecting
the pool interior from damage. (In some places, local regulators require you
to have a pool cover during the
winter.) It is usually easier to put
on a pool cover when the water
is at normal levels because the
cover can be floated on the
surface and pulled into place.
The sidebar How to Attach
a Pool Cover contains suggestions for how to put on a
mesh cover that is secured with
spring straps to anchors in the
deck. This type of cover is one
of the most common, but you
should follow your manufacturers instructions for your specific
cover. You will need to check
periodically during the winter
to ensure that the cover hasnt
come loose.
168
How to Attach a Pool Cover

Here are some tips for putting a mesh safety cover with deck anchors on the pool at the end
of the season (LOOP-LOC 2006):
1. Use a large screwdriver or hex wrench to raise the anchor bolts (brass inserts) from
the anchor casings that are installed in the deck.
2. Remove ladders, poles, or any raised obstructions from the deck area that will be
covered. Float the cover on the surface of the water and center it on the pool. Make sure
that you have the correct side up as you unroll or unfold it.
3. If necessary, attach the springs to the straps with even adjustment. Be sure to loop the
strap around the base of the spring and back through the buckle so that the end of the
strap is pointed toward the deck. This strap position will allow you to pull and adjust the
tension to properly compress the spring.
4. Use the installation rod to attach the springs to the eight corner anchors. Place the rod
through the ring end of the spring. Put the rod over the raised anchor bolt with the longer
end (heel) behind the bolt.
Pull the rod toward you (away from the cover) until the spring extends and slides over the
bolt.
Installation
rod
Spring
Strap
Spring
Deck
Pool
Anchor system
(open position)
Insert the installation rod.
Strap
Deck
Cover
Retaining
ring
Pool
Anchor system
(open position)
Pull the rod toward you.
Rotate the rod until the heel is released from the spring and remove the rod. Adjust the
strap length on one side or the other if the cover needs to be shifted to keep it centered
on the pool.
5. Attach the remaining springs to the anchors using the installation
rod.
6. Adjust the straps so that all of the springs are compressed about
70 to 75 percent.
For more on
pool covers,
see pages
153 to 154.
169
Cover
Retaining
ring
If you are going to keep your pumps running and circulate the water during the
winter months, skip steps 5 and 6.
5. Winterize the circulation equipment. Backwash and clean your filter; then
drain it. Open the relief valves on pressure systems, and remove drain plugs
so all water can drain out. Inspect sand beds, and for DE filters, remove the
filter elements. Check them, clean and repair them, and then cover them
and put them in storage. Youll need to drain all pool equipment, such as
chemical feeders and pumps and their connecting hoses and, if possible,
move them to a dry, warm location. Each piece of equipment should have a
drain plug that can be removed to allow water to drain out. If you cant store
the equipment, clean it and then brush it lightly or spray it with an oil-based
product or other protective coating to repel water. If any of the equipment
needs to be disassembled, put the pieces in a plastic bag and attach the
bag to the main equipment frame. Then cover the equipment with plastic,
but not so tightly that water can condense inside.
6. Winterize the circulation lines and other water lines if you are in a cold climate.
Insert recreational antifreeze (biodegradable propylene glycol, not automotive
antifreeze, which is toxic) into the pipes through the skimmers; then plug the
skimmers with expansion plugs. Also disconnect all water lines in locker
rooms. You may need to take out the water in toilets or traps by hand, and
you should also add some antifreeze in these areas. If you are in an area of
hard freeze, consider blowing all pipes and lines dry with compressed air
and inserting special plugs. Unless you have the equipment and training
to do this, call a technician who specializes in this type of winterizing.
7. Arrange for utilities to discontinue unnecessary services. Turn off all breakers
for equipment circuits that wont be used over the winter, including the water
heater, and turn off the gas supply to the heater if you use gas. Deciding
whether to shut off your utilities for the winter depends on your costs to shut
down and restart and your need for some of those utilities during the winter.
For example, if you plan to circulate your water or have security lighting,
youll still need power; if you decide to keep the main office warm to protect
equipment stored there, you may need gas for heating.
8. Protect all pool chemicals. If you can return any pool chemicals to the supplier, do soespecially chlorine gas cylinders (empty or full). Tightly seal
dry chemicals and keep them dry and off the ground. Do not allow liquid
chemicals to freeze. You should discard all test reagents, because they
wont last over the winter.
9. Remove and store deck equipment. Store outdoor furniture and lights
indoors, or secure them with cables or chains. Remove lifeguard chairs, railings, and safety equipment (particularly SCBA systems) from the deck and
take them inside along with any hardware used to secure them. Lubricate
the hardware before putting it away. Turn off water to outdoor fountains, and
if possible, drain and store them in a warm, dry location. If they must stay
where they are, cover them with plastic.
170
10. Protect the deck. Caulk or seal all joints on the deck, anywhere that solid
materials meet. This will prevent water from seeping in and expanding and
contracting with the temperature.
11. Prepare the rest of the facility. Any small equipment that could be stolen,
such as computers, phones, and other office equipment, should be removed
from the premises if possible or at least locked up securely indoors. Treat
the entire facility for pests and insects before closing up.
12. Inspect for safety. When you finally close, make sure all doors and fence
gates are locked. Let the police know that you are closing the pool, so they
can keep an eye on things. You may want to leave on security lights and
any security system you have to discourage intruders.
Opening a Seasonal Facility

Reopening the pool in the spring takes good organization and planning. If you winterized well and kept track of where everything was stored and what precautions
were taken for cold weather, reopening should be fairly easy. Here are some steps
for reopening your facility:
1. Arrange for utilities to provide service. This includes any services that were
discontinued, such as water, electricity, gas, and telephone. If you require
services from outside companies, such as garbage hauling, be sure to notify
them.
2. Uncover the pool and check the cover. If there is water on the winterizing
cover, pump it off. Remove the cover and lay it out on the deck. Clean it off
and let it dry before storing it.
3. Check the pool. Clear out as much debris from the pool as you can, and
brush off scum lines. Check the hydrostatic relief valves for clogging and
the pool walls, floor, and underwater lights (if still mounted) for damage. If
you removed the underwater lights at closing, remount them into the pool.
6. Refill the pool. Raise the water level back to where it should be.
5. Take inventory; then reorder supplies or replacements. Look for any damage
done over the winter that needs to be fixed. If any repairs were to be done
during the off-season, see that those were finished. Check how the chemicals survived the winter and reorder as necessary, including replacing all
test reagents.
4. If you need or want to repair or paint the pool interior, drain all the water from
the pool and complete that work before continuing to prepare the pool for
opening. Dont put the underwater lights back in until youre finished. Allow
plenty of time to prepare the pool surface for painting and to allow the paint
to properly cure before filling the pool with water. Follow all manufacturers
instructions, and use the correct type of pool paint for your pool. (See the
sidebar How to Paint a Pool.)
For more
on proper
water level,
see pages
12 to 14.
171
How to Remove a Winter Pool Cover

Here are some tips for removing a mesh safety cover from the pool at the beginning of the
season (LOOP-LOC 2006):
1. Raise the water level to normal or higher.
2. Use the installation rod to remove all of the springs except the eight corner anchors.
Place the rod over the anchor bolt with the longer end (heel) toward the cover.
Press down and rotate the rod so that the heel is between the bolt and the spring.
Press the rod slightly toward the cover to release the spring from the anchor.
Rotate 180
Rod
Anchor in
open position
Retaining
ring
Anchor in
open position
Rod heel
Retaining
ring
Spring
Deck
Anchor
system
Anchor
system
Pool
Place the rod over the anchor bolt.
Spring
Rod heel
Deck
Rod
Pool
Press down on the rod and rotate it.
3. Remove the springs from the eight corner anchors. Move the cover onto the deck as
you float it off the pool. If suggested by the manufacturer, remove the springs from the
straps. Let the cover drain and dry completely before storage.
4. Use a hose to spray each of the deck anchors with water to flush out any debris. Spray
each of the anchors with silicone, and then use a screwdriver or hex tool to close the
anchors so that they are flush with the deck.
172
7. Reinstall and prepare the pool circulation equipment. This includes the skimmers, filter, water heater, pump, chemical feeders, flow meters, gauges, and
any other parts of the circulation system. Clean as necessary, and repair or
replace any broken parts. Clean the filter media and, for DE and cartridge
filters, see whether elements or media need to be replaced. Put the plug
in the filter tank. For pressurized filters, test the manual air pressure relief
valves. Drain and clean the surge pit and check all the valves and water
level control mechanisms.
8. Reassemble circulation lines. Take out any plugs, take the caps off any
vacuum inlets, and put in the return outlet fittings. Make sure all grates are
intact and secured. Drain antifreeze from the lines; then flush them with water.
If you suspect a leak, call in an expert to pressure test for leaks and fix any
breaks. Install any handles or hose bibs that were removed, and replace
any that are broken.
9. Turn the power to the circulation system back on. First, make sure all ground
wires are connected, and check all electrical connections for dampness.
Once everything has been checked and approved, turn on the electricity
and gas.
10. Brush the walls from the waters surface to the bottom with a pool brush. If
you have a portable vacuum, begin vacuuming the pool bottom and sides.
This may need to be done several times.
11. Restart circulation and clean the pool water. Adjust pressure inlets so the
water circulates properly. Leave the skimmer lines off for now so air doesnt
get into the system. Run circulation continuously for several days. Vacuum
the pool and backwash the filter often until the pool water is clean.
12. Check chemical readings. Calculate the amount of chemicals needed to
bring all levels within normal ranges. Add chemicals and adjust in this
order:
a. Adjust calcium hardness. Add calcium chloride for the best initial
dosage results.
c. Adjust total alkalinity. Add sodium bicarbonate to increase or muriatic

acid to decrease for the best initial dosage results. If you need to
decrease alkalinity, add the entire dosage of muriatic acid near the
main drain to sludge dose.
d. Adjust pH. Add soda ash to increase or muriatic acid to decrease for
the best initial dosage results.
Plan to spend several days adjusting the chemicals at the beginning of
the season. Bring one level into range before attempting to adjust another.
When a significant increase or decrease is required, do not add the entire
dosage at once to avoid cloudy water. This is particularly important if you
have to increase pH.
For more
on water
testing, see
chapter 5.
13. Adjust water temperature. Turn on the water heater, and keep the pool covered with a solar blanket.
173
b. Adjust free chlorine. Add granular sodium hypochlorite in solution for

the best initial dosage results.
14. Test the water and calculate water balance. Adjust the pH, alkalinity, and
calcium hardness as needed to balance.
15. Reinstall all pool and deck equipment. Check the deck for damage, and
repair it if necessary. Clean all safety and program equipment, and wash off
all deck furniture. Replace ladders, diving boards, lifeguard chairs, water
fountains, and other equipment. Set out the deck furniture.
16. Clean and disinfect the deck. Powerwash if possible.
17. Prepare the rest of the facility. Do any repainting or cleaning needed in the
changing rooms or other parts of the facility. Replace any damaged or stolen
signs. Clean up the grounds.
18. Inspect the facility for safety. Check for cracked skimmer or drain covers,
sharp edges on equipment or fixtures, uneven or slick surfaces, loose rails
or stairs, gates or locks that arent secure, or any condition that could be a
hazard and cause injury.
How to Paint a Pool

Whether to paint your pool and when to paint it will depend on its condition and the climate
you live in. In cold weather climates, you may need to paint outdoor pools in the fall to meet
the temperature requirements for the paint to cure. If you are going to paint your pool, follow
these instructions from Poolcenter.com (Painted Swimming Pools, n.d.):
1. Determine the type of pool paint that is on the pool. You cannot paint a pool that has
epoxy paint with rubber based paint or vice versa. You can use acrylic paint on any surface.
2. Drain any water from the swimming pool and remove all debris. Be sure to remove any
hydrostatic relief plugs.
3. Scrape all old, loose pool paint off the pool surface. A high-pressure power washer will
help.
4. If there are any cracks in the swimming pool shell, they must be cut out with a diamond
blade saw or grinder. Cut the cracks 1/4-inch (0.6 cm) deep.
5. Chip out any divots or loose cement. Caulk the cracks, and patch any large chips or
divots with hydraulic cement.
6. Acid clean the swimming pool with a 50 percent water, 50 percent muriatic acid solution.
Be sure to scrub the walls and floor and to use the proper safety equipment and procedures. [For more on how to properly do an acid wash, go to the Acid Wash Page under
Pool Info at Poolcenter.com.]
7. Rinse the entire swimming pool, skimmers, fittings, lights, and stairs completely.
8. Now it is time to reclean the swimming pool with TSP (trisodium-phosphate). TSP is a
detergent available at all paint stores and most hardware stores. Follow the directions on
the TSP container. This step will neutralize the acid and remove the glaze from the existing paint. It will remove any grease, oil, or dirt that the acid did not remove. Rinse with
fresh water completely. When you think you have rinsed the entire swimming pool, rinse
it again!!
174
9. Pump out all of the water and remove

any leftover debris. Remove any water
from the skimmer, and sponge any
standing water from low spots around
steps and fittings. Allow the swimming
pool to dry for three to five days. Tape off
the tile band and fittings with masking
tape to prevent getting any paint on the
threads, tile, or fittings.
10. Time to paint your swimming pool!
Just before painting the pool, scrape
any last-minute flakes from the pool
surface, sweep the pool out, and sweep
or blow any leaves or dirt from the pool
deck. Check the weather for rain or high
winds in the forecast. If there is a chance
of rain, wait. Open the swimming pool
paint and mix it well. You will want to use
an electric drill with a paddle mixer. Mix
for about five to seven minutes.
Rinse the pool completely before painting.
11. Apply paint with a 3/8-inch nap roller.

Start in the deep end of the swimming
pool and work your way to the shallow
end. Use an extension pole on your
roller for the deep end walls. Midmorning is the best time to paint. Do not apply
paint if the temperature is below 40 F
(4 C) or above 90 F (32 C). If you
do, the paint will not adhere. If you are
applying a second coat of paint, wait
two to four hours before repainting.
12. The last step is very important. You

must wait five to seven days before filling the swimming pool so your new paint
job can cure completely. If there is rain
during that time, remove any standing
water after the rain has stopped. Use a
sponge and leaf blower to dry the pool.
If the rain lasts more than an hour or two,
add a day to the cure time. After the cure
time, fill the pool without stopping until
the pool is full.
13. When the pool is full, restart the swimming pool filter system and adjust the total alkalinity to a minimum of 150 ppm. Resume your normal chemical maintenance.
175
Preparing for Major Storms

In some areas, you may have to worry about what to do if a hurricane or typhoon
hits. Here are some simple steps you can take to prepare your pool before the
storm and to clean up afterward (Florida Swimming Pool Association 2006; University of Florida 2005).
Follow common sense when strong thunderstorms or tornadoes are forecast.
Before the storm, you might cover any exposed electrical equipment with waterproof
material, take down umbrellas, remove all loose objects from the pool area, and
move pool chemicals to a place that will be safe and dry. After the storm, test the
water, remove any debris from the pool, and check all electrical equipment.
Do you live in
an area where
hurricanes,
typhoons, or
tropical storms are
common? If so,
have you created a
checklist specific
to your facility
to prepare for
storms and reopen
afterward?
A swimming pool stands alone on the beach after having been separated from the building complex by the effects of a hurricane.
176
Before the Storm

1. Dont empty the pool, even though that might seem like a good precaution. The
problem is that if you empty the pool, the water-saturated ground around the pool
during and after the storm will put a lot of pressure on the pool structure. It might
even pop out of the ground! If the pool is near buildings and youre worried about
flooding from the pool, reduce the water level by no more than a couple of feet
(60 cm). Close the skimmer valve if you do this.
2. Superchlorinate the pool.
3. Turn off all electrical power to the pool area.
4. Protect your recirculation pump. If you can, remove it and store it in a dry place.
If you cant, wrap it in waterproof material and secure it as best you can. Also
cover any other exposed electrical equipment with waterproof material. Make
sure all equipment covers are bolted down.
5. Remove all loose objects from the pool area. Move deck furniture and umbrellas
indoors.
6. Install hurricane shutters on any glass windows or doors.
7. Clean your sump pit and check your sump pump.
8. Move pool chemicals to a place that will be safe and dry. Remember that some
chemicals may ignite or generate fumes when wet.
9. Notify supervisors of how to contact you and the location to which you will evacuate.
After the Storm

1. Again, dont empty the pool. Lower the level somewhat if necessary to allow the
skimmers to work.
2. Test the water for pH and disinfectant levels, as well as mineral levelsheavy rain
may change the mineral balance of your pool water. You may need to breakpoint
chlorinate.
3. Remove all large debris from the pool with a net or rake. Do not use your pool
vacuum at this time, because the amount of debris it picks up is likely to clog
your pump.
4. Check all electrical equipment; then restart it. First, unwrap it and see whether
its dry. If any motors are wet, have a professional check them. Make sure the
power is turned off before you try to reconnect any of the equipment, and check
the wiring for proper connections. Follow the manufacturers instructions for
restarting equipment.
5. Once youve turned the pool system back on, watch it closely to make sure its
functioning properly.
177
Best Practices: Solving Special Maintenance Problems
Problem
Possible causes
To fix the problem
Touch pads are

not registering
on the timing
console.
Corrosion on the
connectors.
Clean the connectors with

CLR or Lime-A-Way, using
pipe cleaners and/or steel
wool. Spray the connections
with silicone or lubricant after
each use or at least monthly
to reduce corrosion.
See previous column.
Starting blocks
wiggle.
The deck anchor

sleeves or
starting block
posts are bent or
worn.
Take care to place the

blocks posts straight into
the deck anchors to avoid
bending.
Insert metal shims.
Racing lane line

float is cracked.
The plastic
has become
brittle from age,
exposure to
weather, or wear
and tear.
Avoid dragging the lines

along the deck or over the
gutter edge when removing
or installing. Use a storage
reel and winder.
To replace a float (Competitor Swim

Products 2006), lay the racing
lane line on the deck. Release the
latch on the take-up spool and
unroll the cable until the spool is
showing. Loosen the set-screw and
remove the cable. (Remember how
the cable is threaded so you can
replace it correctly.) Slide the disks
and donuts off the cable, keeping
them in order, until you reach the
broken float or donut. Remove and
replace it. Reassemble the floats
and donuts on the line, keeping the
same order. Reattach the take-up
spool and tighten the set-screw.
Wind the excess cable around the
spool.
You can use this same procedure
to install a 15-meter marker
(Competitor Swim Products 2006).
Measure 49 feet and 2 inches from
the end of the racing lane line when
it is in the water. Mark the float you
will be replacing with a piece of
tape.
Lane line cable

breaks.
178
Swimmers
hanging on lane
lines.
Tell coaches not to allow

their swimmers to hang on
to the lane lines. The twisted
steel cable probably has
not broken, but has simply
released from the take-up
spool.
Pull the lane line from the water.

Reinstall the cable on the take-up
spool.
Best Practices: Solving Special Maintenance Problems

Problem
Water has
flooded the
pump.
Possible causes
Storm or
hurricane.

Remove and store the pump
before the storm.
(continued)
To fix the problem

Make sure the power is off before
approaching the area.
Use a portable pump to remove the
water; then allow the pump to dry
completely.
Once its dry, turn on the power
and see whether it runs. If the
pump will not run, contact a service
professional.
Pool is filled
with debris.
Storm or
hurricane.
Remove loose items from

around the area before the
storm begins.
Remove the larger pieces first,

taking care to watch for nails, glass,
or sharp edges. Also watch for
wildlife that may be on or under
debris.
Remove the smaller debris with a
net.
When most debris has been
removed, add chlorine to an
estimated breakpoint level.
Water pools on
cover, where it
cannot drain.
Install a small cover pump or

use a mesh cover.
To remove debris, use a pole or

brush. Pump the water off. If a pump
is not available, remove the cover
and let the water and debris fall into
the pool. Do not attempt to walk
on a pool cover filled with water to
clean it.
Deck anchors
for the pool
cover are
difficult to raise.
Debris in anchor
sleeve.
Apply silicone to anchors

during installation and each
time the cover is removed.
Spray anchors with a lubricant and

allow it to sit overnight. You may
need to repeat this procedure or
use a rust removal product in severe
cases.
In some instances, you may need
to use a power tool to remove the
anchor completely and reinstall.
179
Winter cover is
filled with water,
algae, and
debris.
Vacuum and brush until the water

begins to clear; then adjust the
chemical levels.
hether you live in a winter climate or a tropical one, you may have to
take steps to protect your facility from the weather. You might need
to winterize your facility and open it when the weather warms. You should
know how to prepare your facility for storms, whether strong thunderstorms
or more serious events such as hurricanes or typhoons. You may also have
to prepare your facility for competitive swimming events. Follow the guidelines in this chapter to keep your facility well maintained during all of these
events.
Performance Goal
Know what steps to take to prepare your facility for a swim
meet, to winterize and open your outdoor pool annually, and to
protect your pool in the event of a hurricane, typhoon, or other
extreme weather.
Best Practices
When your facility is hosting a swim meet or special event,

find out what equipment is needed and what the sponsoring
organizations requirements are.
Create checklists for winterizing the pool and opening it in

the spring.
If your facility is in an area where hurricanes, typhoons, or
other extreme weather events occur, create a checklist for

preparing the facility to withstand the storm and reopening afterward.
180
12
3
How to Safely
Operate Spa
and Warm
Water Pools
ood things come in small packages, right? Ah, perhaps

not for the pool plant operator. Even though spa pools and
warm water pools are much smaller than a pool designed for
swimming, they present big challenges in water chemistry and
patron safety. This chapter helps you address these challenges.
Topics on deck:
How spa pools are constructed, with a special focus on
the filter and heater
How to keep the hot water in a spa pool in balance and
sanitized
What other types of pools utilize warm water
What you can do to minimize safety hazards, including
accidents, diseases, and health problems
Common best practices for operating spas and warm
water pools
pa pools are popular places to relax and enjoy a water massage. There are
many health benefits of warm water immersion. However, the high water temperature and small amount of water per person in a spa pool can make for pool
plant operator headaches. Balancing the water and keeping it clear and free of
pathogens is a challenge. Even the waters warmth can be dangerous to people
with certain medical conditions or who are taking certain medications.
In this chapter we talk a bit about how spa pools are built and the features of
other warm water pools, then discuss the problems with and solutions for balancing water at high temperatures. We then examine the hazards of spa and warm
water pool use, such as accidents, hyperthermia, and recreational water illnesses,
and finish with some commonsense precautions you can take to reduce the risk
to patrons from those hazards.
Features of Spa Pools

Spa pools come in various shapes and sizes and are either above ground or built
in-ground. Some common terms used for a spa pool include hot tub, portable
spa, whirlpool spa, and hot spa. Jacuzzi is used incorrectly as a generic term for
a spa pool, since that is a registered trade name of a specific manufacturer. Spa
pools usually have a fiberglass, acrylic, or stainless steel shell no deeper than
4 feet (1.2m). The shells of in-ground spas may be made of gunite or concrete,
and they may be tiled. All spas have high-velocity water jets, into which air can
be injected.
Heater
Copper pipe
(min 5 out of heater)
Spa
Air-intake port
Controls
Return line
Jets
Filter
Air blower
Flexible pipe
Skimmer
Air line
12 How to Safely Operate
Spa and Warm Water Pools
Pump
Suction line
Interior of a spa. Note: This figure is a representation of the equipment and location of pool system
components and not an exact replica of size, scale, or design.
182
Two key features of a spa pool are the filter and the heater.
Filter
Spa pools can have a cartridge, DE, or high-rate sand filter. Cartridge and DE
filters are usually better for spas because sand has a tendency to become greasy
from concentrated body oils. You may need to take additional steps when cleaning any spa filter media or use commercially prepared products to degrease and
keep the filter operating well.
A spa pool filter should have a filter area five times larger than that of a regular
pool. The water must flow through the filter at the rate required by pool regulatory
codes for turnover. A turnover of at least every half hour is suggested. Public spa
pools should be filtered around the clock.
What type of
filter does your
spa pool use? Do
you know your
manufacturers
recommendation on
how to degrease
the filter?
Heater
The water in a spa pool should be between 98 and 104 F (37 and 40 C). (Check
what temperatures your local code allows.) For indoor spa pools, the water and
air temperatures should be close. Its best to have a thermostat that automatically
shuts down the heater when the water reaches the desired temperature to keep
the water from becoming too hot. Be sure that the temperature controls cannot be
accessed by the public to prevent anyone from setting the temperature dangerously high.
The size of the heater you need for your spa pool will depend on the surface
losses. To save energy, use an insulating spa cover to hold in the heat when the
spa is not in use.
The warm water in spas makes the calcium in the water precipitate out more
easily than in pools. This means that scaling is likely to occur in the heater unless
youre very careful to keep the water balanced. You may want to use a scale inhibitor to prevent damage to the interior of the heater.
Warm Water Sanitation and Balance
The elevated water temperatures in a spa pool make it more difficult for you to keep
the chemical levels within range. One reason for this is that sanitizing chemicals are
not as effective at higher temperatures. And, because the water is so warm, people
who soak in it perspire more, which promotes the development of chloramines.
Many pool plant operators choose to use bromine rather than chlorine to disinfect
their spas because bromine is more stable than chlorine at higher temperatures
and doesnt give off chloramines.
The number of people who should be allowed in the spa pool at one time is
known as bather load, or sometimes called a soaker load. The bather load for
your spa pool will be determined by your local pool code. Your regulatory agency
may use a formula based on the surface area and volume of water or some other
means. If you allow more people than the recommendation, you will likely have
trouble keeping the water chemistry within operating ranges.
183
Did you know that

5 people in a 500gallon (2,000 L)
spa pool produce
the equivalent
organic load of
2,000 people in
a 200,000-gallon
(757,000 L) pool?
Because of the load on the water from people soaking in the spa pool, and
the high water temperature, youll find that the sanitizer levels and water balance
may change rapidly. For this reason, an automated system that controls chemical
levels is a necessity for public spas and is usually required by spa pool codes in
the United States and abroad.
When trying to balance spa pool water, be aware that the aeration caused by air
jets releases the carbon dioxide in the water into the air. You will need to compensate
for the higher pH caused by this, but you may find that muriatic acid is too strong
for this purpose. Alternatives are sodium bisulfate or carbon dioxide gas.
Replacement of Spa Pool Water
Even with diligent testing and automated control, the organic overload can become
too high in heavily-used public spa pools. The high-velocity water jets, high batherto-water ratio, and high temperature create an ideal environment for the water to
load up quickly with sweat, urine, skin oils, nasal mucus, hair, and other bodily
substances.
The best way to manage this overload is to get rid of it and replace the polluted
water with fresh water. Most spa pool codes specify a water replacement regime
based on adding at least 30 percent to 50 percent new water daily, or based on
adding at least 8 gallons (30 L) per bather. Some codes require that the spa pool
be completely emptied and refilled on a regular basis such as weekly or often
daily. A water replacement regime may also be recommended by the spa pool
manufacturer.
184
Features of Warm Water Pools

The use of warm water is not limited to spa pools. Aquatic facilities may have pools
dedicated to activities that benefit from warm water. Medical facilities often have
pools dedicated for use by patients recovering from illness or injury. These warm
water pools operate the same as any pool, but the warm water requires some
special considerations.
Therapeutic exercise and instruction pools are relatively small and shallow pool
vessels with water that is kept between 86 and 92F (30 and 33C).
Hydrotherapy pools are used specifically for medically prescribed treatment,
rehabilitation, or therapy. These pools are usually larger and deeper than a spa
but much smaller in surface area and volume than a swimming pool. Rehabilitation
equipment such as hand rails or therapy devices are often built in or used inside
the tank. Equipment to assist individuals with entry and exit of the pool, such as lifts
or ramps, are standard features. Code regulations for hydrotherapy pools usually
call for bathers to have direct supervision and may specify a bather-to-supervisor
ratio. The water temperature is adjusted to meet the needs of the medical condition of the patient being treated.
The warmer water in both of these types of pools will cause the sanitizer to work
less effectively, so automation and careful attention to testing and maintaining water
balance is critical. The regulatory requirements for a therapeutic or instructional
pool will usually fall under the general pool operating code, while a hydrotherapy
Best Practices:
Solving Warm Water Sanitation and Balance Problems
Problem
Possible causes
Chloramine
levels are too
high.
Chlorine level is too

low.
Monitor chlorine levels frequently

and adjust as necessary.
Heavy bather load on

the spa.
Ask patrons to take a soap shower

before entering the spa.
To fix the problem

Use bromine rather than
chlorine as a sanitizer.
Limit the number of people who

can use the spa at one time.
Adjust the water balance.
Scaling is
causing a
problem.
Imbalanced water at
high temperature.
Monitor water balance.
Bacterial
growth is too
high.
Insufficient sanitizer
levels.
Monitor sanitizer levels frequently.
Adjust as necessary.
Clean cartridge filters regularly.
Drain and refill.
The water is
foaming.
High organic load.
Replace water on a regular

schedule.
Drain and refill.
If the problem persists try

adding new water daily.
Water turbulence from

air jets reacting with
cleansers or other
chemicals.
Filters are not clean.
Clean the spa with a high pH

degreaser before refilling.
185
pool will have separate code of practice guidelines. Some hydrotherapy pools are
small enough to be drained and sanitized after each patient, and these pools do
not fall under the same regulatory requirements.
Safety
Spas and warm water pools present many hazards for users, including accidents,
diseases, and health problems as a result of the interaction of patrons physical
conditions with the heat from the water. Lets look at some of these hazards and
how you can minimize them.
Accidents
Accidents that may occur in and around the spa pool include entrapment on the
spa drain, falls (often due to slippery conditions), electrocution, and drowning.
Check daily that spa drain covers are intact and securely
fastened.
Entrapment As we discussed in
chapter 9, pool drains have great suction force and can entrap someones
hair or a body part, causing injury or
drowning. The suction can also cause
internal organs (such as the colon) to
be pulled out of the body if a body orifice is entrapped over the drain or inlet.
The same problem can occur with spa
drains. See chapter 9 for guidelines on
drain placement and drain covers. Be
sure to check spa drain covers daily.
Make sure they are intact and securely
fastened. You also need to have an
emergency switch near the spa that
allows anyone to turn off the spa circulation system immediately in case of
entrapment.
Falls Watch your step! The water in and around the spa makes surfaces slippery.
To help prevent falls, you should have a slip-resistant surface on the coping around
the spa pool, the stairs into the spa pool, and the bottom of the spa pool. Check it
often to make sure the slip-resistant surface has no tears and is not peeling. You
also should provide a slip-resistant handrail and have a contrasting color on the
stairs to make them easier to see. Posted warnings should prohibit use of the spa
pool when intoxicated.
Electrocution Just as is true around swimming pools, appliances and spa pools
do not mix. Keep appliances well away from the spa, and make sure that outlets
in nearby areas have ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs). (See chapter 9 for
more on electrical hazards.)
186
Drowning Entrapment is not the only thing that can lead to drowning. Curious
young children can easily fall into uncovered spa pools. To prevent this, you need
to have a child-resistant spa cover that can be secured or fencing that is at least
4 feet (1.2 m) high. The fencing should have no handholds or footholds on the
outside and should have a self-closing, self-latching gate.
For more
on barriers
around
aquatic
facilities,
see page 136.
Hot and Warm Water Health Risks

All patrons who use the spa or hydrotherapy pool may be in danger of developing hyperthermia if they stay in the spa too long. In addition, skin and respiratory
illnesses and other recreational water illnesses can be contracted from spa and
warm water pool use if the water is not properly maintained.
Hyperthermia, Heat Exhaustion, and Heat Stroke Staying in a spa pool for more
than 10 minutes at a time can raise a patrons body temperature to a point at which
it affects metabolism and the central nervous system. The person may develop heat
exhaustion. If heat exhaustion is not treated quickly, it can progress to heat stroke,
a much more serious condition that can be life threatening. Call your emergency
response system if you observe someone with symptoms of heat-related illness:
Heat exhaustion
Fatigue
Heatstroke
Dizziness
Disoriented or unconscious
Headache
Rapid pulse and breathing
Rapid breathing
Heavy sweating
Pale skin
Flushed skin
High body temperature
Extreme thirst
Muscle cramping
Nausea
Rapid, weak pulse
Most pool regulatory agencies require that facilities post warning signs about
the dangers of using a spa pool, with specific signs targeting pregnant women
and people with medical conditions such as high blood pressure.
Risks of Infection Spa pools can contain any of the pathogens that cause recreational water illnesses, but two diseases in particular that can be spread by the
hot water in a spa are Pontiac fever (Legionella pneumophila) and hot tub folliculitis
(Pseudomonas aeruginosa).
Pontiac fever, which causes flulike symptoms, is transmitted by the vapors rising
from the hot water in the spa. A stronger strain causes a more serious illness,
Legionnaires disease. Hot tub folliculitis can occur when the water jets in spas
force bacteria into skin pores that are opened because of the warmth of the water.
When the spa user gets out of the spa pool, the skin cools and the pores close with
the bacteria inside. This can cause a painful, bumpy rash. These bacteria can also
cause more serious infections, such as urinary tract infections and pneumonia.
187
To prevent such illnesses from affecting patrons, drain and refill the spa at least
weekly. Keep your disinfectant levels at 3.0 to 5.0 ppm (3.0 to 5.0 mg/L) all the
time; keep filters clean according to the manufacturers recommendation; regularly
disinfect the area around the spa pool; and make sure patrons shower with soap
before entering the spa pool.
Physical Conditions
A long list of physical conditions can be made worse by exposure to a spa pool:
Respiratory problems
Asthma
High or low blood pressure
Heart disease
Diabetes
Emotional disorders
Epilepsy or seizure disorders
Multiple sclerosis
Thermal nerve deficiency or lost sensation (inability to feel heat)
The use of a hydrotherapy pool should be by doctor approval and advice, as there
are other medical conditions that are unsuited to hydrotherapy pools.
Most pool regulatory agencies require that facilities post warning signs about
the dangers of using a spa pool, with specific signs targeting these patrons:
Women who are pregnant should not enter the spa because an elevated
body temperature may harm the fetus.
Children under five should not be allowed in the spa. They are unable to
completely regulate their body temperatures, and long immersion in water
at spa temperatures may cause brain damage.
People who have recently suffered an injury accompanied by swelling, or
who have body infections or open sores, should not enter the spa because
immersion in the water may worsen the swelling or the infection.
Are there warning signs

posted near your spa pool?
Do you notice anything
that should be added or
changed on these signs?
188
Finally, patrons who are going to use the spa pool should
not have taken any of the following drugs:
Alcohol
Vasoconstrictors or vasodilators
Diuretics
Stimulants or tranquilizers
Hypnotics
Anticoagulants
Antihistamines
Precautions
Now that you know the hazards of using a spa pool, lets turn to the
most common best practices for operating one. Remember that you
must follow and enforce your local code, which may be different from
what we list here. Rules specific to spa pool use must include the specific
wording identified in your health code and be posted near the spa pool.
Time limit. If you want to make sure that patrons follow a specific
time limit on spa pool use, place a timer on the spa jets that is
about 10 feet (3 m) away from the spa. The jets will shut off after
that time period, and users will need to get out of the spa to turn
them back on again. This will ensure that users get out of the spa
and cool down for at least a brief period of time.
Emergency switch. Make sure that an emergency switch is
mounted close to the spa pool in case circulation needs to be
turned off immediately. Post near the spa the location of the nearest telephone and instructions on how to get emergency help so
patrons know what to do in case of an emergency.
Warning signs. Post No diving or jumping signs in several places around the spa pool,
both on the walls and on the deck. Have depth markings in or right next to the spa.
Good ventilation near the spa pool will help to reduce patrons exposure to
chloramines. This also will reduce the effects of heat and humidity on equipment
and appliances near the spa. Monitor the temperature of the spa water before you
first open and hourly thereafter.
Perform breakpoint chlorination only when combined-chlorine levels indicate that
it is needed. Depending on the size of your spa pool and the bather load, it may be
more effective to drain, refill, and then chemically treat the water than to try to manage
breakpoint chlorination. Be sure to close the spa pool and do not allow patrons to
use it until the chlorine is back to operating levels.
When possible, its best to have the spa pool located where it is clearly visible
to others. A video camera can also be mounted at the spa location so authorized
personnel can monitor the area. In the absence of supervision, install a nonverbal
alarm system for summoning help. Post clear instructions on how to use the alert
mechanism.
189
Best Practices: Solving Spa Safety Problems

Problem
Possible causes
People are
entering the
spa who should
not, for health
reasons.
Patrons are not aware of

restrictions on spa use.
Spa users are

contracting hot
tub folliculitis or
other hot-waterrelated illnesses.
Disinfectant levels are too

low.
Prominently post your rules for spa use near the spa.
Patrons are aware of

restrictions on spa use,
but choose to ignore them.
Keep disinfectant levels at 3.0 to 5.0 ppm (mg/L) all the time.
Drain the spa at least weekly and, if it is heavily used, even
daily.
Ask patrons to take a soap shower before entering the spa.
eople think of spa pools as places for a relaxing getaway. But, in fact,
spa pools can be challenging to maintain. Follow the best practices in
this chapter to keep your spa pools operating in pristine condition.
Performance Goal
Keep your spa pool water clean and balanced to safeguard the
health of patrons and to prevent damage to spa equipment. Take
steps to reduce the risks of spa hazards, and warn patrons
about spa use.
Best Practices
Keep a close watch on water balance and disinfection levels,

and adjust as necessary.
Check daily to see that spa pool drain covers are intact and
securely fastened.
Keep appliances well away from the spa pool, and make
sure that outlets in nearby areas have GFCIs.
Cover the spa pool with a child-resistant cover when it is

not in use, or have a fence at least 4 feet (1.2 m) high around

the spa.
Post warnings and rules for spa pool use.
190
appendix
Resource List for
Information, Guidelines,
Standards, and Regulations
T
he list of resources in this appendix is not

exhaustive, but it contains information relevant to pool operators in various parts of the
world. The list does not include information
solely related to engineering, design, or construction of new pools or pool equipment.
Web addresses for the resources were correct at the date of publication, but changes
in circumstances after that time may affect
the accuracy of the references to information
sources. Human Kinetics takes no responsibility for the information provided by third parties.
You must make your own decisions about the
accuracy and reliability of information found
on external Internet sites.
American Public Health Association

www.apha.org
Association of Pool and Spa Professionals

www.theapsp.org
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

www.cdc.gov/healthyswimming
Chlorine Institute
www.chlorineinstitute.org
Euro Spa Pool News

www.eurospapoolnews.com
Institute for Sport, Parks and Leisure (ISPAL)

www.ispal.org.uk
National Sanitation Foundation International

www.nsf.org
National Swimming Pool Foundation

www.nspf.org
Professional Associations,
Trade Organizations,
and Industry Resources
This section contains Web addresses to
national and international organizations that
can provide you with more information about
pool plant operations and help you become
involved in the pool operating profession and
pool industry.
Pool and Hot Tub Council of Canada

www.poolcouncil.ca
Professional Pool Operators of America

www.ppoa.org
Swimming Pool and Spa Association of New

South Wales
www.spasa.org.au
Swimming Pool and Spa Association of

Queensland (SPASA)
www.spasa.com.au
Swimming Pool and Spa Association of South

Australia
(E-mail) spassa@neonet.com.au
191
APPENDIX
Swimming Pool and Spa Association of Western

Australia
www.spasawa.com.au
Swimming Pool and Spa Association of Victoria

www.spasavic.com.au
United States Consumer Product Safety

Commission
www.cpsc.org
United States Swimming Facilities Development

Department
www.usaswimming.org
World Health Organization

www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/bathing
United Kingdom
Pool Plant Operator Certificate
Institute of Sport and Recreation Management
(ISRM)
www.isrm.co.uk
Australia
Certificate III in Swimming Pool and Spa Water
Maintenance
National Swimming Pool Institute Australia
www.NSPI.com.au
Pool Plant Operator Certificate

State Training Services
www.statetrainingservices.com.au
World Waterpark Association

www.waterparks.org
Guidelines
Organizations
Offering Pool Plant
Operator Certification
United States
AquaTech I and AquaTech II
Starfish Aquatics Institute
www.starfishaquatics.org
www.AquaticEducationCenter.com
Aquatic Facility Operator (AFO)

National Recreation and Park Association
www.nrpa.org
Certified Pool Operator (CPO)

National Swimming Pool Foundation
(Certified Pool Operator)
www.nspf.org
Practical Pool Management Plus (PPM+)

Aquatic Safety Research Group
www.aquaticsafetygroup.com
YMCA Professional Operator On Location

(P.O.O.L.)
YMCA of the USA
www.ymca.net
Canada
Academy of Spa and Pool Education, Certification
and Training (ASPECT)
www.poolcouncil.ca/education-key.php
Alberta Association of Recreation Facility

Personnel (ARFP)
www.aarfp.com
192
Guidelines do not hold the force of law, and

compliance is voluntary. However, following
guidance or public service information produced by reliable sources can help you meet
regulatory standards or provide direction when
regulations are not present.
United States
California Conference of Directors of
Environmental Health. Recreational Water Parks
Guidelines.
www.ccdeh.com/commttee/community_EH/
guidelines/Water_Park_Guide.pdf
Chlorine Institute. Chlorine Safety at

Nonresidential Swimming Pools.
www.chlorineinstitute.org
Connecticut Department of Health Services.

Sanitation Guidelines, Inspections of Swimming
Pools.
www.dph.state.ct.us/phc/docs/14_Swimming_
Pools.doc
Cowlitz County Health Department. Guidance

Document for Pool Operators: Development of a
Pool Operations Manual.
www.co.cowlitz.wa.us/health/
environmentalhealth/living_environment/
recwatersafety.htm
Great Lakes-Upper Mississippi River Board

of State Sanitary Engineers. Recommended
Standards for Swimming Pool Design and
Operation.
www.hes.org/HES/ten.html
www.idph.state.il.us/envhealth/pdf/course.pdf
Iowa Department of Public Health. Public

Swimming Pool Safety Guidelines.
www.idph.state.ia.us/eh/common/pdf/board_of_
health_assistance/poolsprogram.pdf
Maine Department of Human Services.

Guidelines for Public Spas and Hot Tubs.
www.maine.gov/dep/blwq/beaches/qaswim.pdf
Minnesota Department of Health. Information

Relative to the Construction and Operation of
Public Use Whirlpools, Spas, and Hot Tubs.
www.health.state.mn.us/divs/eh/pools/
spapoolinfo.html
Missouri Department of Health E 12.01. A Guide

for Swimming Pool and Spa Water Chemistry.
www.dhss.mo.gov/RecreationalWater/
PoolSpaChem.pdf
National Fire Protection Association National

Electrical Code. Article 680: Swimming Pools,
Fountains, and Similar Installations.
www.bookmarki.com/2002_National_Electrical_
Code_Softcover_p/0877654603.htm
Nebraska State Health Department. Swimming

Pool Operators Manual.
www.hhs.state.ne.us/puh/enh/San/Swimming/
Swimming-Pool-Operators-Manual.pdf
Oklahoma State Department Engineering Bulletin

No. 0536. Design Standards and Operational
Criteria for Public Bathing Place.
www.health.state.ok.us/program/cpd/315.pdf
Pennsylvania Department of Health. Maintenance

and Operation of a Public Bathing Place.
www.dsf.health.state.pa.us/health/cwp/view.
asp?a=180&q=232368&PM=1
Texas Department of State Health Services.

Public Swimming Pools and Spa Program.
www.dshs.state.tx.us/poolspa/default.shtm
United States Consumer Product Safety

Commission. Guidelines for Entrapment Hazards:
Making Pools and Spas Safer.
www.cpsc.gov/cpscpub/pubs/363.pdf
World Health Organization. 2006 Guidelines for

Safe Recreational Water Environments. Volume 2:
Swimming Pools and Similar Environments.
www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/bathing/
srwe1/en/
APPENDIX
Illinois Department of Public Health. Swimming

Pool Operator Certification Course Manual.
World Waterpark Association. Considerations for

Operating Safely.
www.waterparks.org/publications.asp
Canada
Alberta Association of Recreation Facility
Personnel. Pool Standards, 2006 for the
Swimming Pool, Wading Pool and Water Spray
Park Regulation
www.health.gov.ab.ca/about/PoolStandards06.
pdf
United Kingdom
Health and Safety Commission and Sport
England. HSG 179: Managing Health and Safety
in Swimming Pools.
www.hse.gov.uk
Australia
NSW Health. Guide for Demonstrating Efficacy of
Pool and Pool Sanitisers.
www.health.nsw.gov.au
NSW Health. Precautions for Topping Up

Swimming Pools and Spas.
NSW Health. Protocol for Minimising the Risk of

Cryptosporidium in Public Swimming Pools and
Spas.
NSW Health. Public Swimming Pool and Spa Pool

Guidelines June 1996.
Queensland Government. Code of Practice for

the Control of Cryptosporidium and Giardia
in Swimming Pools, Leisure Pools, Spas and
Hydrotherapy Pools.
www.health.qld.gov.au/phs/Documents/
cdu/24690.pdf (See appendix 14.)
Queensland Government. Queensland Health

Swimming and Spa Pool Water Quality and
Operational Guidelines.
www.health.qld.gov.au/phs/Documents/
cdu/24690.pdf
Territory Health Services. Water Quality and

Hygiene Standard for Spa and Hydrotherapy
Pools.
www.nt.gov.au/health/healthdev/environ_health/
environmental/legislation/poolspaah.html
Victoria Department of Human Services. Pool

Operators Handbook.
www.health.vic.gov.au/environment/downloads/
pool_handbook1.pdf
193
APPENDIX
Standards
Official standards are developed through
a specific process involving outside review
and verification. Official standards are often
adopted or used as the basis for government
regulations, statutes, and codes.
United States
www.theapsp.org
American National Standards Institute. ANSI/IAF9 2005 Standard for Aquatic Recreation Facilities.
American National Standards Institute. ANSI/
NSPI-1 2003 Standard for Public Swimming
Pools.
American National Standards Institute. ANSI/
NSPI-2 1999 Standard for Public Spas.
National Sanitation Foundation. NSF/ANSI
Standard 50: Recreational Water Product
Certification.
Australia
www.Standards.org.au
www.Saiglobal.com/Shop
Standards Australia. HB 241-2002. Water
Management for Public Swimming Pools and
Spas, 2nd Edition.
the location and the specific law. This listing

includes national, provincial, and state regulations. Check with your local enforcing agency to
find out if additional regulations at a more local
level, such as county or city, apply to you.
United States
Following are national regulations that may
apply to your pool worksite:
Fire Code, Article 80: Hazardous
Materials
OSHA CFR 1910.146: Confined Spaces
Regulation
OSHA 29 CFR 1910.1030:
Occupational Exposure to Bloodborne
Pathogens
OSHA 29 CFR 1910.1200: Hazard
Communication Standard
PL 101-336: Americans with
Disabilities Act
US EPA: Clean Water Act
US EPA: Pesticide Worker Safety
Regulations
US EPA: SARA Title III: The Emergency
Planning and Community Right to Know
Act of 1986
Standards Australia. AS2610.2-2007. Spa PoolsPublic Spas.
State Codes
Standards Australia. AS3979-2006. Hydrotherapy

Pools.
Alabama
Jefferson County Board of Health Swimming Pool
Regulations
Standards Australia. AS1926.3-2003. Swimming

Pool Safety: Water Recirculation and Filtration
Systems.
Standards Australia. AS2828-1993. Guide to
Swimming Pool Safety.
Standards Australia. AS2416-2002. Design and
Application of Water Safety Signs.
Standards Australia. AS3533.2-1997 AMDT12001. Amusement Rides and Devices: Operation
and Maintenance.
Regulations,
Statutes, and Codes
Government-issued regulations, statues, and
codes have the force of law, and following them
is mandatory. Failure to comply can result in
fines, closure, or prosecution, depending on
www.jcdh.org
Alaska
State of Alaska Dept. of Environmental
Conservation, Division of Environmental Health
18 AAC 30.500: Public Swimming Pools and Spas
Regulations
www.dec.state.ak.us
Arizona
State of Arizona Environmental Sanitation, Health
Services
Title 9, Article 8: Public and Semipublic Bathing
Places
www.azsos.gov
Arkansas
Arkansas Department of Health
Rules and Regulations Pertaining to Swimming
Pools and Other Related Facilities
Rules and Regulations Pertaining to Outdoor
Bathing Places
www.healthyarkansas.com
194
www.dhs.ca.gov
Colorado
Colorado Department of Public Health and
Environment, Water Quality Control Division
5 CCR 1003-5: Swimming Pool and Mineral Bath
Regulations
www.cdphe.state.co.us
Connecticut
Connecticut Public Health Code, Department of
Health Services
19-13-b 33b: Public Pools
www.dph.state.ct.us
Delaware
State of Delaware Health and Social Services,
Division of Public Health
Regulations Governing Swimming Pools
www.dhss.delaware.gov
District of Columbia
DCMR Title 22, Section 111: Swimming Pools and
Bathing Places
www.os.dc.gov
Florida
Florida Administrative Code, Department of
Health, Division of Environmental Health
Chapter 10D-5: Swimming Pools
www.doh.state.fl.us
Georgia
Georgia Department of Human Resources, Public
Health Regulations
Chapter 290-5-57: Swimming Pools, Spas and
Recreational Water Parks
www.health.state.ga.us
Hawaii
State of Hawaii Administrative Rules, Department
of Health
Chapter 10-13A: Public Swimming Pools
www.state.hi.us/doh
Idaho
Idaho Department of Administration
DAPA, Title 1, Chapter 7: Public Swimming Pools
in Idaho
www.adm.idaho.gov
APPENDIX
California
California Code of Regulations Title 22:20: Public
Swimming Pools
California Health & Safety Code Division 20:1:3
Swimming Pool Sanitation
Illinois
Illinois Administrative Code, Department of Public
Health
Title 77: Public Health Chapter 1n, Recreational
Facilities. Part 820: Minimum Sanitary
Requirements for the Design and Operation of
Swimming Pools and Bathing Beaches
www.ilga.gov
Indiana
Indiana State Board of Health
Rule 410 IAC, 6-2: Swimming and Wading Pool
Operation
Regulation HSE 16-R: Indiana Swimming and
Wading Pools
www.in.gov
Iowa
Iowa Administrative Code, Department of Public
Health
Chapter 15: Swimming Pools
www.idph.state.ia.us
Kentucky
Kentucky Cabinet for Health and Family Services
902 KAR 10:120: Public Swimming and Bathing
Facilities Regulation
www.chfs.ky.gov
Louisiana
State of Louisiana Sanitary Code
Chapter XXIV: Artificial Swimming Pools and
Natural or Semi-Artificial Swimming or Bathing
Places
www.doa.louisiana.gov
Maine
Maine Department of Human Services, Bureau of
Health
10-144 Chapter 202: Rules Relating to Swimming
Pools
www.state.me.us
Maryland
Code of Maryland Regulations, Department of
Health and Mental Hygiene
10.17.01: Public Swimming Pools
www.dsd.state.md.us
Massachusetts
Department of Public Health State Sanitation
Code
Chapter V, 105CMR Section 435:0 Minimum
Standards for Swimming Pools
www.mass.gov
Michigan
Michigan Department of Public Health,
Department of Environmental Quality
Public Health Act 368: Public Swimming Pools
www.michigan.gov
195
APPENDIX
Minnesota
Minnesota Department of Health, Miscellaneous
Environmental Health Rules
Chapter 4717: Swimming Pools
www.health.state.mn.us
Missouri
Missouri Department of Health and Senior
Services
Division of Environmental Health General
Sanitation Code
Title 19 CSR 20-3.020: Sanitation of Public
Bathing Places
www.sos.mo.gov
Montana
Administrative Rules of Montana, Department of
Public Health and Human Services
37.111.1002 Chapter 10: Public Accommodations
37.111.1002 Chapter 11: Swimming Pools and
Spas
www.dphhs.mt.gov
Nebraska
Nebraska Administrative Code, Health and
Human Services
178 NAC 2: Operation and Management of Public
Swimming Pools
www.sos.state.ne.us
Nevada
Nevada Administrative Code
Chapter 444: Public Bathing Places and Public
Spas
www.nveha.org
New Hampshire
State of New Hampshire Department of
Environmental Services
DES 1100: Public Bathing Places
www.des.state.nh.us
New Jersey
New Jersey State Sanitary Code, Department of
Health
Swimming Pool Code of New Jersey
Chapter IX, Public Recreational Bathing, NJAC
8:26-1
www.state.nj.us/health
New Mexico
New Mexico Administrative Code, Health and
Environmental Department
Title 7 Chapter 18 Part 3: Regulations Governing
Public Swimming Pools and Public Bathing Baths
www.nmenv.state.nm.us/Common/regs_idx.html
New York
New York State Department of Health Sanitary
Code
Chapter 1, Part 6-1: Swimming Pools
www.health.state.ny.us
North Carolina
Department of Environment, Health and Natural
Resources
15A NCAC 18A.2500: Rules Governing Public
Swimming Pools
www.deh.enr.state.nc.us
Ohio
Ohio Administrative Code, Department of Health,
Bureau of Environmental Health
Chapter 3701-31: Public Swimming Pool, Spa and
Special Use Pool Rules.
www.odh.state.oh.us
Oregon
Office of Environmental Public Health, Oregon
Administrative Rules
333:060: Public Swimming Pools
333:062: Spa Pool Rules
www.oregon.gov
Pennsylvania
Commonwealth of Pennsylvania Code, Public
Bathing Law, Department of Health
28 Pa. code Ch. 18: Public Swimming and Bathing
Places
28 Pa. code Ch. 17: Public Bathing Place
Sanitation and Safety
www.pacode.com/secure/data/028/chapter18/
chap18toc.html
Rhode Island
State of Rhode Island and Providence
Plantations, Department of Health
R23-22-SWI/H&S Regulations for Swimming and
Wading Pools, Hot Tubs and Spas
www.rules.state.ri.us
South Carolina
South Carolina Department of Health and
Environmental Control
Regulation 61-51: Public Swimming Pools
www.scdhec.com
South Dakota
State of South Dakota Administrative Rules
74:04:08: Public Beach and Municipal Swimming
Pool Standards
http://legis.state.sd.us
Tennessee
Tennessee Department of Health Rules, Division
of General Environmental Health
Chapter 1200-23-5 Public Swimming Pools
www.state.tn.us
196
http://info.sos.state.tx.us/pls/pub/
Utah
Utah Department of Public Health
R 392-302: Regulations for the Design,
Construction and Operation of Public Swimming
Pools
www.rules.utah.gov
Vermont
Vermont Health Regulations
Chapter 5-1570: Public Spas and Hot Tubs
www.healthvermont.gov
Virginia
Commonwealth of Virginia, Board of Health
Regulations Governing Tourist Establishment
Swimming Pools and Other Public Pools
www.vdh.state.va.us
Washington
Washington State Board of Health Water
Recreation Facilities Regulations
www.doh.wa.gov
West Virginia
West Virginia Bureau for Public Health
Title CSR 64-16-1 Recreational Water Facilities
www.wvsos.com
Wisconsin
Wisconsin Administrative Code, Department of
Health and Family Services
Chapter HFS 172: Safety, Maintenance and
Operation of Public Swimming Pools Chapter HFS
171: Public Swimming Places
www.legis.state.wi.us
Wyoming
Wyoming Department of Agriculture, Consumer
Health Services
2003 Public Pool Health and Safety Act
http://wyagric.state.wy.us
Government of Manitoba Regulation

132/97: Swimming Pools and Other Water
Recreational Facilities Regulation
www.canlii.org
Government of Ontario Health Protection and

Prevention Act
179/02: Public Pools Regulation
www.canlii.org
Government of Prince Edward Island Regulation

EC93/01: Swimming Pool and Waterslide
Regulations
www.canlii.org
Government of Quebec Regulation

R.Q.c.Q-2, r.17: Public Wading and Swimming
Pools Regulation
www.canlii.org

R.Q. c.Q-2, r.18.1.02: Water Quality in Swimming
Pools and Other Artificial Pools
www.canlii.org

R.Q. c. S-3, r.3: Safety in Public Baths
www.canlii.org
Government of Saskatchewan
83/2006, P-37.1.7: The Swimming Pool
Regulations
www.canlii.org
Newfoundland and Labrador Regulations

1023/96: Public Pool Regulations
www.canlii.org
Yukon Territory Consolidated Regulations

1989/130: Public Pool Regulations
www.canlii.org
United Kingdom
Confined Spaces Regulations 1997
www.hse.gov.uk
Control of Substances Hazardous to Health

Regulations 2002
Canada
Diving at Work Regulations 1997
Government of Alberta Public Health Act

293/06: Swimming Pool, Wading Pool and Water
Spray Park Regulation.
Electricity at Work Regulations 1989
www.canlii.org
Government of British Columbia Regulation

289/72: Swimming Pool, Spray Pool and Wading
Pool Regulations
www.qp.gov.bc.ca/statreg/reg/h/health/
health289_72/289_72.htm
APPENDIX
Texas
Texas Admin Code, Health Services
Title 25, Part 1, Chapter 265, Subchapter L:
Standards for Public Pools and Spas
Fire Precautions (Workplace) Regulations 1997

Health and Safety at Work Act 1974
Health and Safety (Enforcing Authority)
Regulations 1998
Health and Safety (Safety Signs and Signals)
Regulations 1996
197
APPENDIX
London Borough of Hillingdon

Special Treatments Code of Practice 4: Spa Pools
www.hillingdon.gov.uk
Management of Health and Safety at Work

Regulations 1999
Manual Handling Operations Regulations 1992
Provision and Use of Work Equipment
Regulations 1998
Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous
Occurrences Regulations 1995
Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare)
Regulations 1992
Australia
Australian Capital Territory, Department of
Education and Training
HPC200508 Code of Practice Act-Health:
Hydrotherapy Pools-Community Use
www.det.act.gov.au/policies/pdf/2005community.
pdf
198
Australian Government. Australian Pesticides

and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA).
Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals Code
Regulations, Statutory Rules 247 Regarding
Registration of Pool Sanitizer Chemicals.
www.apvma.gov.au
Government of South Australia. Department of

Human Services, Environmental Health Branch.
Public Health Act 47(2)(j) Regulations 1991(10)
Standard for the Inspection and Maintenance
of Swimming Pools and Spa Pools in South
Australia.
www.dh.sa.gov.au
New South Wales Public Health, Public Health Act

Section 82(2)
Public Health (Swimming Pool and Spa Pool)
Regulation 2000
Glossary
acidA water-based chemical compound that releases

hydrogen ions in water, having a pH below 7.0.
biofilmA complex of microorganisms held in a slime

layer often covering the inner surface of pipes.
adjustable-depth poolA pool vessel fitted with a

moveable floor and semisubmerged bulkhead to
provide the option of variable depth.
bleachSodium hypochlorite, usually 12 percent

strength; known as liquid chlorine for swimming pool
use.
algaeSimple nuisance plant life that colonize in water

under favorable growth conditions such as high pH,
high temperature, low chlorine, and sunlight.
body coatDiatomaceous earth (DE) continuously

added to filter elements during the course of a filter
run to help maintain filter efficacy.
alkalinityThe amount of bicarbonate, carbonate, and

possibly cyanuric ions present in water; a measure of
the pH-buffering capacity of water.
body feedSee body coat.
aluminum sulfateAlum; used to flocculate suspended

particles into filterable masses.
ammoniaA chemical compound of hydrogen and
nitrogen that can combine with free chlorine in pools
to form chloramines, or combined chlorine.
breakpoint chlorinationThe point in a rising chlorine

residual at which the concentration of available chlorine becomes great enough to oxidize completely all
organic matter and ammonia compounds in a pool.
Chlorine added thereafter will be in the uncombined,
or free, state.
ANSIAmerican National Standards Institute.
broadcastA method of applying chemicals into the

water by spreading them evenly over the surface.
aquatic facilityA man-made body of water and the

surrounding concourse used for sport, recreation, or
educational water activities; also known as aquatic
center.
bromineA heavy, reddish brown liquid in the same

chemical family as chlorine gas. It is sometimes
used as a bactericide in spa pools, usually in a solidcompound or salt form.
aquatic facility concourseThe part of a building that

is directly adjacent to a pool located in an aquatic
facility; also known as pool hall.
bromine itchA condition that can occur after immersion in water containing bromine that causes itchy
skin in people with a sensitivity to bromine and its
by-products.
automationElectric equipment that senses water

variables, primarily chlorine and pH, and controls feed
systems to maintain target levels and values.
backwashThe process of cleaning a swimming pool
filter by reversing the flow of water through the sand
or the elements.
balanceIn pools, refers to a condition of the water
neither scaling nor being aggressive or corrosive,
with little potential to cause damage to equipment
or surfaces.
balance tankA tank that holds water displaced by
swimmers used to maintain a constant pool water level
and ensure a water supply to the pumps. Located on
the return side of the pump, below deck level, between
the pool and the rest of the circulation system.
basicOpposite of acidic; in water, a pH condition
above 7 on the pH scale.
bather loadThe number of persons in the pool at any
given time.
calcificationFormation of calcium carbonate on walls

of pools or pipes, or in a filter or heater, due to precipitation of calcium carbonate.
calcium hardnessThe measure of calcium salts in
a dissolved state in the pool. Low calcium hardness
will erode pool surfaces and promote corrosion of
metal components. High calcium hardness will inhibit
corrosion.
calcium hypochloriteCompound of chlorine and
calcium in white granular or tablet form used as a
bactericide in pools.
calcium saturation indexA numerical calculation
developed by Dr. Langelier that indicates whether
water will scale or leach and be aggressive; used to
predict damage to pool surfaces and equipment.
calibrationAdjusting the readout values on an automated controller to match values obtained from a
manual test kit, comparator, or photometer.
199
GLOSSARY
carbon dioxideCommon gas found in air and exhaled

in human breath. Used in some systems to lower
pH.
D4 (leisure rivers), D5 (vortex pools), D6 (sand-bottom

pools), D7 (interactive play attractions), D8 (amusement park attractions), D9 (natural bodies of water).
catch poolA pool vessel designed for the safe completion of descent from a water slide or flume.
class E poolsIntended for physical therapy using

water above 86 F (30 C).
caustic sodaSodium hydroxide. A common watertreatment chemical used in pools to raise pH.
class F poolsIntended for wading.
change roomThe place where patrons change into

swimming attire. Also known as locker room.
coagulationThe neutralization of the charges of

suspended colloidal matter resulting in clumping;
sometimes also considered flocculation.
channelizationThe undesirable process whereby filter

sand is permeated by tubes or channels of calcified
or oily material, allowing water to pass freely.
coliformsBacteria that originate from the gut of warmblooded animals and are used as indicators of fecal
contamination.
chemical feederA device or pump for automatic addition of chemicals to swimming pool water.
collectorSee lateral.
childrens poolA small and shallow pool vessel

designed specifically for use by children under direct
adult supervision.
combined chlorineChlorine that is combined with

another substance, usually ammonia, to produce
chloramines. It is much less effective than free
chlorine.
chloramineCompounds formed when chlorine combines with ammonia from urine and perspiration.
Causes eye and skin irritation as well as unpleasant
odors.
commercial poolUsually used to describe any nondomestic (nonresidential) pool.
chlorinationThe act of adding chlorine or an active

chlorine compound.
competition poolA pool designed for competitive

short-course swimming events (25 yards or 25 meters)
or long-course events (50 meters).
chlorinatorA chemical feeder for automatic addition

of chlorine to pool water.
chlorineA chemical element in the halide family, used
for disinfection in swimming pools. A heavy, green,
highly poisonous gas compressed into liquid form
and stored in heavy steel tanks.
chlorine demandAmount of chlorine necessary to
oxidize all organic matter present in pool water at any
given moment or over time.
chlorine gasElemental gas chlorine delivered using
a compressed gas tank and regulator for use in pool
water as a sanitizer and oxidizer.
chlorine residualAmount of available chlorine remaining in pool water after the chlorine demand has been
satisfied.
circulationA term representing the flow of water
through a hydraulic system.
clarityThe degree of transparency of pool water.
classes of poolsA system used in ANSI standards to
identify the intended use and features of various pool
types so that appropriate standards can be developed
for that class.
class A poolsIntended for accredited competitive
aquatic events and may also be used for recreation.
class B poolsIntended for public recreational use.
class C poolsIntended for multidwelling and lodgings, such as hotels and motels, apartments, condominiums, and property owner associations.
class D poolsIntended for free-form aquatic play and
recreation, divided into subcategories of D1 (wave
action pools), D2 (activity pools), D3 (catch pools),
200
comparatorA water testing device with a printed color

value scale on the device or separate color wheels.
cryptosporidiumAn intestinal parasite that can cause

severe diarrhea and vomiting when ingested and is
a serious health threat to people with compromised
immune systems. Also known as crypto.
CSISee calcium saturation index.
cyanuric acidAlso known as stabilizer or conditioner.
Slows the destruction of chlorine in pool water caused
by sunlight; reduces oxygen reduction potential
(ORP).
dechlorinationThe process of removing chlorine from
the water by neutralizing it with sodium thiosulfate.
deckThe flooring surfaces and area surrounding the
pool vessel.
dehumidifierA device that removes humidity from
indoor air.
deozinationThe stage immediately after ozination
when all traces of ozone are removed from the treated
water before being released into the pool.
diaphragm pumpChemical feeder of the positivedisplacement type using a flexible membrane to move
liquid through the pump head.
diatomaceous earthWhite powder composed of
fossilized skeletons of prehistoric, one-celled organisms (diatoms) used as a filter medium for swimming
pools.
dichlorSodium dichloro-s-triazone trione, a stabilized
form of granular chlorine.
disembowelmentSee evisceration.
disinfecting agentA compound that, when applied to
water, kills pathogens.
diving poolA deep pool vessel specially designed

for steep-entry dives from springboards and fixed
platforms.
diving tankSee diving pool.
diving wellSee diving pool.
domestic poolPool located at a single dwelling for
nonpublic use; also known as residential pool and
backyard pool.
dosingThe process of administering a specific amount
of a chemical to the pool water for an established
purpose.
dosing pointThe location where chemicals are dispersed into the water.
floc (or flocculate)The process of and material used

to aid filtration by causing particulate matter to come
out of solution (coagulate) and then come together as
larger pieces that can be entrapped.
flowThe rate of the movement of water.
flow meterA device for measuring the rate of the
movement of liquid.
freeboardThe vertical distance between the top of
the filter medium and the upper distribution system
in a permanent media filter; also used to describe the
distance from the surface of the water to the deck.
free chlorineChlorine that has not combined but is
free to kill pathogens and algae and destroy organic
contaminants introduced into the water.
gpmGallons per minute.
DPDDimethyl-phenylene diamine. A reagent used in

testing for and measuring disinfectant concentrations
in pool water; available in liquid, tablet, and powder
form.
gutterWater-level overflow trough in the perimeter

wall of the pool.
E. coliA bacteria that can be transmitted into pool water

from fecal matter and can cause severe illness.
hydrochloric acidVery strong acid used in pools for

pH control and for certain specific cleaning needs.
Also called muriatic acid and requires care in handling.
enforcing authoritySee regulatory agency.

equalizer lineA line from below the pool surface to
the body of a skimmer that prevents air from being
drawn into the pump. Also a pipe between two pools
to equalize (balance) water levels.
erosion feederA flow-through chemical feed device.
eviscerationInjury that can occur when negative
pressure (suction) from an unprotected drain or suction outlet is applied directly to the intestines at the
anal opening.
eye burnA pool term describing irritation of the eyes
caused by rinsing off of the external eye fluid, or by
chloramines.
feet of headA basic measurement of resistance to
flow in a hydraulic system, equivalent to the height
of a column of water that would cause the same
resistance.
filter cartridgeA pleated element, usually of fibrous
material, used as a filter septum in some pool filters.
filter cycleThe time of filter operation between backwash procedures.
filter elementA filter cartridge, or the single part of
a multiport diatomite filter, on which the filter aid is
deposited.
filter mediaAny fine-grain material that entraps suspended particles as water passes through.
filter nozzleSee lateral.
filter roomSee pool plant.
filter runSee filter cycle.
filter septumThe part of a filter on which diatomaceous
earth or similar filter media is deposited, consisting of
cloth, wire screen, or other fine mesh material.
float valveA valve controlled by the level of a fluid.
GLOSSARY
disinfectionProcess of destroying infection-causing

organisms.
hexametaphosphateSequestering agent that keeps

metals, minerals, and salts in solution.
hydrogen peroxideA common disinfectant, sometimes used in pools.

hydrotherapy poolA small pool vessel containing
heated water and designed for physiotherapy or light
exercise.
HVACAbbreviation for heating, ventilation, and airconditioning. Equipment that performs these functions
is installed as a climate control system. Pronounced
H-V-A-C or H-vak.
impellerRotating disk with vanes in a centrifugal
pump.
inflatable play structureLarge vinyl structure that is
inflated with air and floats on the surface of the water
while tethered to the bottom of the pool.
influentWater flowing into a pool, a pump, a filter, a
chemical feeder, or other space.
inletThe point where treated water is returned to and
enters the pool.
institutional poolPool located at and operated by a
school, hospital, hotel, or other institution for use by
its constituents.
ionA positively or negatively charged atom or molecule,
usually in water.
ionizationThe process whereby a compound, in
solution, separates into charged ions (atoms or
radicals).
kiddie poolSee childrens pool.
laminar flowSmooth parallel movement of water
without turbulence.
landing poolA body of water located at the exit of
a waterslide, used to break the fall of waterslide
users.
201
GLOSSARY
Langelier indexSee calcium saturation index.
overflow channelSee gutter.
lateralA component located in the interior bottom part

of a sand filter that collects the filtered water for return
to the pool vessel.
oxidationChemical reaction in which an element or

ion is increased in positive valence, losing electrons
to an oxidizing agent; burning.
lazy riverSee river ride.
ozoneUnstable form of oxygen; trivalent oxygen; the

strongest oxidant available for water treatment.
leisure poolA pool vessel of irregular shape, typically

with a beach entry, large areas of shallow water, and
features such as sprays, bubblers, waterfalls, play
equipment, or fountains.
lifelineA rope line, often with floats, across a pool to
designate a change in slope in the pool bottom or the
beginning of deep water.
lint strainerA device provided to screen out lint and
debris. Also known as lint pot, strainer basket.
lithium hypochloriteA lithium-based dry chlorine
product.
local authority or regulatory agencyThe person
or entity responsible for establishing and enforcing
health and safety law in that location.
lpmLiters per minute.
makeup waterWater placed into the pool to replace
water lost through evaporation, splash-out, backwash,
or other means.
mg/LMilligrams per liter; identical to PPM.
microbiological testingTesting of a pool water sample
by a laboratory to determine the bacterial population
in the pool environment and identify pathogens.
millivoltOne thousandth of a volt; unit of electromotive
force, or difference of potential.
moving waterAreas of water where pumps, jets, or
hydraulics create a rapid water flow or wave action.
See river ride and wave pool.
MSDSAbbreviation for material safety data sheet.
Document prepared by a manufacturer that describes
the health hazards and precautions for safe handling
and use of chemicals or dangerous goods.
municipal poolSee class B pool.
muriatic acidSee hydrochloric acid.
off-season periodTime of year during which an
aquatic facility is not available for use.
oocystEncapsulated egg that is the infective form of
a parasite, such as cryptosporidium.
operatorA person who is responsible for the daily
mechanical operation, maintenance, and water treatment at an aquatic facility. Collectively these responsibilities are known as pool plant operations.
paddling poolSee childrens pool.

pathogensDisease-producing microbes.
peristalticA type of chemical pump using a progressively pinched or rolled length of tubing to propel
the liquid.
pHAn index describing the acid-versus-base balance
of water.
phenol redA dye used in testing the pH of pool
water.
plant roomThe room that contains the mechanical
equipment and systems such as circulation pumps,
filtration, and treatment systems. Also known as pump
room, filter room, mechanical room.
polymerA solution of long-chain molecules of electrostatically charged atoms used for flocculating.
pool hallThe room within a building that contains the
pool vessel.
pool plantThe mechanical equipment and systems
that circulate, filter, and treat pool water.
pool plant operatorSee operator.
pool rashIrritated and dry skin caused by immersion
in water containing sanitizing chemicals.
pool shellSee pool vessel.
pool surroundSee deck.
pool tankSee pool vessel.
pool vesselThe physical structure of walls and sides
that hold pool water.
positive displacementA pump characterized by its
ability to displace a predetermined amount of liquid
per stroke.
potassium monopersulfateA nonchlorine oxidizer
for swimming pools.
potentiometricElectronic technology designed to read
sanitizer efficacy through voltage measurements.
PPEAbbreviation for personal protective equipment
used to control exposure to chemicals, contaminants,
and pathogens.
ppmParts per million. A unit of quantity in a million such
units; identical to milligrams per liter (mg/L).
ORPOxidation-reduction-potential, a measurement
of the oxidative power of the water; expressed and
measured in millivolts (mv).
precipitationAppearance, in a solution, of an insoluble

solid compound (such as calcium carbonate) as a
result of chemical action.
outletThe point where water leaves the pool and flows

to the filtration system.
precoatLayer of diatomaceous earth deposited on the

filter septa at the beginning of a filter run.
overdrainPlumbing and fitting arrangement in a filter

top; usually with a central pipe and laterals similar to
underdrains.
probeSee sensor probe.
202
pseudomonasPseudomonas aeruginosa. A tenacious

bacterium capable of causing hot-tub itch.
pump roomSee plant room.

reagentA chemical used in water testing.
reasonably practicableBalancing the degree of risk
against the time, cost, or physical difficulty of taking
measures to avoid or reduce the risk.
redoxSee ORP.
regulatory agencyThe entity responsible for developing and managing compliance to health and safety
practice or codes.
residential poolSee domestic pool.
residualThe amount of a chemical that remains in the
water and continues to affect the properties of the
water. Usually refers to chlorine residual, which must
be maintained in pool water at all times.
river rideAn aquatic attraction designed to simulate
the effects of a natural river. It incorporates a system to
produce an artificial current of water to propel patrons
with or without the use of a float device.
Ryzner indexA calculation, based on the calcium
saturation index. Used to predict the potential for corrosion damage caused by a lack of sufficient calcium
hardness in pool water.
salt chlorinatorA system that generates chlorine
using salt.
salt water poolA pool that uses a system to generate
chlorine from salt.
samplingObtaining pool water for testing.
sanitationPartial sterilization; disinfecting.
saturation indexSee calcium saturation index.
scaleFormation of calcium carbonate on walls of pools
or pipes or in a filter or heater, caused by precipitation
of calcium carbonate.
scum lineThe residual of body oils, sunscreens, and
other organic or oil-based contaminants that form
where the water meets the pool wall.
sea water poolA pool that uses source water from the
sea or ocean, which is then treated with chemicals to
maintain a residual of sanitizer and balance.
sensor probeA device that uses electrodes to selectively measure properties of the water, such as pH
and oxidative strength.
shotcreteA mixture of sand, cement, aggregate, and
water that is applied through either a wet or dry process to build the concrete walls and floors of a pool.
sodium bisulfateA dry white powder that produces an

acid solution when dissolved in water; used in pools to
lower pH; safer to handle than hydrochloric acid.
sodium carbonateSoda ash; a chemical used to
raise pH.
sodium dichloro-s-triazineGranular stabilized chlorine; also known as dichlor.
sodium hydroxideLye; a high-pH water treatment
chemical.
sodium hypochloriteA liquid containing 10 to 15%
available chlorine; commonly used for chlorination
and produces hypochlorous acid when added to
pool water.
sodium sulfiteA chemical used for dechlorination;
similar to sodium thiosulfate.
sodium thiosulfateA chemical used for dechlorination.
solenoid switchA device that interrupts electrical current; used to control the on and off cycles of equipment
connected to it.
spa poolA small pool vessel that incorporates or is
connected to equipment for heating the water contained in it and injecting air bubbles or jets of water
under pressure to cause general turbulence in the
water.
splash poolSee catch pool.
stabilizerCyanuric acid; protects chlorine in pool water
from dissipating due to sunlight.
subaquaActivities that take place completely submerged under the surface of the water.
suction hazardsDrains, outlets, or any type of opening
on the return side of the pump that creates suction and
could entrap hair or limbs or cause evisceration.
superchlorinationThe elevating of chlorine in pool
water, usually to reach breakpoint.
surface waterThe top inch of water in a pool vessel
where the majority of organic pollution and contamination is concentrated.
surgeDisplacement of water in a poolstatic and
dynamic (wave action).
surge capacityThe storage volume in a surge pit
and gutter.
surge pit or surge tankSee balance tank.
Taylor WatergramCircular slide rule device used to
calculate water balance and determine treatments;
provided by Taylor Technologies.
sightglassA clear viewing port mounted on backwash pipework used to monitor the progress of filter
cleaning.
TDSTotal dissolved solids, expressed in ppm.
skimmerA device installed around the sides of the

pool vessel to draw surface water into the circulation
system.
toddler poolSee childrens pool.
soda ashSodium carbonate; a common water treating chemical.
teaching poolA pool vessel designed specifically to

accommodate the needs of instructional programs.
total alkalinityA measure of the total amount of dissolved alkaline components in the water.
total chlorineThe sum of combined chlorine and free
chlorine.
203
GLOSSARY
psiPounds per square inch.
GLOSSARY
trichloro-s-triazine-trioneA solid, stabilized chlorinating product known as trichlor.
vacuum filterFilter, usually of diatomite type, through

which water is pulled by a pump mounted on the
effluent side of the filter.
trihalomethanesThe byproduct formed when chlorine

or bromine reacts with certain components of human
waste or humic acid.
venturiA tube mounted in a circulation line that causes

a restriction in flow that creates a pressure difference,
allowing liquids to be drawn into the line.
trisodium-phosphateTSP, a commercial cleaner, often

used for DE filter elements or to prepare surfaces for
painting.
volumeCapacity; calculated in pools as length times

width times average depth and measured in gallons
or meters cubed (m3).
turbidityCloudiness in pool water caused by suspended solid particles of microscopic size.
volutePump housing containing the impeller.
treatment plantSee pool plant.
turbineType of centrifugal pump or impeller arrangement creating high pressure.

turnoverThe time required for the volume of water in
the pool vessel to pass through the filter.
ultraviolet lightUV, the light spectrum of higher frequency than visible; a radiant sanitizer.
underdrainThe distribution system at the bottom of
a sand filter; collects filtered water during filter run;
distributes backwash water.
underwaterSee subaqua.
UV+H2O2Ultraviolet light plus hydrogen peroxide disinfection system.
204
wading poola shallow pool vessel designed for

wading; may refer to a pool designed for children.
Also see childrens pool.
wave poolA pool vessel designed with a zero-depth
entry and hydraulic wave-generating equipment. Also
see moving water.
weirA spillover device used to measure or control
water flow; found in skimmers and as gutter lips.
winterizationPreparing the pool plant, pool vessel,
and surrounding areas for shutdown during the offseason.
Bibliography
American Safety and Health Institute (ASHI). 2006.

Bloodborne pathogens: Student handbook. Holiday,
FL: American Safety and Health Institute.
Health and Safety Commission. 2003. Managing health

and safety in swimming pools. Sudbury, Suffolk, UK:
HSE Books.
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and AirConditioning Engineers. 1999. Comfort applications:
Natatoriums. In HVAC application handbook. Atlanta:
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and AirConditioning Engineers.
London Borough of Hillingdon. Special treatments code

of practice: Spa poolscode of practice 4. www.
hillingdon.gov.uk/environment/env_health_com/
sp_treatments/spa_code.php.
Australian Capital Territory. 2005. Hydrotherapy pools:

Community use. www.det.act.gov.au/policies/pdf/
2005community.pdf.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).
2006a. Cleaning up body fluid spills on pool surfaces.
www.cdc.gov/healthyswimming/bodyfluidspill.htm.
2006b. Fecal accident response recommendations
for aquatics staff. www.cdc.gov/healthyswimming/
fecalacc.htm.
2006c. For aquatics staff: Twelve steps for prevention of recreational water illnesses (RWIs). www.cdc.
gov/healthyswimming/pdf/twelvesteps.pdf.
Competitor Swim Products. 2006. Racing lane modification instructions. www.competitorswim.com/
technical/15M_addition.pdf.
Department of Human Services Victoria. 2000. Pool
operators handbook. www.health.vic.gov.au/environment/downloads/pool_handbook1.pdf.
Fawcett, P. 2005. Aquatic facility management. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Florida Swimming Pool Association. 2006. Maintenance:
Tips for storm preparation and reactivation. www.
fpsaonline.org/maintenance/hurricane.asp.
Gabrielsen, M.A., ed. 1987. Swimming pools: A guide
to their planning, design, and operation. 4th ed.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Gertz, J. Babes book. www.neptunebenson.com/dev/
babe.htm.
Government of South Australia. 1998. Standard for the
inspection and maintenance of swimming pools and
spa pools in South Australia. www.dh.sa.gov.au/pehs/
publications/code-swimpool-insp-maint.pdf .
Griffiths, T. 2003. The complete swimming pool reference.
2nd ed. Champaign, IL: Sagamore.
Loop-Loc. 2006. Installation guide: Installing a rectangular cover. www.looploc.com/dealer/dealer_resources/

installation/installation_set.html.
Poolandspa.com. n.d. Cleaning your swimming pool.
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com/autoclean3.htm.
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Professional Pool Operators of America. n.d. Metering
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Professional Pool Operators of America. n.d. ORP and
oxidationPart I. Pumproom Press, 5:3.
Professional Pool Operators of America. n.d. ORP Part
II. Pumproom Press, 6:3.
Professional Pool Operators of America. 2007. What th
heck are peroxolytes? Pumproom Press, 36: 1-3.
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cdu/24690.pdf.
Schaefer, T. 2006. Industrial ultraviolet technology overview. Water Conditioning & Purification. http://www.
wcponline.com/PDF/Schaefer.pdf.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Surewater Technologies. The solution installation guide.

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Territory Health Services. 1995. Water quality and hygiene
standard for spa and hydrotherapy pools. www.
nt.gov.au/health/healthdev/environ_health/environmental/legislation/poolspaah.html.
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barrier guidelines for home pools. Publication No.
362. www.cpsc.gov/CPSCPUB/PUBS/Pool.pdf.
U.S. Department of Commerce, National Weather Service Forecast Office. December 16, 1999. Letter to
Cleveland County YMCA.
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Sciences Extension. August 2005. Hurricane precautions for swimming pools. From The disaster
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energy efficiency and renewable energy: Swimming
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home/water_heating/index.cfm/mytopic=13140.
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regulations. Colorado Springs: USA Swimming.
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U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. March 2005.

Guidelines for entrapment hazards: Making pools
and spas safer. Washington, DC: U.S. Consumer
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206
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Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
index
Note: The italicized f, t, and n following

page numbers refer to figures, tables,
and footnotes, respectively.
A
accident and incident report form
139
accident prevention. See physical
safety; workplace safety
acid spotters 152
activated carbon 88
adenoviruses 111
aerators for cooling pool water 147
airborne pathogens 112, 113t
air quality 86-87, 146
air temperature regulation 7t, 145-146
alarm systems 136
algae control 88, 90-92, 90f, 156t
algicides 91-92
alum (aluminum sulfate ) 158
American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) 119
American Society for Testing and
Materials 119
ammonia compounds of chlorine. See
chloramines
ANSI (American National Standards
Institute) 119
Association of Pool and Spa Professionals (APSP) 119
athletes foot 113, 113f
automated control systems 45-51.
See also chemical feed system
best practices 50t-51t, 51
calibration of 48
circulation system and 23
controller probe maintenance 49,
49f, 142f
oxygen reduction potential readings
45-46, 46f, 47f
pH readings 46-47, 47f
ppm readings 47-48, 47f
types of 6t
automatic pool cleaners 148
automation, defined 45
B
backstroke flags 165f
backwashing filtration systems 3033, 30f

bacteria, water testing for 65
balance tank (surge pit) 16-17, 17f
ball valve 21, 21f
barriers 136
best practices
automated control system 50t-51t,
51
circulation system 24t, 25
competitive event preparation
178t
filtration system 34t-35t, 39t, 40,
40t
maintenance 155t-156t, 159t-160t,
161t, 162
pathogen control 113t, 115
pool characteristics and 8
safe operations 125t, 130t, 135t,
137t, 140, 190t
sanitation and oxidation system 89t,
92, 185t
seasonal maintenance 179t, 180
spa pools 185t, 190, 190t
water balance 102, 185t
water testing 69t-70t, 70
biological pathogens. See pathogens
black algae 90, 90f
bleach. See sodium hypochlorite
bloodborne pathogens 105
blood cleanup 105-106, 105f
blowers 150-151
bodily fluids cleanup 105-106, 105f
bodily substances, origins of 104
body oil scum removers 151
boilers for heating pool water 146147
bonding of electrical equipment
121-122
breakpoint chlorination 82-88
cloramines and 82
common questions about 85
continuous 84
dosages for 84
failure consequences 84, 86
for fecal accidents 109
in indoor pools 86-87
procedure for 83
supplemental treatments 87-88
bromine 72, 73, 77
bromine levels, manual testing of
59, 61
brushes 149, 149f
butterfly valve 21, 21f
C
calcium and mineral deposit removers
151
calcium carbonate precipitate 95,
157
calcium chloride 98t, 99
calcium hardness
adjustment of 101
testing for 62-63, 63f
water balance and 95
calcium hypochlorite 75-76, 75f
calcium saturation index (CSI) 97-98
carbon dioxide 95, 98t, 99
cartridge filters 33, 39, 39f, 40t
caustic soda 94, 98t, 99
CC. See combined chlorine (CC)
chemical exposure, first aid for 127t
chemical feed system 23, 42-45, 42f,
44f, 50t-51t
chemical metering pumps 23, 43-44,
43f, 44f, 50t-51t
chemicals. See also names of specific
chemicals
broadcasting into pool 99f
diluting into pool 100f
first aid for exposure to 127t
pool reopening adjustments 173
records of use of 138
routes of entry into body 126,
126f
safe storage of 128, 128f
safe use of 127f, 128-130, 129f,
130t
winter storage of 170
chemical treatment system 3, 7t
chloramines 73, 82, 85, 86-87, 146.
See also combined chlorine
(CC)
chlorine. See also breakpoint chlorination; chlorine levels
207
INDEX
adjusting levels of 80-81. See also

chlorine levels
forms of 74-76, 74f, 75f
safe handling of 129-130
chlorine gas. See elemental chlorine
gas
chlorine levels
automated testing 47-48
dilution of samples for manual testing
of 58
evaluating test results 80-81
manual testing 50, 59-60
chlorine stabilizers 76-77
circulation pumps 18-19, 18f, 24t
circulation system 9-25
balance tank or surge pit 16-17,
17f
best practices 24t, 25
circulation pump 18-19, 18f, 24t
components of 6t
diagram of 10f
drains 15-16, 15f, 16f
fill valves 12
filtration system 20
flow meter 20, 20f, 22
function of 3, 9
heater 22-23
pipework 17
pool inlets 23
pool reopening and 173
pump pressure gauge 18f, 19-20
pump strainer 17, 17f
pump vacuum gauge 18, 18f, 20
trouble shooting 24t
turnover and flow in 23-25
valves 21, 21f
water flow through 11-12
winterizing 170
cleaning supplies 151-152
closing checklist 139
closure of pool 138
cloudy water 157-158, 159t-160t
coagulant products 29
codes 120
colored water 160-161, 161t
colorimetric tests 54-55, 54f
combined chlorine (CC). See also
chloramines
breakpoint chlorination for 81, 82
significance of 73
ultraviolet systems and 78
combined-chlorine reading 60
competitive event preparation 164167, 178t
concrete pool construction 2
contact pathogens 112-113, 113t
contaminants, oxidation of 72-73. See
also sanitation and oxidation
continuous-breakpoint chlorination
84
208
controller probe maintenance 49,

49f, 142f
controllers. See automated control
systems
cooling. See temperature regulation
Cryptosporidium 78, 107, 109, 109t
CSI (calcium saturation index) 9798
CT value 109
cyanuric acid 66, 66f, 76-77
D
debris removal 14-16, 156f
deck, winterizing 171
deck anchors 169, 169f, 172, 172f,
179
deck equipment, storage and reinstallation of 170, 173
DE filters. See diatomaceous earth
(DE) filters
dermal absorption of chemicals 126,
127t
diaphragm pumps 43-44, 43f
diarrheal fecal matter 108, 109, 109t,
110
diatomaceous earth (DE) filters
backwashing 33
leaks causing water cloudiness
157
operation of 36-37
trouble shooting 39t
types of 37-38, 37f
dirt, cloudy water from 157
disinfectants for blood cleanup 106
disinfectant system 3. See also sanitation and oxidation
documentation. See record keeping
DPD, for chlorine testing 60-61
drain covers for entrapment prevention 131-132, 131f
draining the pool 167
drains 15-16, 15f, 16f. See also
entrapment prevention
drowning 130, 137t, 187
drugs contraindicating spa pool use
189
dry chemical feeders 42-43, 42f
E
E. coli 108
electrical equipment 121-122, 124,
125t, 186
electrical safety 121-124, 125t, 186
electrical storms 124-125
electrocution hazard 121-122, 124,
125t, 186
electronic water testing devices,
handheld 67-68, 68f
elemental chlorine gas 74, 74f, 129130
emergency action plan 139

emergency shut off switch for spa
pools 189
entrapment prevention 130-132, 131f,
133, 135t, 186
equipment for swim meets 164-166
equipment maintenance 147-151
erosion feeders 42, 42f
evaporation pool covers 153, 153f
evisceration 130, 131, 186
eye burn complaints 82
eyes, absorption of chemicals and
126, 127t
F
facility security 136
fall prevention 132, 135t, 186
FAS-DPD test for chlorine 60-61
fecal accident cleanup 110-112,
111f
fecal matter, pathogens in 107-109,
109t
feeders. See chemical feed system
fences 136
fiberglass pool construction 2
fill valves 12
filter cake 36
filter cycle 31
filter location 28
filter run 31
filtration system 27-40
backwashing 30-33, 30f
best practices 34t-35t, 39t, 40
cartridge filters 39, 39f, 40t
diatomaceous earth filters 36-38,
37f, 39t
function of 3, 20
sand filters 28-32, 34, 34t-35t
separate vs. shared 5
for spa pools 183
types of 6t, 20, 28
first aid for chemical exposure 127t
floating lane dividers 164f
floc 29
flocculant products 29
flow 25
flow meters 20, 20f, 22
free chlorine 60, 81, 110n
G
gas chemical feeders 45
gates 136
gate valve 21, 21f
germs. See biological pathogens
GFCIs (ground fault circuit interrupters) 121, 121f
Giardia 78, 107, 109, 109t
glove removal 106f-107f
grass, bodily fluids cleanup in 106
green algae 90, 90f
H
handheld electronic water testing
devices 67-68, 68f
health risks. See also pathogen control; pathogens
bloodborne pathogens 105-107
contact and airborne pathogens
112-113, 112f-113f
recreational water illnesses 107112, 109t
spa pools and 187-189
heaters 22-23, 183
heat exhaustion/heat stroke 187
heating. See temperature regulation
hepatitis A 108
high-capacity vacuum induction
system 44, 44f
high-resolution redox. See oxygen
reduction potential (ORP)
hoses 150, 150f
hot spas. See spa pools
hot tub folliculitis 112, 112f, 187
hot tubs. See spa pools
HRR (high-resolution redox). See
oxygen reduction potential
(ORP)
humidity control 145-147, 155t
hurricane preparation 126, 176-177
HVAC system 146
hydrogen peroxide, water testing for
66-67
hydrotherapy pools 185-186
hyperthermia 187
I
incident report form 139
indexes of water balance 97-98
indoor pools 3, 4f, 86-87
infections. See pathogens
inhalation of chemicals 126, 127t
inspections 120
ionization 80
L
lane lines 164f
law suits 119
leaf rakes 149, 149f
leaf vacuums 150, 150f
legal codes and statutes 120
legal terms 119
Legionella pneumophila 112, 187
legionellosis 112
licensing 120
lighting, underwater 122-123, 123f,
125t
lightning sensors 124, 124f
liquid chemical feeders 43-44, 44f
liquid chlorine (sodium hypochlorite)
75, 75f
liquid pool covers 154, 154f
lungs, absorption of chemicals and
126, 127t
M
main drains 15-16, 16f
maintenance 141-162. See also seasonal maintenance
best practices 155t-156t, 159t160t, 161t, 162
checklists for 143-145
cleaning supplies for 151-152
colored water and staining 160161, 161t
competitive event preparation 164167, 178t
of controller probes 49, 49f, 142f
documentation and record keeping
162
of equipment 147-151
pool covers 153-154, 153f-154f
pool size and configuration in 5
scheduling of 142
temperature and humidity control
145-147
water clarity problems 157-158,
159t-160t
maintenance logs 162
manual chlorine testing 50
manual vacuums 148-149, 148f,
156t
manual water testing methods 5459, 57f
marcite pool construction 2
materials for pool vessel 2
mechanical dry feeders 42, 43
mechanical systems. See also specific systems, e.g., circulation
system
common options for 5, 6t-7t
types of 3
metals, water testing for 66
metering pumps. See chemical metering pumps
mineral deposit removers 151
molluscipoxvirus 113
mouth, absorption of chemicals and
126-127, 127t
multiport valve 21, 21f
muriatic acid 95, 98t, 99, 152, 161
mustard algae 90
INDEX
ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs)

121, 121f
grounding of electrical equipment
121
guidelines for safe operation 118119
gunite pool construction 2
gutters 14, 14f
N
National Sanitation Foundation 119
negligence, legal definition of 119
noroviruses 111
Norwalk-like viruses 111
O
official standards for safe operation
119
opening checklist 139
operation and maintenance logs 162
oral absorption of chemicals 126-127
ORP. See oxygen reduction potential
(ORP)
outdoor pools 3, 4f, 76-77
oxidation. See sanitation and oxidation
oxygen reduction potential (ORP) 4546, 46f, 47f
ozone systems 79, 79f
P
paint deterioration, and cloudy water
157
painting 171, 174-175, 175f
Palintest 98
pathogen control 103-115. See also
sanitation and oxidation
airborne pathogen control 112,
113t
bloodborne pathogen cleanup 105106, 105f
contact pathogen control 112-113,
113t
fecal matter cleanup 108-112,
111f
in hot water pools 188
patron education 114-115
vomit cleanup 111, 111f
pathogens. See also pathogen control
bloodborne 105
contact and airborne 112-113,
112f-113f
in fecal matter 107-109, 109t
hot water pools and 187-188
inactivation of 72-73. See also
pathogen control; sanitation and
oxidation
sources of 104
spread mechanisms 104
in vomit 111
water testing for 65
patron education, in pathogen control
114-115
peristaltic pumps 44, 44f
permits 120
peroxylates 88
personal protective equipment 104105, 127, 127f
209
INDEX
pH
adjustment of 101
sanitizer reading errors and 61
superchlorination and 85
total alkalinity and 95
water balance and 94-95
pH controller readings 46-47, 47f
pH testing 61-62
physical safety 130-134, 135t, 137t,
186-187
pipework 17
piston pumps 44
plantar warts 112, 112f
poly-aluminum chloride 158
Pontiac fever 112, 187
pool cleaners 147-148, 148f
pool closure 138
pool configuration, maintenance
and 5
pool covers
installation of 168-169
removal of 171, 172
types of 153-154, 153f-154f
pool inlets 23
pool vacuums 148-149, 148f
pool vessel, materials for 2
pool volume calculation 13
portable spas. See spa pools
potassium monopersulfate 87
ppm controller readings 47-48, 47f
pressure DE filters 33, 37, 37f
pressure high-rate sand filters 2831, 29f
pressure washers 150
problem solving. See trouble shooting
proportional color comparison. See
colorimetric tests
Pseudomonas aeruginosa 112, 187
pumice stones 152
pump pressure gauge 18f, 19-20
pumps. See chemical metering
pumps; circulation pumps
pump strainer 17, 17f
pump vacuum gauge 18, 18f, 20
Q
quick balance check (QBC) 97
R
recall rope 165f
record keeping
accident and incident report form
139
chemical use records 138
emergency action plan 139
fecal and vomit accident logs 110,
111
opening and closing checklists
139
210
operation and maintenance logs

162
water testing 68
recreational water illnesses (RWIs) 107112, 109t, 113t, 114, 187-188
redox. See oxygen reduction potential
(ORP)
regenerative DE filters 38
regulations 120
reopening seasonal pools 171-174
risk management. See safe operations
robot pool cleaners 148
RSI (Ryznar stability index) 98
RWIs. See recreational water illnesses
(RWIs)
Ryznar stability index (RSI) 98
S
safe operations 117-140
best practices 125t, 130t, 135t,
137t, 140
chemical safety 126-130, 127f,
127t, 129f, 130t
closing pool for winter 171
electrical safety 121-124, 125t
guidelines, standards, and regulations 118-120
physical safety 130-134, 135t, 137t,
186-187
record keeping 138-139
security 136
spa pools 186-189, 190t
weather safety 124-126
workplace safety 134, 136, 137t
safety information, guidelines, and
standards 118-119
safety pool covers 153, 153f, 169
salt chlorine generators 76
salt concentrations, water testing
for 67
sample collection for water testing
55-56, 56f
sand, bodily fluids cleanup in 106
sand filters 28-32, 34, 34t-35t
sanitation and oxidation 71-92. See
also breakpoint chlorination;
pathogen control
algae control 88, 90-92, 90f
chemicals for 6t, 72-77. See also
bromine; chlorine
chlorine level adjustment for 8081
devices for 6t, 77-80, 78f, 79f
options for 73f
in spa pools 183-184, 185t
sanitizer levels 47-48, 50, 59-61
sanitizer oxygen reduction potential
45-46, 46f, 47f
scum line 142f, 156t

seasonal facilities
reopening 171-174
winterizing 167-171
seasonal maintenance 167-180
painting 171, 174-175, 175f
reopening seasonal pools 171174
storm preparation 176-177, 179t
winterizing 167-171
security 136
semi-automatic pool cleaners 147148, 148f
separation tank 36
severe weather safety 124-126
Shigella 107
shocking vs. superchlorination 85
shotcrete pool construction 2
size, maintenance and 5
skimmer nets 149, 149f
skimmers 14-15, 15f
skin, absorption of chemicals and
126, 127t
slip and fall prevention 132, 135t
soap scum removers 151
soda ash 94, 98t, 99
sodium bicarbonate 98t, 99
sodium bisulfate 95, 98t, 99
sodium carbonate (soda ash) 94,
98t, 99
sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) 94,
98t, 99
sodium hypochlorite 75, 75f
sodium thiosulfate 81, 87
solar panels for heating pool water
147
solar pool covers 153, 153f
solid chlorine (calcium hypochlorite)
75-76, 75f
spa pools 181-190
best practices 185t, 190, 190t
features of 182-184, 182f
health risks 187-189
operating precautions 189
safety precautions 186-187
water replacement 184
water sanitation and balance in
183-184, 185t
spinal injuries 137t
staining 160-161, 161t
stainless steel cleaners 151-152
stainless steel pool construction 2
standard of care 119
standards for safe operation 119
starting platforms/blocks 165f
statutes 120
storage of chemicals 128, 128f, 170
storm preparation 124-126, 176-177,
179t
T
TA. See total alkalinity (TA)
TDH (total dynamic head) 19
TDS (total dissolved solids) 64, 96
telescoping poles 149, 149f
temperature monitoring 64-65
temperature regulation 3, 7t, 145147, 155t
therapeutic exercise and instruction
pools 185-186
tile soap 152
titrimetric tests 55, 55f
tornadoes 125-126, 176
total alkalinity (TA)
adjustment of 101
pH and 94
testing for 63-64, 64f
total chlorine 60
total dissolved solids (TDS) 64, 96
total dynamic head (TDH) 19
trespassing 137t
trichloramine 87
tropical storm preparation 126, 176177
trouble shooting
automated control systems 50t51t
cartridge filters 40t
chemical explosion or fire 130t
circulation system problems 24t
competitive event preparation
178t
diatomaceous earth filters 39t
electrical problems 125t
maintenance problems 155t-156t
pathogen control 113t
physical safety problems 135t,
137t, 190t
sand filters 34t-35t

sanitation and oxidation 89t, 185t
seasonal maintenance 179t
for spa pools 185t, 190t
water cloudiness 158, 159t-160t
water color and staining 161t
water testing 69t-70t
workplace safety issues 137t
turbidimetric tests 55
turnover 23
turnover rate 23
typhoon preparation 126, 176-177
U
ultraviolet (UV) systems 78-79, 78f
underwater lighting 122-123, 123f,
125t
universal precautions 104-105
UV-hydrogen peroxide treatment 79
UV (ultraviolet) systems 78-79, 78f
V
vacuum DE filters 33, 38
vacuum high-rate sand filters 34
vacuuming the pool 16
vacuums 148-149, 148f, 150, 150f,
156f
valves 21, 21f
vandalism 137t
variable flow meters 20, 20f, 22
venturi 43
vinyl winterizing pool covers 154,
154f
volume calculation 13
vomit accidents 107, 111-112, 111f
W
warm water facilities 185-186. See
also spa pools
water balance 93-102
best practices 102, 185t
chemical adjustments for 7t, 98101, 98t, 99f-100f
criteria for 94-96
determination of 97-98
in spa pools 183-184, 185t
testing procedures for 61-65
water clarifiers 158
INDEX
superchlorination
for chloramine reduction. See
breakpoint chlorination
for fecal accident sanitation 109,
109t
surface water draw-off 14-15
surge pit 16-17, 17f
swim meet preparation 164-167,
178t
water clarity problems 157-158,

159t-160t
water color problems 160-161, 161t
water cooling. See water temperature
water flow 11-12, 19
water heating. See water temperature
water level, improper 155t
water source, quality testing of 8
water temperature
competitive events and 167
monitoring of 64-65
regulation of 3, 7t, 146-147
water testing 53-70
for bacteria or biological pathogens
65
best practices 69t-70t, 70
for cyanuric acid 66, 66f
handheld electronic devices for
67-68, 68f
for hydrogen peroxide 66-67
manual methods 54-59, 57f
for metals 66
record keeping 68
for salt concentrations 67
sample collection 55-56, 56f
for sanitizer levels 47-48, 50, 5961
for water balance 61-65
water test kits 54-55, 58-59
water treatment system, chemicals for
7t. See also water balance
water volume calculation 13
weather safety 124-126
whirlpool spas. See spa pools
white water mold 91
wildlife in pool 134, 135t
winterizing 167-171
winterizing vinyl pool covers 154
workplace safety 134, 136, 137t
Y
yellow algae 90
211
Youll nd
other outstanding
aquatic resources at
www.AquaticEducationCenter.com
www.
In the US, call 1-800-747-4457 Canada 1-800-465-7301

Australia 08 8372 0999 Europe +44 (0) 113 255 5665
New Zealand 0064 9 448 1207
To view our entire line of resources,
visit www.HumanKinetics.com
HUMAN KINETICS
The Information Leader in Physical Activity
P.O. Box 5076
Champaign, IL 61825-5076

Human Kinetics (Organization) - AquaTech - Best Practices For Pool and Aquatic Facility Operators-Human Kinetics (2008)

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN-10: 0-7360-8588-2 (Adobe PDF)

Copyright 2008 by Human Kinetics, Inc.

Australia: Human Kinetics

Canada: Human Kinetics

New Zealand: Human Kinetics

Europe: Human Kinetics

From the Contributors

Why Each Pool Is Unique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

How a Pool Circulation System Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

How Filtration Systems Work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

How Chemical Feed and Automation Systems Work . . . . 41

How to Test the Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

How to Sanitize and Oxidize the Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Indoor and Outdoor Pools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

How Water Flows Through the Pool Circulation System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Dry Chemical Feeders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Manual Testing Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Chemicals That Sanitize and Oxidize Pool Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

How to Balance the Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

How to Control Exposure to Pathogens. . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

How to Operate Safely . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

How to Perform Routine

What Is Water Balance? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Bloodborne Pathogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Guidelines, Standards, and Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Maintenance Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

How to Perform Seasonal and Special Maintenance . . 163

How to Safely Operate Spa and Warm Water Pools . . . 181

Preparing for a Competitive Event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

Features of Spa Pools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

In this text we answer four basic questions about aquatic facilities:

3 How Filtration Systems Work

Cues to help you get

Cleaning a Septum or Replac

Full-color art and photos

Best Practices: Solving DE

Water flow is too slow.

er feeder that has

meaning that the

To avoid the problem

Torn cloth on elements.

Clean the DE filter on a

Metal stains and

Clean the septum

Blockage in the suction

Plugged-up cloth on the

Best Practices tables for

Clean the septum

To fix the problem

3 How Filtration Systems Work

at is fed by gravd higher than the

Check for missing DE

Handy notes to help you

From the Contributors

oor pool operator training comes with costs: a higher-than-necessary operating

FROM THE CONTRIBUTORS

Photo on 2, middle: iStockphoto.com/Annene Kaye

1 Why Each Pool Is Unique

1 Why Each Pool Is Unique

Indoor and Outdoor Pools