Álvaro Obregón

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lvaroObregn
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
lvaroObregnSalido(Spanishpronunciation:[alaooeon]February19,1880July17,1928)wasa
generalintheMexicanRevolution,whobecamePresidentofMexicofrom1920to1924.HesupportedSonora's
decisiontofollowGovernorofCoahuilaVenustianoCarranzaasleaderofarevolutionagainsttheHuerta
regime.CarranzaappointedObregncommanderoftherevolutionaryforcesinnorthwesternMexicoandin
1915appointedhimashisministerofwar.In1920,ObregnlaunchedarevoltagainstCarranza,inwhich
Carranzawasassassinatedhewonthesubsequentelectionwithoverwhelmingsupport.
lvaroObregn
Obregn'spresidencywasthefirststablepresidencysincetheRevolutionbeganin1910.Heoversawmassive
educationalreform(withMexicanmuralismflourishing),moderatelandreform,andlaborlawssponsoredby
theincreasinglypowerfulRegionalConfederationofMexicanWorkers.InAugust1923hesignedtheBucareli
TreatythatclarifiedtherightsoftheMexicangovernmentandU.S.oilinterestsandbroughtU.S.diplomatic
recognitiontohisgovernment.[1]In192324,Obregn'sfinanceminister,AdolfodelaHuerta,launcheda
rebellioninpartprotestingtheBucareliTreatyObregnreturnedtothebattlefieldtocrushtherebellion.Inhis
victoryhewasaidedbytheUnitedStateswitharmsand17U.S.planesthatbombeddelaHuerta'ssupporters.[2]
In1924,Obregn'sfellowNorthernrevolutionarygeneralandhandpickedsuccessor,PlutarcoElasCalles,was
electedpresident,andalthoughObregnostensiblyretiredtoSonora,heremainedinfluentialunderCalles.
Havingpushedthroughconstitutionalreformtoonceagainmakereelectionpossible,Obregnwonthe1928
election,butwasassassinatedbyJosdeLenToral,aMexicanoffendedbythegovernment'santireligious
laws,beforehecouldbeginhissecondterm.Toral'ssubsequenttrialultimatelyledtohisexecutionbyfiring
squad,anditalsoinvolvedaCapuchinnunnamedMadreConchita,whowasthoughttobethemastermind
behindObregn'smurder.[3]
39thPresidentofMexico
Inoffice
December1,1920November30,1924
Precededby
AdolfodelaHuerta
Succeededby
PlutarcoElasCalles
Personaldetails
Contents
1 Earlyyears,18801911
2 Militarycareer,19111915
2.1 Earlymilitarycareer,19111913
2.2 StruggleagainsttheHuertaRegime,19131914
2.3 BreakwithPanchoVillaandEmilianoZapata,1914
2.4 BattlewiththeConventionists,1915
2.5 Obregn'sarm
3 Earlypoliticalcareer,19151920
3.1 MinisterofWarinCarranza'sPreconstitutionalRegime,19151916
3.2 BreakwithCarranza,19171920
4 PresidentofMexico,19201924
4.1 Educationalreformsandculturaldevelopments
4.2 Laborrelations
4.3 Landreform
4.4 TheMexicanCatholicChurchduringObregn'spresidency
4.5 MexicoU.S.relations
4.6 ThedelaHuertarebellion,192324
5 Lateryears,19241928
5.1 Reelectionandassassination
6 Honors
7 Legacyandposthumousrecognition
8 Inpopularculture
9 Notes
10 Furtherreading
11 Externallinks
Born
lvaroObregnSalido
February19,1880
Siquisiva,Navojoa,Sonora
Died
July17,1928(aged48)
Sanngel,MexicoCity
Nationality
Mexican
Politicalparty
LaboristParty(PL)
Spouse(s)
MaraTapia(18881971)
Earlyyears,18801911
ObregnwasborninSiquisiva,Sonora,MunicipalityofNavojoa,thesonofFranciscoObregnandCenobiaSalido.FranciscoObregnhadonceowneda
substantialestate,buthisbusinesspartnersupportedEmperorMaximilianduringtheFrenchinterventioninMexico(18611867),andthefamily'sestatewas
thereforeconfiscatedbytheLiberalgovernmentin1867.[4]FranciscoObregndiedin1880,theyearoflvaroObregn'sbirth,leavinglvarotoberaisedin
povertybyhismotherandhisoldersistersCenobia,Mara,andRosa.[5]
Duringhischildhood,heworkedonthefamilyfarmandbecameacquaintedwiththeMayopeoplewhoalsoworkedthere.Heattendedaschoolrunbyhisbrother
JosinHuatabampoandthusreceivedanelementaryeducation.Hespenthisteenageyearsworkingavarietyofjobs,beforefindingpermanentemploymentin
1898asalatheoperatoratthesugarmillownedbyhismaternalunclesinNavolato,Sinaloa.[5]
In1903,hemarriedRefugioUrreaandin1904,heleftthesugarmilltosellshoesdoortodoor,andthentobecomeatenantfarmer.By1906,hewasinaposition
tobuyhisownsmallfarm,wherehegrewchickpeas.ThenextyearwastragicforObregnashiswifeandtwoofhischildrendied,leavinghimawidowerwith
twosmallchildren,whowerehenceforthraisedbyhisthreeoldersisters.In1909,Obregninventedachickpeaharvesterandsoonfoundedacompanyto
manufacturetheseharvesters,completewithamodernassemblyline.HesuccessfullymarketedtheseharvesterstochickpeafarmersthroughouttheMayo
Valley.[5]
Militarycareer,19111915
Earlymilitarycareer,19111913
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_Obreg%C3%B3n
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Obregnenteredpoliticsin1911withhiselectionasmunicipalpresidentofthetownofHuatabampo.ObregnexpressedlittlesympathyfortheAntireelectionist
movementlaunchedbyFranciscoI.Maderoin19081909inoppositiontoPresidentPorfirioDaz.Thus,whenMaderobegantheMexicanRevolutionin
November1910byissuinghisPlanofSanLuisPotos,ObregndidnotjointhestruggleagainstPorfirioDaz.[6]
MaderosucceededindefeatingPorfirioDazandthusbecamePresidentofMexicoinNovember1911.[6]
ObregnbecameasupporterofMaderoshortlyafterMaderobecamePresidentofMexico.InMarch1912,PascualOrozco,a
generalwhohadfoughtwithMaderoduringtheMexicanRevolution,buthadgrowndisaffectedwithMadero,launcheda
revoltagainstMadero'sregimeinChihuahuawiththefinancialbackingofLuisTerrazas,aformerGovernorofChihuahuaand
thelargestlandownerinMexico.[6]
InApril1912,ObregnvolunteeredtojointhelocalMaderistaforces,theFourthIrregularBattalionofSonora,organized
underthecommandofGeneralSanginstoopposeOrozco'srevolt.[7]
ThisBattalionsupportedfederaltroopsunderthecommandofVictorianoHuertasentbyMaderotocrushOrozco'srebellion.
WithinweeksofjoiningtheBattalion,Obregndisplayedsignsofmilitarygenius.Obregndisobeyedhissuperior'sorders
butwonseveralbattlesbyluringhisenemyintotraps,surpriseassaults,andencirclingmaneuvers.[7]
ObregnwasquicklypromotedthroughtheranksandattainedtherankofColonelbeforeresigninginDecember1912,
followingvictoryoverOrozco(withOrozcofleeingtotheUnitedStates).[8]
ObregnhadintendedtoreturntocivilianlifeinDecember1912,buttheninFebruary1913,theMaderoregimewas
overthrowninacoupd'tat(knowntoMexicanhistoryasLadecenatrgica)orchestratedbyVictorianoHuerta,FlixDaz,
BernardoReyes,andHenryLaneWilson,theUnitedStatesAmbassadortoMexico.Huertaassumedthepresidency.[8]
PascualOrozco(18821915),who
foughtwithFranciscoI.Madero
(18731913)in1910,onlyto
launcharebellionagainsthimin
Chihuahuain1911.Obregn's
firstexperienceinthemilitary
wassupportingproMaderoforces
underVictorianoHuerta(1850
1916)againstOrozco'srebellion.
ObregnimmediatelytraveledtoHermosillotoofferhisservicestothegovernmentofSonorainoppositiontotheHuerta
regime.TheSonorangovernmentrefusedtorecognizetheHuertaregime,andinearlyMarch1913,Obregnwasappointed
chiefofSonora'sWarDepartment.Inthiscapacity,hesetoutoncampaign,andinamatterofdayshadmanagedtodrive
federaltroopsoutofNogales,Cananea,andNaco.HesoonfollowedupbycapturingtheportcityofGuaymas.Hesquaredoff
againstfederaltroopsinMay1913atthebattleofSantaRosathroughanencirclementofenemyforces.Ascommanderof
Sonora'sforces,ObregnwontherespectofmanyrevolutionarieswhohadfoughtunderMaderoin191011,mostnotably
BenjamnG.Hill.[8]
StruggleagainsttheHuertaRegime,19131914
TheSonorangovernmentwasincontactwiththegovernmentofCoahuila,whichhadalsorefusedtorecognizetheHuertaregimeandenteredastateofrebellion.
ASonorandelegationheadedbyAdolfodelaHuertatraveledtoMonclovatomeetwiththeGovernorofCoahuila,VenustianoCarranza.TheSonorangovernment
signedontoCarranza'sPlanofGuadalupe,bywhichCarranzabecame"primerjefe"ofthenewlyproclaimedConstitutionalArmy.On30September1913,
CarranzaappointedObregncommanderinchiefoftheConstitutionalArmyintheNorthwest,withjurisdictionoverSonora,Sinaloa,Durango,Chihuahua,and
BajaCalifornia.[8]
InNovember1913,Obregn'sforcescapturedCuliacn,thussecuringthesupremacyoftheConstitutionalArmyintheentire
areaofNorthwesternMexicounderObregn'scommand.[8]
ObregnandotherSonoransweredeeplysuspiciousofCarranza'sSecretaryofWar,Felipengeles,becausetheyconsidered
ngelestobeaholdoveroftheoldDazregime.AttheurgingoftheSonorans(themostpowerfulgroupinCarranza's
coalitionfollowingObregn'svictoriesintheNorthwest),CarranzadowngradedngelestothepositionofSubSecretaryof
War.[9]
Inspiteofhisdemotion,ngelesformulatedtherebelgrandstrategyofathreeprongattacksouthtoMexicoCity:(1)
Obregnwouldadvancesouthalongthewesternrailroad,(2)PanchoVillawouldadvancesouthalongthecentralrailroad,and
(3)PabloGonzlezGarzawouldadvancesouthalongtheeasternrailroad.[10]
ObregnbeganhismarchsouthinApril1914.WhereasPanchoVillapreferredwildcavalrycharges,Obregnwasagainmore
cautious.VillawassoonatoddswithCarranza,andinMay1914,CarranzainstructedObregntoincreasethepaceofhis
southerncampaigntoensurethathebeatVilla'stroopstoMexicoCity.ObregnmovedhistroopsfromTopolobampo,
Sinaloa,toblockadeMazatln,andthentoTepic,whereObregncutofftherailroadfromGuadalajara,Jalisco,toColima,
thusleavingbothoftheseportsisolated.[11]
Gen.ObregnandstaffofYaquis,
c1913.
InearlyJuly,ObregnmovedsouthtoOrendan,Jalisco,wherehistroopsdefeatedfederaltroops,leaving8000dead,and
makingitclearthattheHuertaregimewasdefeated.Obregnwaspromotedtomajorgeneral.Hecontinuedhismarch
south.UponObregn'sarrivalinTeoloyucan,MexicoState,itwasclearthatHuertawasdefeated,and,on11August,on
themudguardofacar,ObregnsignedthetreatiesthatendedtheHuertaregime.On16August1914,Obregnand18,000
ofhistroopsmarchedtriumphantlyintoMexicoCity.HewasjoinedshortlybyCarranza,whomarchedtriumphantlyinto
MexicoCityon20August.[11]
InMexicoCity,Obregnmovedtoexactrevengeonhisperceivedenemies.HebelievedthattheMexicanCatholicChurch
hadsupportedtheHuertaregime,andhethereforeimposedafineof500,000pesosonthechurch,tobepaidtothe
RevolutionaryCouncilforAidtothePeople.[12]
HealsobelievedthattherichhadbeenproHuerta,andhethereforeimposedspecialtaxesoncapital,realestate,
mortgages,water,pavement,sewers,carriages,automobiles,bicycles,etc.[13]Specialmeasurewerealsotakenagainst
foreigners.Someoftheseweredeliberatelyhumiliating:forexample,heforcedforeignbusinessmentosweepthestreetsof
MexicoCity.[14]
BreakwithPanchoVillaandEmilianoZapata,1914
lvaroObregn(centerleft)and
greybearded"FirstChief"ofthe
Constitutionalists,Venustiano
Carranza.
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TensionsbetweenCarranzaandPanchoVillagrewthroughout1914,asVillacreatedanumberofdiplomaticincidentsthatCarranzawasworriedwouldinvite
outsideinterventionintheMexicanRevolution.On8July1914,VillistasandCarrancistashadsignedtheTreatyofTorren,inwhichtheyagreedthatafter
Huerta'sforcesweredefeated,150generalsoftheRevolutionwouldmeettodeterminethefutureshapeofthecountry.However,CarranzadislikedVilla's
insubordinationsomuchthatherefusedtoletVillamarchintoMexicoCityinAugust.InSeptember,VillaandCarranzaformallysplit,andduringthistime
ObregnpaidavisittoVillathatnearlyresultedinVilla'shavingObregnshot.[14]
TheConventionthattheCarrancistasandVillistashadagreedtointheTreatyofTorrenwentaheadatAguascalienteson5
October1914.CarranzadidnotparticipateintheConventionofAguascalientesbecausehewasnotageneral,but,asa
general,Obregnparticipated.TheConventionsoonsplitintotwomajorfactions:(1)theCarrancistas,whoinsistedthatthe
ConventionshouldfollowthepromiseofthePlanofGuadalupeandrestorethe1857ConstitutionofMexicoand(2)the
Villistas,whosoughtmorewiderangingsocialreformsthansetoutinthePlanofGuadalupe.TheVillistasweresupportedby
EmilianoZapata,leaderoftheLiberationArmyoftheSouth,whohadissuedhisownPlanofAyala,whichcalledforwide
rangingsocialreforms.Foramonthandahalf,Obregnmaintainedneutralitybetweenthetwosides,andtriedtoreacha
middlegroundthatwouldavoidacivilwar.[15]
Eventually,itbecameclearthattheVillistas/ZapatistashadprevailedattheConventionCarranza,however,refusedtoaccept
theConvention'spreparationsfora"preconstitutional"regime,whichCarranzabelievedwastotallyinadequate,andinlate
November,CarranzarejectedtheauthorityoftheregimeimposedbytheConvention.Forcedtochoosesides,Obregn
naturallysidedwithCarranzaandlefttheConventiontofightforthePrimerJefe.Hehadmademanyfriendsamongstthe
VillistasandZapatistasattheConvention,andwasabletoconvincesomeofthemtodepartwithhim.OnDecember12,1914,
CarranzaissuedhisAdditionstothePlanofGuadalupe,whichlaidoutanambitiousreformprogram,includingLawsof
Reform,inconsciousimitationofBenitoJurez'sLawsofReform.[15]
BattlewiththeConventionists,1915
EulalioGutirrez(18811939),
flankedbyFrancisco"Pancho"
Villa(18781923)andEmiliano
Zapata(18791919).Gutirrez
wasappointedprovisional
PresidentofMexicobythe
ConventionofAguascalientes,a
movethatVenustianoCarranza
(18591920)foundintolerable.In
theensuingwar,Obregnfought
forCarranzaagainstthe
Convention.
Onceagain,Obregnwasabletorecruitloyaltroopsbypromisingthemlandinreturnfor
militaryservice.Inthiscase,inFebruary1915,theConstitutionalistArmysignedan
agreementwiththeCasadelObreroMundial("HouseoftheWorldWorker"),thelaborunionwithanarchosyndicalist
connectionswhichhadbeenestablishedduringFranciscoI.Madero'spresidency.Asaresultofthisagreement,six"Red
Battalions"ofworkerswereformedtofightalongsidetheConstitutionalistsagainsttheConventionistsVillaandZapata.This
agreementhadthesideeffectoflendingtheCarrancistaslegitimacywiththeurbanproletariat.[15]
Obregn'sforceseasilydefeatedZapatistaforcesatPueblainearly1915.However,theVillistasremainedincontroloflarge
portionsofthecountry.ForcesunderPanchoVillaweremovingtowardstheBajoFelipengeles'forcesoccupiedSaltillo
andthusdominatedthenortheasttheforcesofCalixtoContrerasandRodolfoFierrocontrolledwesternMexicoandforces
underTomsUrbinawereactiveinTamaulipasandSanLuisPotos.[16]
GeneralObregn.
ThearmiesofObregnandVillaclashedinfourbattles,collectivelyknownastheBattleofCelaya,thelargestmilitary
confrontationinLatinAmericanhistorybeforetheFalklandsWarof1982.Thefirstbattletookplaceon6Apriland7April
1915andendedwiththewithdrawaloftheVillistas.Thesecond,inCelaya,Guanajuato,tookplacebetween13Apriland15
April,whenVillaattackedthecityofCelaya,butwasrepulsed.ThethirdwastheprolongedpositionbattleofTrinidadand
SantaAnadelCondebetween29Apriland5June,whichwasthedefinitivebattle.Villawasagaindefeatedby
Obregn,wholosthisrightarminthefight.[17]
VillamadealastattempttostopObregn'sarmyinAguascalienteson10July,butwithoutsuccess.Obregn
distinguishedhimselfduringtheBattleofCelayabybeingoneofthefirstMexicanstocomprehendthatthe
introductionofmodernfieldartillery,andespeciallymachineguns,hadshiftedthebattlefieldinfavorofadefending
force.Infact,whileObregnstudiedthisshiftanduseditinhisdefenseofCelaya,generalsintheWorldWarI
trenchesofEuropewerestilladvocatingbloodyandmostlyfailingmasscharges.[18]
GenerallvaroObregn(left)shownwitha
cigarinhislefthandandhisrightarm
missing,lostintheBattleofCelayain1915.
CenterisFirstChiefVenustianoCarranza
Obregn'sarm
DuringthebattleswithVilla,Obregnhadhisrightarmblownoff.Theblastnearlykilledhim,andheattemptedto
puthimselfoutofhismiseryandfiredhispistoltoaccomplishthat.Theaidedecampwhohadcleanedhisgunhad
neglectedtoputbulletsintheweapon.Inawrystoryhetoldabouthimself,hejoinedinthesearchforhismissing
arm."Iwashelpingthemmyself,becauseit'snotsoeasytoabandonsucha
necessarythingasanarm."Thesearchershadnoluck.Acomradereachedintohis
pocketandraisedagoldcoin.Obregnconcludedthestory,saying"Andthen
everyonesawamiracle:thearmcameforthfromwhoknowswhere,andcome
skippinguptowherethegoldazteca[coin]waselevateditreachedupandgraspedit
initsfingerslovinglyThatwastheonlywaytogetmylostarmtoappear."[19][20]
ThearmwassubsequentlyembalmedandthenputinthemonumenttoObregnonthe
siteofwherehewasassassinatedin1928.Obregnalwaysworeclothingtailoredto
showthathehadlosthisarminbattle,avisiblesignofhissacrificetoMexico.
Earlypoliticalcareer,19151920
MinisterofWarinCarranza'sPreconstitutionalRegime,19151916
PresidentObregninabusiness
suit,showingthathelosthisright
armfightingPanchoVillain
1915.Itearnedhimthenickname
ofElMancodeCelaya("theone
armedmanofCelaya").
MonumenttolvaroObregnin
whichhislostarmwasplaced.
InMay1915,Carranzahadproclaimedhimselftheheadofwhathetermeda
"PreconstitutionalRegime"thatwouldgovernMexicountilaconstitutionalconvention
couldbeheld.CarranzaappointedObregnasMinisterofWarinhisnewcabinet.[18]
AsMinisterofWar,ObregndeterminedtomodernizeandprofessionalizetheMexicanmilitarythoroughly.Intheprocess,he
foundedastaffcollegeandaschoolofmilitarymedicine.HealsofoundedtheDepartmentofAviationandaschooltotrain
pilots.Munitionsfactorieswereplacedunderthedirectcontrolofthemilitary.[18]
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BreakwithCarranza,19171920
InSeptember1916,CarranzaconvokedaConstitutionalConvention,tobeheldinQuertaro,Quertaro.Hedeclaredthattheliberal1857ConstitutionofMexico
wouldberespected,thoughpurgedofsomeofitsshortcomings.
However,whentheConstitutionalConventionmetinDecember1916,itcontainedonly85conservativesandcentristsclosetoCarranza'sbrandofliberalism,a
groupknownasthebloquerenovador("renewalfaction").Againstthemwere132moreradicaldelegateswhoinsistedthatlandreformbeembodiedinthenew
constitution.
ObregnnowbrokewithCarranzaandthrewhisconsiderableweightbehindtheradicals.Hemetwithradicallegislators,aswellastheintellectualleaderofthe
radicals,AndrsMolinaEnrquez,andcameoutinfavorofalltheirkeyissues.Inparticular,unlikeCarranza,Obregnsupportedthelandreformmandatedby
Article27oftheconstitution.HealsosupportedtheheavilyanticlericalArticles3and130thatCarranzaopposed.[18][21][22]
ShortlyafterswearinghisallegiancetothenewConstitution,ObregnresignedasMinisterofWarandretiredtoHuatabampotoresumehislifeasachickpea
farmer.Heorganizedtheregion'schickpeafarmersinaproducer'sleagueandbrieflyentertainedtheideaofgoingtoFrancetofightonthesideoftheAlliesin
WorldWarOne.Hemadeaconsiderableamountofmoneyintheseyears,andalsoentertainedmanyvisitors.AsthevictoriousgeneraloftheMexicanRevolution,
Obregnremainedenormouslypopularthroughoutthecountry.[23]
Byearly1919,Obregnhaddeterminedtousehisimmensepopularitytoruninthepresidentialelectionthatwouldbeheldin1920.Carranzaannouncedthathe
wouldnotrunforpresidentin1920,butrefusedtoendorseObregn,insteadendorsinganobscurediplomat,IgnacioBonillas.Obregnannouncedhiscandidacy
inJune1919.InAugust,heconcludedanagreementwithLuisNapolenMoronesandtheRegionalConfederationofMexicanWorkers,promisingthatifelected,
hewouldcreateaDepartmentofLabor,installalaborfriendlyMinisterofIndustryandCommerce,andissueanewlaborlaw.[24]
ObregnbegantocampaigninearnestinNovember1919.[25]
Inthemeantime,CarranzaseemeddeterminedtostopObregn.AtCarranza'sbehest,theSenatestrippedObregnofhismilitaryrank,amovewhichonly
increasedObregn'spopularity.Then,CarranzaochestratedaplotinwhichaminorofficerclaimedthatObregnwasplanninganarmeduprisingagainstthe
Carranzaregime.ObregnwasforcedtodisguisehimselfasarailwaymanandfleetoGuerrero,whereoneofhisformersubordinates,FortunatoMaycotte,was
governor.Whentheelectionwasheld,BonillasdefeatedObregn.[26]
On20April1920ObregnissuedadeclarationinthetownofChilpancingoaccusingCarranzaofhavingusedpublicmoneyinsupportofBonillas'spresidential
candidacy.HedeclaredhisallegiancetotheGovernorofSonora,AdolfodelaHuerta,inrevolutionagainsttheCarranzaregime.[26]
On23April,theSonoransissuedthePlanofAguaPrieta,whichtriggeredamilitaryrevoltagainstthepresident.Obregn'sSonoranforceswereaugmentedby
troopsunderGeneralBenjamnG.HillandtheZapatistasledbyGildardoMagaaandGenovevodelaO.
TherevoltwassuccessfulandCarranzawasdeposed.On20May1920,CarranzawaskilledinthestateofPueblainanambushledbyGeneralRodolfoHerreroas
hefledfromMexicoCitytoVeracruzonhorseback.
Forsixmonths,from1June1920to1December1920,AdolfodelaHuertaservedasprovisionalpresidentofMexicountilelectionscouldbeheld.[27]When
Obregnwasdeclaredthevictor,delaHuertasteppeddownandassumedthepositionofSecretaryoftheTreasuryinthenewgovernment.
PresidentofMexico,19201924
Obregn'selectionaspresidentessentiallysignaledtheendoftheviolenceoftheMexicanRevolution.ThedeathofLucioBlancoin1922andtheassassinationof
PanchoVillain1923wouldeliminatethelastremainingobviouschallengestoObregn'sregime.Hepursuedwhatseemtobecontradictorypoliciesduringhis
administration.[28]
Educationalreformsandculturaldevelopments
ObregnappointedJosVasconcelos(RectoroftheNationalAutonomousUniversityofMexicowhohadbeeninexile19151920becauseofhisoppositionto
Carranza)ashisSecretaryofPublicEducation.[29]Vasconcelosundertookamajorefforttoconstructnewschoolsacrossthecountry.Around1,000ruralschools
and2,000publiclibrarieswerebuilt.[30]
VasconceloswasalsointerestedinpromotingartisticdevelopmentsthatcreatedanarrativeofMexico'shistoryandtheMexicanRevolution.Obregn'stimeas
presidentsawthebeginningoftheartmovementofMexicanmuralism,withartistssuchasDiegoRivera,DavidAlfaroSiqueiros,JosClementeOrozco,and
RobertoMontenegroinvitedtocreatemuralsexpressiveofthespiritoftheMexicanRevolutiononthewallsofpublicbuildingsthroughoutMexico.[31]
ObregnalsosoughttoshapepublicperceptionsoftheRevolutionanditsplacehishistorybystagingelaboratecelebrationsin1921onthecentenaryofMexico's
independencefromSpain.Therehadbeensuchcelebrationsin1910bytheDazregime,commemoratingthestartoftheinsurgencybyMiguelHidalgo.The
politicalfactofindependencewasachievedbyformerroyalistofficerAgustndeIturbide,whowasmorecelebratedbyconservativesinpostindependence
Mexicothanliberals.However,1921providedadateforObregon'sgovernmenttoshapehistoricalmemoryofindependenceandtheRevolution.[32]Aftera
decadeofviolenceduringtheRevolution,thecentennialcelebrationsprovidedanopportunityforMexicanstoreflectontheirhistoryandidentity,aswellasto
enjoydiversionsinpeacetime.ForObregn,thecentennialwasawaytoemphasizethatrevolutionaryinitiativeshadhistoricalrootsandthatlikeindependence,
theRevolutionpresentednewopportunitiesforMexicans.[33]Obregn"intendedtousetheoccasiontoshoreuppopularsupportforthegovernment,and,by
extension,therevolutionitself."[34]Unlikethecentennialcelebrationsin1910,theoneof1921hadnomonumentalarchitecturetoinaugurate.[35]
Laborrelations
ObregnkepthisAugust1919agreementwithLuisNapolenMoronesandtheRegionalConfederationofMexicanWorkers(CROM)andcreatedaDepartment
ofLabor,installedalaborfriendlyMinisterofIndustryandCommerce,andissuedanewlaborlaw.[36]
MoronesandCROMbecameincreasinglypowerfulintheearly1920sanditwouldhavebeenverydifficultforObregntoopposetheirincreasedpower.Morones
wasnotafraidtouseviolenceagainsthiscompetitors,nearlyeliminatingtheGeneralConfederationofWorkersin1923.[36]
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CROM'ssuccessdidnotnecessarilytranslatetosuccessforallofMexico'sworkers,andArticle123oftheConstitutionof
Mexicowasenforcedonlysporadically.Thus,whileCROM'srighttostrikewasrecognized,nonCROMstrikeswerebroken
upbythepoliceorthearmy.AndfewMexicanworkersgotSundaysoffwithpay,orwereabletolimittheirworkdaytoeight
hours.[36]
Landreform
LuisN.Moronesin1925
LandreformwasfarmoreextensiveunderObregnthanithadbeenunderCarranza.Obregnenforcedtheconstitutionalland
redistributionprovisions,andintotal,921,627hectaresoflandweredistributedduringhispresidency.[36]However,Obregn
wasasuccessfulcommercialchickpeafarmerinSonora,and"didnotbelieveinsocialismorinlandreform"andwasin
agreementwithMaderoandCarranzathat"radicallandreformmightverywelldestroytheMexicaneconomyandleadtoa
returntosubsistenceagriculture."[37]
TheMexicanCatholicChurchduringObregn'spresidency
ManyleadersandmembersoftheRomanCatholicChurchinMexicowerehighlycriticalofthe1917constitution.TheyespeciallycriticizedArticle3,which
forbadereligiousinstructioninschools,andArticle130,whichadoptedanextremeformofseparationofchurchandstate,includingaseriesofrestrictionson
priestsandministersofallreligionstoholdpublicoffice,canvassonbehalfofpoliticalpartiesorcandidates,ortoinheritfrompersonsotherthancloseblood
relatives,etc.[36]
AlthoughObregnwassuspiciousoftheCatholicChurch,hewaslessanticlericalthanhissuccessor,PlutarcoElasCalles,whosepolicieswouldleadtothe
CristeroWar(192629).Forexample,hesentPopePiusXIcongratulationsuponhiselectionin1922and,inaprivatemessagetothepope,emphasizedthe
"complementarity"oftheaimsoftheCatholicChurchandtheMexicanRevolution.[36]
InspiteofObregn'smoderateapproach,hispresidencysawthebeginningsofclashesbetweenCatholicsandsupportersoftheMexicanRevolution.Some
bishopscampaignedactivelyagainstlanddistributionandagainsttheorganizationofworkersintosecularunions.CatholicActionmovementswerefoundedin
MexicointhewakeofPiusXI's1922encyclicalUbiarcanoDeiconsilio,andsupportersoftheYoungMexicanCatholicActionsoonfoundthemselvesinviolent
conflictwithCROMmembers.[38]
Themostseriousdiplomaticincidentoccurredin1923,whenErnestoFilippi,theApostolicNunciotoMexico,conductedanopenairreligiousserviceinspiteof
thefactthatitwasillegaltoholdareligiousserviceoutsideachurch.ThegovernmentinvokedArticle33oftheconstitutionandexpelledFilippifromMexico.[39]
MexicoU.S.relations
Aspresident,oneofObregn'stopprioritieswassecuringUSdiplomaticrecognitionofhisregime,toresumenormalMexicoUnitedStatesrelations.Althoughhe
rejectedtheU.S.demandthatMexicorescindArticle27oftheconstitution,ObregnnegotiatedamajoragreementwiththeUnitedStates,theBucareliTreatyof
August1923thatmadesomeconcessionstotheUSinordertogaindiplomaticrecognition.[40]ItwasparticularlyhelpfulwhentheMexicanSupremeCourt,ina
casebroughtbyTexasOil,declaredthatArticle27didnotapplyretroactively.AnotherimportantarenainwhichObregnresolvedissueswiththeU.S.andother
foreigngovernmentswastheMexicanUnitedStatesGeneralClaimsCommission.[41]FinanceMinisterAdolfodelaHuertasignedadealinwhichMexico
recognizedadebtof$1.451milliontointernationalbankers.Finally,attheBucareliConference,ObregnagreedtoanAmericandemandthatMexicowouldnot
expropriateanyforeignoilcompanies,andinexchange,theU.S.recognizedhisgovernment.ManyMexicanscriticizedObregnasasellout(entreguista),
includingAdolfodelaHuertaforhisactionsattheBucareliConference.[39]
ThedelaHuertarebellion,192324
In1823,ObregnendorsedPlutarcoElasCallesforpresidentinthe1824election(inwhichObregnwasnoteligibletorun).
FinanceMinisterAdolfodelaHuerta(whohadservedasinterimpresidentin1820,beforesteppingasideinfavorofObregn)
believedthathedeservedtobethenextpresidentandthatObregnwasrepeatingCarranza'smistakeofimposinghisown
candidateonthecountry.DelaHuertathereforeacceptedthenominationoftheCooperativistPartytobeitscandidateinthe
presidentialelections.[42]
DelaHuertathenorganizedanuprisingagainstObregn.OverhalfofthearmyjoineddelaHuerta'srebellion,withmanyof
Obregn'sformercomradesinarmsnowturningonhim.RebelforcesmassedinVeracruzandJalisco.[42]
InadecisivebattleatOcotln,Jalisco,Obregn'sforcescrushedtherebelforces.DiplomaticrecognitionbytheUnitedStates
followingthesigningofthe1823BucareliTreatywassignificantinObregn'svictoryoverrebels.TheU.S.suppliedObregn
arms,butalsoaidedhimbysending17U.S.planesthatbombedrebelsinJalisco.[2]Obregnhunteddownmanyofhisformer
friendsandhadthemexecuted.[43]
AdolfodelaHuerta(18811955),
theformerGovernorofSonora
underwhosebannerObregn
purportedlyfoughtin1820,and
whoservedasObregn'sFinance
Ministerbeforelaunchinga
rebellionin1823.
Followingthecrushingoftherebellion,CalleswaselectedpresidentofMexicoandObregnsteppeddownfromoffice.
Lateryears,19241928
FollowingtheelectionofCallesaspresident,ObregnreturnedtoSonoratofarm.Heledan"agriculturalrevolution"inthe
YaquiValley,whereheintroducedmodernirrigation.Obregnexpandedhisbusinessintereststoincludearicemillin
Cajeme,aseafoodpackingplant,asoapfactory,tomatofields,acarrentalbusiness,andajutebagfactory.[44]
ObregnremainedinclosecontactwithPresidentCalles,whomhehadinstalledashissuccessor,andwasafrequentguestofCallesatChapultepecCastle.This
promptedfearsthatObregnwasintendingtofollowinthefootstepsofPorfirioDazandthatCalleswasmerelyapuppetfigure,theequivalentofManuel
Gonzlez.ThesefearsbecameacuteinOctober1926,whentheMexicanCongressrepealedtermlimits,thusclearingthewayforObregntorunforpresidentin
1928.[44]
ObregnreturnedtothebattlefieldfortheperiodOctober1926toApril1927toputdownarebellionledbytheYaquipeople.Thiswassomewhatironicbecause
ObregnhadfirstrisentomilitaryprominencecommandingYaquitroops,towhomhepromisedland,andthe192627Yaquirebellionwasademandforland
reform.Inalllikelihood,ObregnparticipatedinthiscampaigninordertoprovehisloyaltytotheCallesgovernment,toshowhiscontinuedinfluenceoverthe
military,andalsotoprotecthiscommercialinterestsintheYaquiValley,whichhadbeguntosufferasaresultoftheincreasingviolenceintheregion.[45]
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ObregnformallybeganhispresidentialcampaigninMay1927.CROMandalargepartofpublicopinionwereagainsthisreelection,buthestillcountedonthe
supportofmostofthearmyandoftheNationalAgrarianParty.
TwoofObregn'soldestallies,GeneralArnulfoR.GmezandGeneralFrancisco"Pancho"Serrano,opposedhisreelection.SerranolaunchedanantiObregn
rebellionandwasultimatelyassassinated.GmezlatercalledforaninsurrectionagainstObregnbutwassoonkilledaswell.[46]
Reelectionandassassination
Obregnwonthe1928Mexicanpresidentialelection,butmonthsbeforeassumingthepresidencyhewasassassinated.Calles'sharshtreatmentofRoman
CatholicshadledtoarebellionknownastheCristeroWar,whichbrokeoutin1926.AsanallyofCalles,ObregnwashatedbyCatholicsandwasassassinatedin
LaBombillaCafe[47]onJuly17,1928,shortlyafterhisreturntoMexicoCity,byJosdeLenToral,aRomanCatholicopposedtothegovernment'spolicieson
religiousmatters.[48]
Honors
lvaroObregnwasawardedJapan'sOrderoftheChrysanthemumataspecialceremonyinMexicoCity.OnNovember26,1924,BaronShigetsumaFuruya,
SpecialAmbassadorfromJapantoMexico,conferredthehonoronthePresident.[49]
Legacyandposthumousrecognition
AlthoughObregnwasagiftedmilitarystrategistduringtheRevolutionanddecisivelydefeatedPanchoVilla'sDivisionoftheNorthattheBattleofCelayaand
wentontobecomePresidentofMexico,hisposthumousnamerecognitionandstandingasaherooftheRevolutionisnowherenearthatofVilla'sorEmiliano
Zapata's.Aspresident,hesuccessfullygainedrecognitionfromtheUnitedStatesin1923,settledforaperiodthedisputewiththeU.S.overoilviatheBucareli
Treaty,gainfullreintohisSecretaryofPublicEducation,JosVasconcelos,whoexpandedaccesstolearningforMexicansbybuildingschools,butalsovia
publicartoftheMexicanmuralists.PerhapsaswithPorfirioDaz,ObregnsawhimselfasindispensabletothenationandhadtheConstitutionof1917amended
sothathecouldrunagainforthepresidencyinMexico.Thisbentand,inmanypeople'sminds,violatedtherevolutionaryrule"noreelection"thathadbeen
enshrinedintheconstitution.
Hisassassinationin1928beforehecouldtakethepresidentialofficecreatedamajorpoliticalcrisisinMexico,whichwassolvedbythecreationoftheNational
RevolutionaryPartybyhisfellowSonoran,GeneralandformerPresidentPlutarcoElasCalles.
AnimposingmonumenttolvaroObregnislocatedintheParquedelaBombilla,AvenidaMiguelngeldeQuevedoatInsurgentes,Sanngel,MexicoCity.
TheareaarounditisnowapoliticaljurisdictionofMexicoCity,lvaroObregn,D.F.ThemonumenttoObregnisthelargesttoasinglerevolutionary.Itwas
constructedintheplacewhereObregnwasassassinated.[50]ThemonumentheldObregnsevered,andovertheyears,increasinglydeterioratingrightarmthathe
lostin1915.Themonumentnowhasamarblesculptureoftheseveredarm,afterthearmitselfwasincineratedin1989.Obregn'sbodyafterhis1928
assassinationisburiedinHuatabampo,Sonora,ratherthantheMonumenttotheRevolutionindowntownMexicoCitywhereotherrevolutionariesarenow
entombed.InSonora,Obregnishonoredwithanequestrianstatue,whereheisshownasavigoroussoldierwithtwoarms.
InSonora,thesecondlargestcity,CiudadObregnisnamedfortherevolutionaryleader.Obregn'ssonlvaroObregnTapiaservedonetermasthegovernorof
SonoraasacandidatefortheInstitutionalRevolutionaryParty,foundedfollowingObregn'sassassination.ThelvaroObregnDam,builtnearCiudadObregn
becameoperationalduringthegubernatorialtermofObregn'sson.
ObregnishonoredinthenameofagenusofsmallcactusindigenoustoMexicoObregoniadenegrii.[51]
Inpopularculture
InthenovelTheFriendsofPanchoVilla(1996),byJamesCarlosBlake,Obregnisamajorcharacter.
ObregnisalsofeaturedinthenovelIlcollarespezzatobyItalianwriterValerioEvangelisti(2006).
Obregn'slegacyandlostlimbarethesubjectsofMexicanAmericansingersongwriterElVez's"TheArmofObregn,"fromhis1996albumG.I.Ay!Ay!
Blues.[52]
Notes
1.HowardF.Cline,TheUnitedStatesandMexico.Cambridge:HarvardUniversity
Press1961,p.208.
2.Cline,U.S.andMexico,p.208.
3.JaymieHeilman,"TheDemonInside:MadreConchita,Gender,andthe
AssassinationofObregon."MexicanStudies/EstudiosMexicanos,18.1(2002):
2360.
4.Krauze,Enrique.(1997).Mexico:BiographyofPower,p.374.(https://books.goog
le.com/books?id=sMIUcsUVyzsC&pg=PA374),p.374,atGoogleBooks
5.Krauze,p.375.(https://books.google.com/books?
id=sMIUcsUVyzsC&pg=PA375),p.375,atGoogleBooks
7.Krauze,p.378.
8.Krauze,p.379.
9.Slattery,Matthew.(1982).FelipengelesandtheMexicanRevolution,pp5960
Katz,Friedrich.(1998).TheLifeandTimesofPanchoVilla,p.277.(https://book
s.google.com/books?id=XAIcq6AJ3OwC&pg=PA277),p.277,atGoogleBooks
10.Slattery,p.61.
13.Krauze,p.382383.(https://books.google.com/books?id=sMIUcsUVyzsC&pg=PA
382),p.382,atGoogleBooks
17.Krauze,p.386387.
19.quotedinJohnW.F.Dulles,YesterdayinMexico:AChronicleofRevolution,
19191936.Austin:UniversityofTexas1961,pp.34.
20.JrgenBuchenau,"TheArmandBodyoftheRevolution:RememberingMexico's
LastCaudillo,lvaroObregn"inLymanL.Johnson,ed.BodyPolitics:Death,
Dismemberment,andMemoryinLatinAmerica.Albuquerque:UniversityofNew
MexicoPress2004,pp.179207.
21.D.L.Riner,J.V.Sweeney(1991).Mexico:meetingthechallenge.Euromoney.
p.64.ISBN9781870031592.
22.WilliamV.D'Antonio,FredrickB.Pike(1964).Religion,revolution,andreform:
newforcesforchangeinLatinAmerica.Praeger.p.66.
23.Buchenau,p.9497.
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6/7/2016
27.Krauze,p.392.
28.FriedrichKatz,TheLifeandTimesofPanchoVilla,Stanford:StanfordUniversity
Press1998,73032.
29.Krauze,p.393.
30.TheCourseofMexicanHistorybyMichaelC.MeyerandWilliamL.Sherman
32.MichaelJ.Gonzales,"ImaginingMexicoin1921:VisionsoftheRevolutionary
StateandSocietyintheCentennialCelebrationinMexicoCity,"Mexican
Studies/EstudiosMexicanosvol.25,(2)2009,pp.247270
33.Gonzales,"ImaginingMexicoin1921",p.249.
34.Gonzales,"ImaginingMexicoin1921",p.251.
35.Gonzales,"ImaginingMexicoin1921,"pp.25354.
37.Katz,TheLifeandTimesofPanchoVilla,p.731.
44.Krauze,p.399.
45.Buchenau,p.15051.
47."P&APhotos#173503NewYorkBureau
49."JapanDecoratesObregonOrderoftheChrysanthemumisConferredbySpecial
Ambassador,"(http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20614FE3B5D17
738DDDA10A94D9415B848EF1D3&scp=3&sq=order+of+the+chrysanthemum+
&st=p)NewYorkTimes,28November1924.
50."MonumentoalGenerallvaroObregn,MexicoCity",MyTravelGuide.com(htt
p://www.mytravelguide.com/attractions/profile79071705Mexico_Mexico_City_
Monumento_al_General_Alvaro_Obregon.html)
51.Eggli,Ursetal.(2004).EtymologicalDictionaryofSucculentPlantNames,p.
169,64.(https://books.google.com/books?id=u2n5vusQ1DEC&pg=PA169),p.
169,atGoogleBooks
52.McLeod,Kembrew."ElVez:G.I.Ay!Ay!Blues"(http://www.allmusic.com/albu
m/mw0000079627/review)atAllMusic.Retrieved16November2015.
Furtherreading
Buchenau,Jrgen.(2004)"TheArmandBodyofaRevolution:RememberingMexico'sLastCaudillo,lvaroObregn"inLymanL.Johnson,ed.Body
Politics:Death,Dismemberment,andMemoryinLatinAmerica.Albuquerque:UniversityofNewMexicoPress,pp.179207.
Buchenau,Jrgen.(2011)."TheLastCaudillo:AlvaroObregnandtheMexicanRevolution."Chichester,England:WileyBlackwell.
Castro,Pedro(2009).lvaroObregn:FuegoycenizasdelaRevolucinMexicana.EdicionesEraConsejoNacionalparalaCulturaylasArtes.ISBN
9786074450279(ERA)ISBN9786074552577(CNCA)SitiodePedroCastro(http://docencia.izt.uam.mx/pcm/pages/aobregon.html)
Eggli,UrsandLeonardE.Newton.(2004).EtymologicalDictionaryofSucculentPlantNames.(http://books.google.com/books?id=u2n5vusQ1DEC&dq=O
bregonia+denegrii.&source=gbs_navlinks_s)Berlin:Springer.ISBN9783540004899OCLC248883002
Hall,LindaB(1981).lvaroObregn:powerandrevolutioninMexico,19111920.CollegeStation:TexasA&MUniversityPress.ISBN9780890961131
OCLC7202959(http://www.worldcat.org/title/alvaroobregonpowerandrevolutioninmexico19111920/oclc/7202959&referer=brief_results)
Hall,LindaB."AlvaroObregnandthePoliticsofMexicanLandReform,19201924,"HispanicAmericanHistoricalReview(1980)60#2pp.213238in
JSTOR(http://www.jstor.org/stable/2513216)\
Heilman,Jaymie."TheDemonInside:MadreConchita,Gender,andtheAssassinationofObregn."MexicanStudies/EstudiosMexicanos,18.1(2002):23
60.
Katz,Friedrich.(1998).TheLifeandTimesofPanchoVilla.(http://books.google.com/books?id=XAIcq6AJ3OwC&dq=The+Life+and+Times+of+Pancho+
Villa.&source=gbs_navlinks_s)Stanford:StanfordUniversityPress.ISBN9780804730457ISBN9780804730464OCLC253993082(http://www.
worldcat.org/title/lifeandtimesofpanchovilla/oclc/253993082)
Krauze,Enrique.Mexico:BiographyofPower.NewYork:HarperCollins1997.
LomnitzAdler,Claudio.(2001).DeepMexico,SilentMexico:anAnthropologyofNationalism(http://books.google.com/books?id=tsgr2tDHqJMC).
UniversityofMinnesotaPress.
Lucas,JeffreyKent(2010).TheRightwardDriftofMexico'sFormerRevolutionaries:TheCaseofAntonioDazSotoyGama.Lewiston,NY:EdwinMellen
Press.ISBN9780773436657F1234.D585L832010
Slattery,Matthew.(1982).FelipengelesandtheMexicanRevolution.ParmaHeights,Ohio:GreenbriarBooks.ISBN9780932970343OCLC9108261
(http://www.worldcat.org/title/felipeangelesandthemexicanrevolution/oclc/9108261)
Externallinks
AdmiringessayontheBattleofCelaya(http://www.exile.ru/2006June29/celaya_machismo_vs_overlapping_fields_of_fire.html)withafocusonthe
tacticsusedbyGeneralObregn.
Priestley,HerbertIngram(1922)."Obregn,Alvaro".EncyclopdiaBritannica(12thed.).
Politicaloffices
Precededby
AdolfodelaHuerta
PresidentofMexico
1December192030November1924
Succeededby
PlutarcoElasCalles
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=lvaro_Obregn&oldid=727203827"
Categories: 1880births 1928deaths PeoplefromNavojoa Mexicanrevolutionaries LaboristParty(Mexico)politicians AssassinatedMexicanpoliticians
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Mexicanpresidentialcandidates(1928) MexicanpeopleofIrishdescent PeopleoftheMexicanRevolution PresidentsofMexico
PeoplemurderedinMexico Spiritualists
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