Real-Time Analysis of Hydrocarbon Composition and Properties in Upstream,

Midstream, and Downstream Applications

Phil Harris BSc. MSc.
Insight Analytical Solutions
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
(403) 616-5235
phil@insight-analytical.com

ABSTRACT
The determination of hydrocarbon composition and
physical properties is a critical step in allocation of
assets, process control, and transportation and facility
optimization. However, the instrumentation to perform
such analysis is often complex to install, maintain, and
operate. Recent advances in Near Infrared (NIR)
Spectroscopy has enabled equipment which is
ruggedized for field use, can operate at line conditions,
and perform similar analysis as conventional
equipment with better reliability and speed.
An NIR analyzer has been developed to perform at-line
measurements in applications ranging from upstream
production to midstream processing to downstream
refining. The analyzer has been used to measure crude
properties in real time, optimize fractionation facilities,
and monitor composition and product quality in
pipelines and for resource allocation. The operating
characteristics of the analyzer are discussed, and
application results are presented.
TOPICS:
Fundamental
of
Gas
or
Liquid
Measurement, Analysis, Sampling, Allocation, New
Technology, NIR Spectroscopy

1. INTRODUCTION
The practical application of measurement technology
in the hydrocarbon processing industry has undergone
a technological revolution spanning the last thirty
years. The industry has moved from the use of chart
recorders (with their inherent limitations and built-in
delay of information) to the widespread use of
electronic flow computers to determine increasingly
important volumes and flow rates. In the same time
frame, the increasing use of process analytical
instruments for measuring the chemical composition
and physical properties of hydrocarbon fluids has been
industry wide. From the time hydrocarbons leave the
well-head until they are delivered to the end user, these
fluids are subjected to a variety of analyses, for several
purposes including allocation of assets, process
control, or quality measurement and custody transfer.

While production volumes are of paramount

importance in allocation strategies and contract
agreements, there is an increasing interest in the
reliable and accurate determination of both chemical
composition and physical properties at all stages
throughout the distribution and processing of these
fluids. Analysis of fluids in the gathering system is often
required in order to properly allocate assets to
individual producers, to blend inlet products to meet the
pipelines specification or input requirements of
upstream processing facilities. Whether it is in gas
processing or in refining, knowledge of the composition
of inlet hydrocarbon streams is invaluable in optimizing
plant performance. In processing facilities, online
measurements are frequently used for process control
and optimization of yields and efficiencies, as well as
monitoring of product quality and specifications.
Custody transfer and transportation also demands
reliable and accurate analysis, to determine both
product value and conformance to contractual or
industry accepted specifications.
Hydrocarbon analysis was originally performed
primarily by taking grab samples for subsequent batch
analysis. Over the years, field deployed process
analyzers have seen increased acceptance and
utilization, as these allow more rapid analysis of
sample streams and to a varying extent enable
continuous process control. A sample of the gas or
liquid is frequently extracted from the process line and
transferred to the analyzer for subsequent analysis.
The analysis may take from a few to tens of minutes to
be performed, and thus is often too slow for real-time
feed forward control of operating facilities. Also, the
process of extracting a sample and modifying its
physical state (pressure, temperature, and filtration)
may introduce errors into the analysis process. Equally
important, these analyzers and sample systems which
support them often require significant maintenance to
ensure reliable performance. For example, it has been
estimated that the initial capital cost of a process gas
chromatograph represents only 10-15% of the installed
cost, which includes such items as the protective
shelter, engineering services, installation charges,
consumables, training and maintenance [1]

Spectroscopy provides an alternative to the existing

techniques for measuring chemical composition and
physical properties. The near infrared region of the
electromagnetic spectrum is especially suited to the
analysis of hydrocarbon mixtures. Because C-H, N-H,
and O-H bonds all show absorption in the near infrared
region, almost all organic substances can be measured
in this spectral region. Furthermore, many physical
properties such as density, BTU content, vapor
pressure, and flash point are directly related to the
quantity and type of hydrocarbon bonds present and
thus near-infrared spectroscopy can be directly
employed to determine both composition and physical
properties.

2. INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY
2.1 History
The near infrared region of the spectrum was first
discovered by Sir William Herschel around 1800. [2] He
used a large glass prism to disperse sunlight, and
placed three thermometers at different points in the
dispersed spectrum. He observed that the
thermometer exposed to the red light showed a greater
temperature rise than the one exposed to the blue light.
However, just beyond the red, where there was no
visible light at all, the temperature rise was the
greatest. This was the beginning of infrared
spectroscopy.

Figure 1. Early Spectrometer of Coblentz

2.2 Principles of Operation

Infrared spectroscopy is usually divided into three
spectral regions: the near, mid and far infrared. The
near infrared region covers the range from 750
nanometers (nm) to 2500 nm. In a near infrared
spectrometer, a beam of infrared light is passed
through the sample gas or liquid of interest. The light
intensity at different wavelengths is measured, and the
collective results are referred to as a transmission
spectrum. If the transmission spectrum is measured
first with a medium that does not absorb light, and then
measured with the sample of interest, the two sets of
data can be used to produce an absorbance spectrum,
which depicts how strongly the sample absorbs light at
each separate wavelength. For example the
absorbance spectrum of methane and ethane in the
near infrared region is shown in Figure 2.

The subject was advanced when it was noted that the

early photographic plates had some sensitivity in the
near infrared as well. This discovery was employed by
researchers in the 1880s, who allowed infrared light to
pass through different organic liquids, be dispersed by
a prism, and expose a piece of photographic film. The
films served as recordings of the infrared spectra of the
liquids of interest.
The field gained scientific significance through the work
of Coblentz[3], who in the early 1900s recorded the
infrared spectrum of several hundred different
chemicals. He made note of an extremely important
result, in that he discovered that no two compounds
had the same spectrum. Each chemical had a unique
spectrum, which served like a fingerprint to identify the
chemical solely by observing its spectrum in sufficient
detail. It was also determined that while the shape of
the infrared spectrum can be used to identify what
compound or compounds are present, the strength or
intensity of the absorption can be used to quantify how
much is present. These combined capabilities enable
us to use spectroscopy for online analysis.

Figure 2. Near Infrared Spectra

Since chromatography is commonly employed in the
hydrocarbon processing industry, it may be useful to
draw some analogies to a gas chromatogram to
illustrate the similarities and differences in how these
methods are used to analyze fluids. A typical gas
chromatogram is shown in Figure 3. In a gas
chromatograph, the chemicals of interest are
separated as they flow through an absorbing column
and appear as peaks of varying intensity (y axis) over
a period of time (x axis). Qualitative and quantitative
analyses are performed by identify the time when each
different peak appears and then measuring the
intensity (or height) of the peak respectively.

Interactions between atoms in each molecule alter the

size and shape of the absorption bands. In addition, the
molecules interact with their neighbors, thereby
influencing the shape and structure of the bands. In
other words, the near infrared spectrum contains not
only chemical information of use to determine
compositions, but also physical information that can be
used to determine physical properties of samples [4].

3. NEAR INFRARED SPECTROMETERS

Figure 3. A Typical Gas Chromatogram
In infrared spectroscopy, there is no need to separate
the chemicals with a column and spread them out over
time. Instead, the light passing through the sample is
separated as a function of wavelength, and the peaks
are spread out by wavelength, allowing us to quantify
each peak height. This highlights one of the
fundamental advantages of spectroscopy over
chromatography, where data is acquired almost
instantaneously and real-time analysis can be
performed.

Figure 4 Characteristic Peaks of Several Compounds

in the Infrared

A complete review of the design characteristics of NIR

spectrometers is beyond the scope of this paper, but
the reader is referred to textbooks such as that by
Siesler [5] or the review article by Andersen [6]. An
introduction to some of the more established designs
is presented herein.
The earliest infrared and near-infrared devices were
filter based photometers. These devices use an
interference filter to select a particular wavelength
band of light, which is chosen to coincide with one of
the peaks of the chemical of interest to be measured.
These devices have high signal to noise ratios, but low
resolution and are often specific for a single
measurement.
An adaptation of this was the tilting filter spectrometers,
where a filter was again used but the angle of the filter
was varied to scan a range of wavelengths. Tilting filter
photometers provided some wavelength tenability and
could achieve a broader range of analysis. This
technology has been recently updated and is employed
in a new spectrometer that is seeing commercial
success in the oil and gas industry, especially for the
measurements of hydrocarbons during drilling
operations and in online analysis of light hydrocarbon
vapors in the downstream refining and gas processing
industries. [7]. Sample spectra acquired with the
Precisive near infrared analyzer are show in Figure 5.

In chromatography, great effort is made to ensure that

the column packing materials chosen will separate the
peaks well over time. This sometimes requires that the
analysis time be extended to ensure that the
separation occurs, or that multiple columns and
detectors must be used to provide such assurance.
In spectroscopic analyzers, the peaks often overlap,
and therefore more sophisticated mathematical
methods must be used to determine the identities and
concentrations of the individual chemicals in a
spectrum of a mixture of gases or liquids. The advent
of digital computers to perform the data analysis
required has facilitated the implementation of near
infrared spectroscopy as a process analysis tool.
As noted over 100 years ago by Coblentz, each
different hydrocarbon has a unique infrared spectrum.

Figure 5 Optical fingerprint of hydrocarbons (with

permission of Precisive Instruments )
An alternative to the filter photometer is the dispersive
spectrometer. An optical element known as a
diffraction grating is used to spread the light out as a

function of wavelength, much as a prism spreads

sunlight out into its component colors. A single detector
may be used and the spectrum moves across it by
rotating the grating, or the grating may be fixed in place
and an array of photodetectors may be used [see
Figure 6]

taking the Fourier transform of the measured

interferogram.

Figure 7. A Michelson Interferometer

Figure 6. Diode Array Spectrometer Layout

The advent of diode array spectrometers lead to one of

the early efforts to apply dispersive near infrared
spectroscopy to the measurement of BTU in natural
gas. Between 1985 and 1992, the Gas Research
Institute sponsored a detailed and in-depth study of the
use of NIR spectroscopy to provide rapid and low cost
measurement of BTU content. [8] The project was
shown to be successful in terms of performing accurate
BTU determination, but did not achieve commercial
success. Further efforts to develop a BTU analyzer
based on this technology have been undertaken
several times and on several continents [9, 10]. The
interest in real-time BTU and wobbe index analysis
persists, as evidenced by a recent report from the
PRCI[11].
Fourier Transform Near Infared (FT-NIR) analyzers
have been used extensively for physical property
analysis in the refining and petrochemical industries. A
FT-NIR spectrometer is based on the principle of the
Michelson interferometer, as shown in Figure 7. A
collimated beam of light is passed through the
interferometer and is separated into two optical paths
by a beam splitter. Each beam travels to a mirror and
returns to the beam splitter, where they recombine.
The recombination of the two beams results in an
interference pattern. The interference patter changes
as one of the mirrors is moved, thus the interference
pattern as a function of mirror position is recorded and
referred to as an interferogram. The interferorgram
contains all of the information in the original light
spectrum and that information may be extracted by

In refining applications, FT-NIR analyzers are

commonly used to determine the properties of final
products, such as:
Octane Number,
Cetane Number,
Reid Vapor Pressure,
% Aromatics,
% Olefins,
Cloud Point and many others
Various types of spectrometers have been employed
to make measurements in the near infrared of the
spectrum. Filter photometers, scanning spectrometers,
diode array spectrometers and Fourier Transform Near
Infrared devices were discussed previously. Each of
these exhibit some strengths and some deficiencies
when applied for process applications [12]. Recently, a
new class of spectrometer technology based on a
broadly tuned laser has been developed and deployed
for the measurement of chemical composition and
physical properties of hydrocarbon steams. This
implementation represent advancements in the fields
of near infrared spectroscopy and process monitoring
and overcomes some of the deficiencies of older
spectrometer designs.[13]

4. Broadly Tuned NIR

This class of spectrometer employs a broadly tunable
laser source that covers a useful segment of the near
infrared spectrum where hydrocarbons, water, carbon
dioxide and other species of interest absorb. The use
of the tuned laser is significant in this method, in that it
provides high light intensity and very high resolution.
This enables superior signal to noise ratios, higher
spectral resolution and greater wavelength accuracy
than other available methodologies and facilitates

sophisticated statistical analysis and model transfer

from device to device.

process valve when out of specification conditions are

met).

Multicomponent analysis in the NIR requires that the

complex spectrum generated by the spectrometer be
subjected to a mathematical analysis to identify the
components which make up the spectrum, or to
estimate physical properties of the absorbing medium
based on the spectrum measured. Since such models
involve identifying specific spectral features at the
same position in the spectrum every time, the precision
and repeatability of the wavelength axis is extremely
important. The exceptional wavelength stability and
resolution of this novel type of spectrometer, along with
the improved linearity and signal to noise ratio,
facilitates the use of advanced mathematical
processing algorithms and allows the unit to routinely
extract important information from even the slightest
variations in the data.

This analyzer architecture allows the analysis to be

performed directly in the process pipe and does not
require that any combustible or toxic gases be
extracted and transported to the analyzer. Also, it
allows the analyzer to be placed in a safe and easily
accessible area, while the process sample probes may
be located over a hundred meters away. The analyzer
is capable of supporting as many as eight fiber optic
probes, distributed throughout the process.

The spectrometer is fiber-optically coupled to the

process via a custom designed flow cell. The flow cell
has been specifically designed for process
applications, in that the window surfaces are optimized
to reject particulate and fouling. Since the system is
designed for at-line process measurements, and the
spectral features in the NIR are both temperature and
pressure sensitive, a typical installation (Figure 8) will
incorporate appropriately rated pressure and
temperature sensors. Note that in this application at a
natural gas liquids extraction facility, the process
pressure exceeds 1100 psig. The measurement is
being performed in-situ, eliminating the need for
complex sample handling and conditioning systems
typically associated with extractive analyzer systems.

To facilitate use in a variety of field installations, the

spectrometer has been integrated within a suitable
system for use in industrial applications that does not
require an analyzer building or analyzer shelter. The
unit is environmentally stable and has been used in
remote facilities with limited utilities available. It
features low power consumption and may be operated
from solar panels. A typical installation of the analyzer
enclosure is shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9. Analyzer Installation outdoors at NGL

stabilization tower

5. Applications

Figure 8. Sample cell mount on process line

The spectrometer is housed in a simple analyzer
enclosure and is coupled to the process via fiber optic
connections. The enclosure also houses a PLC which
can be used for various control functions in the
analyzer as well as at the process (such as isolation of

Near infrared spectroscopy is being applied throughout

the hydrocarbon production and processing industry as
an adjunct or replacement to existing analytical
methods. The properties typically examined in
characterizing
petrochemical
products
have
traditionally been determined by specific tests that are
time-consuming and delay decision making [4]. The
increasing demand for product quality improvement as
well as reduction in capital and operating costs has
seen the replacement of conservative analytical
techniques with more flexible, capable and application
specific analytical tools. This transition is occurring in
all segments of the industry.

Most chemical process can be optimized by monitoring

not only the finished products, but also intermediate
stages and operations and making process control
decisions based on the results. Near infrared analyzers
allow us to bring the measurement directly to the
process through the implementation of fiber-optics and
in-line sample cells for real-time process monitoring.
This ensures that toxic, flammable and/or explosive
materials are kept in the process, minimizing
environmental emissions and eliminating the need to
transport such materials to the analyzer shelter. It also
eliminates the need for complex sample systems. It is
well established that most of the downtime and false
readings with process analyzer systems are due to
sample system failures rather than electronics or
instrument failures [14, 15].

Additional wellhead work is progressing to fully

categorize produced hydrocarbons in real time. The
technology can be coupled by fiber-optics to remote
probes and a single analyzer can support up to ten
sample points, including either gas phase or liquid
phase analysis simultaneously. It is possible to
instrument a well-pad for conventional or SAGD
production with a single analyzer, multiple fibers and
can be performing numerous different analyses
simultaneously. In one such case, the instrument is to
monitor produced oil for its C5-C12 fraction and
thereby estimate in real-time the number of barrels of
gasoline which could be produced per barrel of
produced oil.

5.1 Wellhead and Gathering

Gas processing facilities such as midstream operations

often have multiple producers feeding a single plant,
and have to correctly allocate both product volumes
and compositions to each producer. The ability of fiber
optically coupled NIR analyzers to monitor multiple
sample points allows a single analyzer to be used to
characterize all the feeds in a gathering system and
provide real-time composition analysis.

Whilst gas chromatography was once the mainstay for

gas analysis while drilling, advances in drilling
technology and other economic factors such as drilling
narrower pay zones resulted in the GC results being
too slow for practical use. In addition, operating a GC
has traditionally required well trained and qualified field
technicians. In the past decade, infrared spectroscopy
at the wellhead has been performed to provide realtime compositional analysis during mud logging.[16]

Figure 10. Absorbance Spectrum of Water in Crude

While some research is progressing in using NIR
spectroscopy as a downhole tool to determine water
content in oil while drilling [17], determination of
watercut using NIR spectroscopy on produced fluids is
an established application. In fact, the technique has
demonstrated the ability to perform both watercut
analysis and hydrocarbon compositional analysis using
the same wavelength region. In Figure 10, the
spectrum of Bakken crude (dry and at 50% water cut)
is shown, clearly depicting the large water peak.

5.2 Processing and Allocations

This information is valuable for a variety of reasons. In

gathering and blending systems where a particular
target specification is to be achieved on the combined
flow, the analysis in real time allows for accurate and
reliable blending. The analysis also allows for accurate
determination of amount of valuable product such as
hydrocarbon liquids which is to be attributed to each
producer. Further, it allows plants to apply some feed
forward control to optimization strategies and ensure
that the inlet mixtures are compatible with processing
capacities.
Once inside the plant, the same technology may be
used to optimize unit operations. A single NIR analyzer
may be used to monitor both gas phase and liquid
phase samples simultaneously, and thus can provide
control information in regards to the performance and
optimization of fractionation towers and gas separation
facilities. One such example is shown in Figure 11,
where a single NIR analyzer is used to monitor the
liquids produced from an inlet slug catcher, the RVP of
produced condensate from a stabilization tower, the
overhead vapors from the slug catcher and the gas
phase and liquid phase product streams from each
fractionation tower. In some facilities, the analyzer is
also used to determine how much ethane needs to be
blended back into a product sales gas stream to ensure
that BTU specifications are met.

the approved methods are based on laboratory

techniques which are expensive or time consuming to
perform, subject to human error and difficult to
automate. NIR spectroscopy can be used to perform
the same analysis as would be obtained by the
standard test methods, but do so in real-time with
minimal sample pre-treatment or processing. In fact,
such analysis can be performed without removing the
product from the pipe.

Figure 11. Gas Plant Optimization (with permission

from JP3 Measurements)
NIR analyzers in these applications provide real-time
analysis of the full hydrocarbon stream of both the
fractionator overheads and produced liquids. Typical
data is shown in Table 1 where the analysis of the gas
phase fraction in the overheads of one separator is
shown, along with an analysis of the de-butanizer
bottoms from a different tower. This data shows the
detail of information provided by infrared spectroscopy
and also indicates that physical properties such as
BTU and API gravity can be determined. It should be
noted that not all streams were being analyzed for each
property, which highlights the fact that a single
analyzer can be used to analyze not only gas phase
and liquid phase streams simultaneously, but that a
different set of analyses can be performed at each
different sample point. This information can be used to
optimize unit operations in the plant, and in conjunction
with daily spot prices of various hydrocarbon
commodities, to optimize economic yields by
maximizing the produced volumes of the most
economically advantageous products.

5.3 Product Quality

The same analyzers being used in upstream and
midstream operations may be applied for product
quality measurements. When used inside a processing
facility, separate fibers may be run to sample points in
the processing environment and to the output streams
prior to custody transfer.
While process control applications rarely have
regulated or approved standards associated with the
measurement, product quality measurements are often
subject to standards or approved methods such as
those proposed by ASTM, API or the GPA. At times,

TABLE 1 Typical Fractionation Plant Results

De-Butanizer Fractionator
Bottoms
Overheads
Methane
0.0
31.7
ethane
0.0
30.3
CO2
0.0
1.5
propane
0.0
31.2
i-butane
0.10
2.07
n-butane
0.10
1.92
i-pentane
17.5
0.1
n-pentane
40.1
0.2
Hexanes
31.9
0.02
Heptanes +
16.6
N/A
API Gravity
83.45
N/A
BTU
N/A
1645
Numerous examples of such analysis are prevalent in
the literature, but two which are of particular interest
are the analysis of gas phase composition and heating
content of natural gas streams and the determination
of vapor pressure and other physical properties of
liquid hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbon composition and BTU analysis is
imperative in custody transfer applications, but also in
gas processing and burner controls. Figure 12 clearly
depicts the excellent agreement between the NIR
results and gas chromatography when applied to
natural gas analysis. While chromatography is known
to work well in such applications, the proposed
advantages of NIR spectroscopy are:
No sample system required
No combustible gases extracted
Real Time analysis ( Wobbe for burner control)

Same analyzer performing other and

additional analyses.

The rapid increase in production of liquid rich gas

streams from various active shale plays such as the
Bakken, Montney, Eagleford and Marcellus has
resulted in increased production of natural gas
condensates and natural gas liquids. The condensates
represent a very valuable portion of the production
from wells in these formations, and the transport of
condensate is seeing increasingly tight regulation.

towers and product quality information for reporting

purposes. An online NIR system has been shown to
provide excellent correlation with standard ASTM
laboratory methods as shown in Figure 13.
In the particular facility where the online RVP
measurement was implemented, the advantages of
reliable and real-time RVP measurement were
significant. The facility was able to optimize the
stabilizer tower performance, minimize vapor recovery
losses and maximize product yield. Figure 14 shows
the reported change in operational characteristics at
the plant, in which they were able to run closer to the
9.5 psi RVP upper tolerance of the product. It was
estimated that the improved control and reduced
slippage favorably impacted operating margins at the
plant by about $2 / BOED.

Figure 12. Comparison of NIR and GC results

One of the most important physical properties of gas
condensates and natural gas liquids is the volatility as
measured by parameters such as RVP (Reid Vapor
Pressure) or TVP (True Vapor Pressure). These
streams not only have fairly high vapor pressure, which
makes them difficult to sample without some sample
loss, but also contain high levels of paraffin. The high
paraffin content proves difficult in operating
conventional online RVP analyzers, as the paraffin is
known to solidify at the temperature at which these
analyzers operate.
17

JP3 On-line

16
15
1
4
1
3
1
2
11

Figure 14. RVP control before (red) and after (green)

installation of NIR Analyzer

6. Conclusions
The use of alternative technologies, such as near
infrared spectroscopy, in the oil and gas sector
increases yearly. NIR spectroscopy allows the use of
modern telecommunication grade components and
fiber optics to perform real-time analysis of both
composition and physical properties in the field. In the
past, NIR instruments were used primarily in large
downstream facilities like refineries and petrochemical
plants. As the merits and advantages of the technology
are better understood by industry, the technology is
migrating to upstream and midstream operations.

10
9

10
12
1
Lab (ASTM Method)
4

16

18

The use of fiber optic based near infrared systems in

the refining and petrochemical industry has many
advantages. These include:

Lower installed cost due to reduced sample

system complexity,

Improved process control by provision of realtime data with high availability,

Figure 13. RVP Measurements by NIR Spectroscopy

Near Infrared spectroscopy may be used to perform
online analysis of condensate streams and provide
control information for optimization of stabilization

The ability to perform process measurements

at line conditions with no potential or
requirement for phase changes,

12. NIR Spectrometer Technology Compared, Foss

Corporation,http://nirperformance.com/2013/06/06/nirspectrometer-technology-compared/

Multiple sample point analysis from a single

instrument, where differing analyses are
performed at each sample point,

Reliable and robust analysis of both gas phase

and liquid phase streams with a single
analyzer.

13. P. Little, J.Zhu and P.Harris, In-situ, real time

analysis of liquid and gas hydrocarbon streams using
a broadly tunable laser spectrometer, 59th ISA Analysis
Division Symposium, Baton Rouge LA (2014)

In the hydrocarbon processing industry, near infrared

spectroscopy represents an enabling technology to
allow for real time insights to the operational
characteristics of a facility, and allows for process
optimization previously unattainable.

7. References
1. M.Gaura, Process gas chromatography: Avoid the
iceberg of hidden expenses. Hydrocarbon Processing
2011
2. W.Herschel, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. (London) 284
(1800)
3. W. W. Coblentz, Investigations of Infrared Spectra
Part 1. Publication No. 35, Carnegie Institute of
Washington (1905)
4. M. Blanco and I Villarroya, NIR Spectroscopy: a
rapid-response analytical tool. Trends in Analytical
Chemistry Vol 21 No 4 (2002)
5. H. W. Siesler,Y. Ozaki, S. Kawata and H. Heise,
Near-Infrared Spectroscopy: Principles, Instruments,
Applications, Wiley and Sons, (2002)
6. H. Andersen, H, Wedelsback, P. Hansen. NIR
Spectrometer
Technology
Comparison.
Foss
Corporation. (2013)
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Real-Time Hydrocarbon Gas Speciation and
Measurement. ISHM Class # 5065.1
8. C.Brown, Final Report: Optical BTU Sensor
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9.
N. Goldstein et al Real Time Optical BTU
Measurement of Natural Gas at Line Pressure, 4th
International Symposium on Fluid Flow Measurement,
Denver, (1999)
10, N. Makhoukhi Determination of the composition
and gross heating value of a mixture of gases by
infrared spectroscopy and chemometric methods. 23rd
World Gas Conference, Amsterdam (2006)
11. D.B. Olsen and D. Wise Energy Meter Performance
Assessment: Phase 1 PRCI Report PR-179-12603R02

14. B.G Liptak and K. Venczel, Process Measurement

Instrument Engineers Handbook, (1982)
15. D.C. Cornish, G. Jepson, and M.J. Smurthwaite,
Sampling
Systems
for
Process
Analyzers,
Buttersworh, London (1981)
16. The Pason Gas Analyzer The Spectrometer
Advantage. www.pason.com
17. M. E. Coburn et al, Preliminary Testing of a Novel
Downhole Fiber Optic Fluid Analyzer, Improved Oil
Recovery Symposium, Tulsa Ok (2000)