Unit 57:

Mechatronic System

Unit code: F/601/1416

QCF level: 4

Credit value: 15

OUTCOME 2
TUTORIAL 1 - ELECTRO-MECHANICAL MODELS
2

Understand electro-mechanical models and components in mechatronic systems and products

Simple mathematical models: mechanical system building blocks; electrical system building blocks;
electrical-mechanical analogies; fluid and thermal systems
Sensor technologies: sensor and actuator technologies for mechatronic system e.g. resistive, inductive,
capacitive, optical/fibre-optic, wireless, ultrasonic, piezoelectric
Actuator technologies: electric motors; stepper motors; motor control; fluid power; integrated
actuators and sensors; embedded systems
CONTENTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Introduction
Basic Elements
Similarity of Elements
Transfer Functions
Basic Models of Mechanical Systems
5.1 General Procedure
5.2 Basic Mechanical Models
5.2.1
Springs
5.2.2
Dampers and Dashpots
5.2.3
Mass
5.2.4
Mass and Spring
5.2.5
Spring and Damper
5.2.6
Mass, Spring and Damper
5.3 Rotary Mechanical Systems
5.3.1
Torsion Bar
5.3.2
Torsion Damper
5.3.3
Moment of Inertia
5.3.4
Geared Systems

6. Thermal System Models

6.1
Heating and Cooling

7. Hydraulic System Models

7.1
Hydraulic Motor
7.2
Hydraulic Cylinder
7.3
Model for a Flow Metering Valve
and Actuator
7.4
Advanced Hydraulic Model
8. Electric System Elements Models
8.1
Resistance
8.2
Capacitance
8.3
Inductance
8.4
Potentiometer
8.5
R-C Series Circuit
8.6
R-C-L Series Circuit
9. Electric Motors
9.1 Field Controlled Motor
9.2
Armature Controlled Motor
10. Closed Loop Systems Transfer Function
with Unitary Feed Back.

1. INTRODUCTION
Mechatronics make use of Mechanical, Electrical and Computer technologies, each with various sub
divisions. Engineers find it very useful to describe mathematically how the individual elements and the
overall integrated system behave in order to predict how they will perform.
You are required to have an understanding of the basic way models of systems are derived. The following
contains descriptions for Mechanical, Thermal, Hydraulic and electrical systems of varying complexity. You
need to judge or be advised by your tutor which disciplines and which examples to study. Remember that in
order to obtain higher grades in your assessments you should study the more advanced examples.
Note: The following work covers elements of mechatronic systems and not complete mechatronic systems.
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2.

BASIC ELEMENTS
Any element has an input and an output. The element processes
the input to produce the output. It is easiest to show it
diagrammatically.
Some elements have an input and output of the same basic form such as a voltage transformer or a
pair of gears.

Other elements change the form such as converting a voltage into a frequency or a force in to
movement or an analogue voltage into a digital number (and vice-versa). A thermocouple for
example, converts temperature into a voltage.

There are various mathematical symbols for representing the input and output and it is useful to show
which is which with a suffix o for the output and i for the input.
A general symbol is usually o and i (these are also used specifically for temperature and angle so
be careful). Other common ones are V for voltage and x for movement and so on.
If the relationship between the input and output can be represented by a mathematical equation then
we have our model. The equation is loosely called the transfer function (but there is a lot more to
this than you might think). We give it symbols such as G
In many cases we can define the transfer function as
The simplest G is just a number representing a ratio such as for a
voltage transformer or a gear ratio.
If you study the model in more detail you might find that other things affect it such as time lag and
distortion. This is due to things like capacitance, inductance, springiness, inertia, thermal capacity
and so on.
Transfer functions for such elements can be quite complicated and requires knowledge of advanced
mathematics such as Calculus and various transformations such as Laplace.
A complex system uses many smaller elements linked together and all this helps us to produce an
overall model. A simple example of this is an instrumentation system and here is an example.

Note you might already have studied this and should know that for the overall system G = G1 G2 G3
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3.

SIMILARITY OF ELEMENTS

Engineers have found that many mechanical and electrical elements have the same model and that the maths
used is the same. There are clear analogies between electrical and mechanical (including thermal and fluid)
systems. These use the properties of Capacitance, Resistance and Inductance. Laws used in common are
conservation laws. You do not need to study all these in detail and the appropriate law will be explained as
required.
CAPACITANCE usually uses the symbol C and is found in electrical, thermal and fluid systems. A
mechanical spring is a form of capacitance where k is the spring stiffness and 1/k is analogous to C.
RESISTANCE usually uses the symbol R and is found in electrical and thermal systems.
Mechanical/hydraulic resistance is better known as the damping coefficient and has various symbols.
INDUCTANCE usually uses the symbol L for electrical systems. In mechanical systems the
analogous property is MASS or INERTIA and in fluid systems the analogous property is
INERTANCE
Here is a table showing the main analogue components and their mathematical models. It is useful to note
that capacitance is a zero order differential equation, resistance is a first order differential equation and
Inductance/inertia/inertance is a second order differential equation.
SYSTEM
PROPERTY
CAPACITANCE

MECHANICAL

ELECTRICAL

THERMAL

FLUID

Spring

x = C F = (1/k) F

Capacitor

Capacitor

Capacitor

Q=CV
Q = C T

RESISTANCE

INDUCTANCE

CONSERVATION
LAWS

Damper

Resistor

Force = kd x velocity
F = kd dx/dt
Torque = kd x Ang.vel

V=RI
V = R dQ/dt

Mass or Inertia

Inductor

Force = Mass x acceleration

F = M d2x/dt2
D'Alembert's Principles

V = L d2q/dt2

Force = 0
Moment = 0

Thermal Conduction

M = C x p
Fluid friction Laws
do not conform to
this law so the
equations are more
complex.

T = R
T = R dQ/dt
No equivalence

Fluid inertance

Heat has no inertia

p = Ld2v/dt2

Kirchoff's Laws

Conservation
Energy

current = 0

Energy = constant

of

Conservation
Mass

of

Mass = constant

Note that Q is the symbol for electric charge and quantity of heat. This is analogous to displacement in
mechanical systems, these being distance (usually x) or angle (usually ).
V is the symbol for electric voltage (potential difference or e.m.f) and is equivalent to temperature T or for
thermal systems, Force F or Torque T for mechanical systems and pressure p for fluid systems.
v or u is the symbol for velocity in mechanical systems and this is equivalent to electric current (I or i) and
heat flow rate .
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TRANSFER FUNCTIONS

The mathematical models of most systems are in the form of differential equations so you must be proficient
at differential calculus. To make these easier to use, we rewrite the differential expressions as follows.
d
d 2
dn
2
n
but n=2 is the highest you will deal with here.
becomes s
becomes
s

n becomes s
2
dt
dt
dt
This is called a Laplace transform. Laplace will not be covered in detail in this module but be aware that
advanced system modelling requires you to study this.
The purpose of this transform is to allow differential equations to be converted into a normal
algebraic equation in which the quantity s is just a normal algebraic quantity.
In this tutorial we should simply regard it as a convenient way to change differential equations into algebraic
equations. Note that this usually applies to quantities that are a function of time which is why the
expressions are written as differential coefficients with respect to time.
A simple system is usually shown diagrammatically as a single block with
something going in and something coming out as shown.
The mathematical model is written in the form of the ratio of Output/Input, if the models are turned into a
function of s it is correctly called a transfer function and this is usually denoted as G(s).
G(s)

Output
The output and input are changed from functions of time to a function of s.
Input

Note
Equations with the highest term s2 is called a second order equation
Equations with the highest term s1 or simply s is called a first order equation
Equations with the highest term so is a zero order equation. Since so = 1 this is basically any
equation that appears to contain no terms with s.
Now lets examine the derivations of some mathematical models starting with mechanical systems. You
might choose to concentrate on the field of engineering you are most familiar with and be selective about
which of the following systems you study.
5.

BASIC MODELS OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

5.1

GENERAL PROCEDURE

The general procedure for deriving models for mechanical systems is as follows.
Adopt a suitable co-ordinate system with an appropriate sign convention. For linear motion, up is
positive and left to right is positive. For rotation anticlockwise is positive and clockwise is negative.
These may be changed when convenient so long as they are defined and used consistently.
Identify any disturbing forces acting on the system (inputs to the system).
Identify displacements and/or velocities (outputs from the system).
Draw a free body diagram for each mass showing all the forces and moments acting on it.
Apply Newton's 2nd Law to each free body diagram (F = Mass x Acceleration).
Rearrange the equations into a suitable form for solution by a convenient method.
Note that unless otherwise specified, ignore gravitational effects.
Lets now examine mechanical elements in detail.
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5.2

BASIC MECHANICAL MODELS

5.2.1 SPRINGS
It is found that most springs deflect a distance x in direct proportion to the force causing it such that
F/x = constant = k
The force may cause the spring to get longer or shorter.
k is the spring stiffness (also called spring rate and spring constant) There are angular versions of this
covered later.

The next diagram shows the mechanical symbols the model as a block diagram. Note (t) indicates that the
quantity is a function of time and time is something to be considered in more advanced work.
In system analysis it is more normal to use x/F = C where the
constant C is the mechanical capacitance and is analogous to
other forms of capacitance.
x
The transfer function is G 1/k C
F
This is a zero order system.
5.2.2 DAMPER or DASHPOT
A damper uses fluid friction to provide resistance to motion and is often used to damp down vibrations. It
also occurs naturally in many mechanisms. It may be idealised as a loosely fitting piston moving in a
viscous fluid or a piston forcing gas through a small hole as shown below.

It is found for such devices that the Force required to move the piston is directly proportional to the velocity
such that:
F = constant x velocity
Velocity is the first derivative of distance with respect to time so v = dx/dt
F = c dx/dt
c is a commonly used symbol for the constant and is called the damping coefficient but in systems we often
use the symbol kd It has units of N s/m. It is analogous to electrical resistance.
The next diagram shows the mechanical circuit and transfer
function block.
dx
F(t) k d
The basic law of a dashpot is:
dt
Changed into Laplace form:
F = kd s x
x
1
Rearranged into a transfer function:
(s)
F
k ds
This is a first order system.
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5.2.3 MASS
When a mass is accelerated, the inertia has to be overcome and
the inertia force is given by Newtons Second Law of Motion
Force = Mass x Acceleration. Acceleration is the second
derivative of x with time.
d2x
accelerati on 2
dt
d2x
Newtons second law of motion:
F(t) M 2
dt
2
Changed into Laplace form:
F = Ms x
x
1
(s)
Rearranged into a transfer function:
F
Ms2
This is a second order system.
5.2.4 MASS AND SPRING SYSTEM
For this spring - mass system, motion only occurs in
one direction so the system has a single degree of
freedom. The free body diagram is shown. The input is
a disturbing force F which is a function of time F(t).
This could, for example, be a sinusoidal force. The
output is a motion x which is a function of time x(t).
Let x be positive upwards.
The input force is opposed by the spring force and the inertia force (which always opposes changes in the
motion as stated in Newtons third law of motion).
Spring force = k x
Inertia force = M d2x/dt2
D'Alembert's Principle is that all the forces and moments on the body must add up to zero. In this case it
means the applied force spring force inertia force = 0 (all being a function of time t).
Hence:
F(t) - kx(t) - M d2x/dt2(t) = 0
or
F(t) = M d2x/dt2(t) + kx (t)
Changing to a function of s we have

F(s) = Ms2 x + kx = x [Ms2 + k]

x(s)

F
Ms k
2

F1/M
s k/M
2

This may be shown as a transfer function.

x(s)
1/M
G(s)
2
F(s)
s k/M
The system block diagram is as shown.
This is a second order system as the highest power of x is 2.

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5.2.5 SPRING AND DAMPER

If we have a spring and dashpot in parallel as shown the
derivation is as follows.
Force balance as a function of time:

F(t) = k x + kd dx/dt

Force balance as a function of s :

F(s) = k x + kd s x
x
1/k
(s)
F
k d /k s 1

Rearrange into a transfer function:

The units of kd/k are seconds and this is the first order time constant for the system
x
1/k
T = kd/k
(s)
F
Ts 1
Time constants are important properties of the system and affect its behaviour in respect to time.

This is the standard first order equation which you will need to study further.
5.2.6 MASS -SPRING - DAMPER SYSTEM
When we have a Mass, spring
and dashpot in series as shown
we get the following
derivation.

The input is the force F and the output is the movement x, both being functions of time.
Spring force
Damping force
Inertia force

Fs = kx
Fd = kd dx/dt
Fi = Md2x/dt2

The three forces oppose motion so if the total force on the system is zero then
F(t) M

d2x
dx

k
kx
d dt
dt 2

F(s) Ms2 x k d sx kx

G(s)

F = Fi + Fd + Fs
x
1/k
(s) 2
F
s (M/k) s(k d /k) 1

If we examine the units of (M/k)1/2 we find it is seconds and this is the second order time constant also
with the symbol T.
The transfer function may be written as G(s)

x
1/k
(s) 2 2
F
T s 2 Ts 1

is the damping ratio defined as = kd/Cc and Cc is the critical damping ratio defined as (4Mk).
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The term 2T is hence 2

kd
Cc

2k d M/k
4Mk

2k d M
2 M k k

kd
k

and so the forgoing is correct.

This is the standard 2nd order transfer function which will be analysed in detail later.

WORKED EXAMPLE No.1

A mass spring system has the following parameters.
Stiffness K = 800 N/m Mass M = 3 kg Damping Coefficient kd = 20 Ns/m
i.

Calculate the time constant.

ii.

Derive the equation for the force required when the piston is accelerating.

iii.

Use the equation to evaluate the static deflection when F = 12 N.

iv.

Use the equation to evaluate the force needed to make the mass accelerate at 4 m/s 2 at the
moment when the velocity is 0.5 m/s.

SOLUTION
i.

T = (M/k) = (3/800) = 0.0612 seconds

ii.

The applied force = Inertia force + Damping Force + Spring Force

F = M a + kd v + k x = 3 a + 20 v + 800 x

iii.

For a constant force and a static position there will be neither velocity nor acceleration
F
12
800 x
0.015 m or 15mm
x
800

iv.

For velocity = 0.5 m/s and a = 4 m/s2

F = 3 a + 20 v + 800 x = 12 + 10 + 800x = 22 + 800 x
The deflection x would need to be evaluated from other methods x = v2/2a = 0.031 m
F = 46.8 N

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.1

1.

A mass spring system has the following parameters.

Stiffness K = 1200 N/m Mass M = 15 kg

Damping Coefficient kd = 120 Ns/m

i.

Calculate the time constant.

(0.112 s)

ii.

If a constant force of 22 N is applied, what will be the static position of the mass?
(18 mm)

iii.

Calculate the force needed to make the mass move with a constant acceleration of 12 m/s 2 at the
point where the velocity is 1.2 m/s.
(396 N)

5.3 ROTARY MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

The following is the rotary equivalent of the previous work.
5.3.1 TORSION BAR
This is the equivalent of a mass and spring. A metal rod clamped at one end and twisted at the other end
produces a torque opposing the twisting directly proportional to the angle of twist. The ratio T/ is the
torsion stiffness of the torsion spring and is denoted with a k.
T is torque ( N m)
is the angle of twist (radian)
k is the torsional stiffness ( N m/rad )
Balancing the torques we have
Change to Laplace form.
Write as a transfer function.

T(t) = k (t)
T(s) = k (s)

1
(s)
T
k

5.3.2 TORSION DAMPER

A torsion damper may be idealised as vanes rotating in a viscous fluid so
that the torque required to rotate it is directly proportional to the angular
velocity. kd is the torsion damping coefficient in N m s/radian

T(t) k d

d
dt

T(s) k d s

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G(s)

1
(s)
T
k ds

5.3.3 MOMENT OF INERTIA

Rotating masses oppose changes to the motion and Newton's 2nd law for rotating masses is:
T = I d2/dt2
I is the moment of inertia in kg m2. T is the torque.

d 2

1
T(s) I s 2 G(s) (s) 2 .
2
T
dt
Is
Note many text books also use J for moment of inertia.
T(t) I

This work is important in the study of motors, gear boxes, pulley drives and so on.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.2

Derive the transfer function for a mass on a torsion bar fitted with a damper and show it is another
example of the second order transfer function. T is torque and J is moment of inertia.
The derivation should yield:

G(s)

1/k
1/k
(s)
2 2
2
T
(J/k)s (Jk d /k)s 1
T s 2 Ts 1

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5.3.4 GEARED SYSTEMS

When a mass is rotated through a gear system, the affect of the inertia is dramatically altered. Consider a
motor coupled to a load through a speed changing device such as a gear box. There is damping (viscous
friction) on the bearings.

m is the motor rotation and o the output rotation. The gear ratio is Gr = o/m
Since this is a fixed number and is not a function of time, the speed and acceleration are also in the same
ratio.
dm/dt = m
do/dt = o
Gr = o/m is the angular velocity
d2m/dt2= m
d2o/dt2 = o
Gr = o/m is the angular acceleration.
The power transmitted by a shaft is given by Power = T. If there is no power lost, the output and input
power must be equal so it follows that
m Tm = o To hence
Tm = o To /m = GrTo
(In reality friction significantly affects the torque)
Consider the inertia torque due the inertia on the output shaft Io.
To = Ioo = Io m x Gr
Tm = To x Gr = Io m x Gr2
Now consider the damping torque on the output shaft.
To = kdo o = kdo mGr

Tm = To x Gr = kdo m Gr2

Now consider that there is an inertia and damping torque on the motor shaft and on the output shaft. The
total torque produced on the motor shaft is
Tm = Imm + kdm m + Gr To
To = Ioo + kdo o
Tm = Imm + kdm m + Gr { Ioo + kdo o}
Tm = Imm + kdm m + Gr2 Io m + Gr2 kdo m
Tm = m (Im +Gr2 Io) + m (kdm +Gr2 kdo)
(Im +Gr2 Io) is the effective moment of inertia Ie
(kdm +Gr2 kdo) is the effective damping coefficient kde.
The equation may be written as
In calculus form this becomes
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Tm = m (Ie) + m (kde)
Tm = d2/dt2 (Ie) + d/dt (kde)
11

Changing this into a function of s we have

Tm(s) = s2(Ie) + s (kde) = s{sIe + kde}

The output is the motor angle and the input is the motor torque so the geared system may be presented as a
transfer function thus. (s)/Tm (s) = (1/Ie)/s{s + Kde/Ie}

WORKED EXAMPLE No.2

A DC Servo motor has a moment of inertia of 0.5 kg m 2. It is coupled to an aerial rotator through a gear
reduction ratio of 10. The driven mass has a moment of inertia of 1.2 kg m 2. The damping on the motor
is 0.1 N m s/rad and on the rotator bearings it is 0.05 N m s/rad.
Write down the transfer function /Tm in the simplest form. Calculate the torque required from the
motor to
i. Turn the aerial at a constant rate of 0.02 rad/s.
ii. Accelerate the rotator at 0.005 rad/s2 at the start when = 0
SOLUTION
i.

Ie = (Im +Gr2 Io) = (0.5 + 102 x 1.2) = 120.5 kg m2.

Kde = (kdm +Gr2 kdo) = (0.1 + 102 x 0.05) = 5.1 N m s/rad.
(s)/Tm (s) = (1/Ie)/s{s + Kde/Ie}
1/I e

(s)
Tm
s s k de /I e

Tm I e K de
Tm 120.5 5.1

If the rotator is moving at constant speed (acceleration) is zero. Hence:

Tm = 5.1 = 5.1 x 0.02 = 0.102 Nm
ii. When accelerating at 0.005 rad/s2 the motor acceleration is 10 times larger at 0.05 rad/s2.
Tm = 120.5 + 5.1 = 60.25 Nm when = 0

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.3

A DC Servo motor has a moment of inertia of 12 kg m 2. It is coupled to an aerial rotator through a gear
reduction ratio of 4. The driven mass has a moment of inertia of 15 kg m 2. The damping on the motor is
0.2 N m s/rad and on the rotator bearings it is 0.4 N m s/rad.
Calculate the torque required from the motor to
i. Turn the aerial at a constant rate of 0.5 rad/s. (3.3 N)
ii. Accelerate the rotator at 0.02 rad/s2 at the start when = 0 (20.16 Nm)

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6.

THERMAL SYSTEM MODELS

6.1

HEATING and COOLING

Consider a mass M kg at temperature 1. The mass is placed in a hot environment at temperature 2 and heat
Q is transferred into the mass causing its temperature to rise. The system could be for example, a resistance
thermometer, and we want to know how long it takes for the sensor to warm up to the same temperature as
the liquid.

The laws of heat transfer tell us that the temperature rise is directly proportional to the heat added so:
Q = Mc 1 and for a small change dQ = Mc d1 = C d1
c is the specific heat capacity. C = Mc is the thermal capacitance in Joules/Kelvin.
d
dQ
Divide both sides by dt and:
C 1
dt
dt
The rate of heat transfer into the mass is = C d1/dt and the rate is governed by the thermal resistance
between the liquid and the mass. This obeys a law similar to Ohms Law so that:
= (2 - 1)/R
Equating for we have

R is the thermal resistance in Kelvin per Watt.

d1

d1
dt

d1
dt

dt

1 2

d1

dt

1
RC

1
T

2
RC

1 2
RC

RC is a time constant T

2
T

Changing from a function of time into a function of s we have

s1 1 2
1 (Ts 1) 2
T T

1
1
(s)
2
(Ts 1)

This is another example of standard first order equations and when compared to the equation for the
spring - damper system we see the thermal capacitance C is equivalent to 1/k and resistance R is equivalent
to kd.
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7.

HYDRAULIC SYSTEM MODELS

The basic theory for hydraulic and pneumatic components may be found in the tutorials on fluid power.
7.1

HYDRAULIC MOTOR

The following is the derivation of two models for use

in control theory.
Flow rate and speed. The formula relating flow rate
d
Q and speed of rotation is Q k q k q
dt
kq is a constant known as the nominal displacement
with units of m3 per radian. is the angle of rotation
in radian. Written as a function of s this becomes:
Q = kq s
If we take the flow rate as the input and the angle of
rotation as the output the transfer function is:

1
G(s)

Q
k qs
Pressure and torque. The formula that relates system pressure p to the output torque T is T = kq p
If pressure is the input and torque the output then:
G(s)

T
k q This is a further definition of the constant kq.
p

WORKED EXAMPLE No.3

A hydraulic motor has a nominal displacement of 8 cm 3/radian. Calculate the torque produced at a
pressure of 90 bar.
SOLUTION
T = p kq = 90 x 105 (N/m2) x 8 x 10-6 (m3/rad) = 72 Nm

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7.2

HYDRAULIC CYLINDER

There are two models for a cylinder.

The flow rate and movement are related by the law Q = A dx/dt. Expressed as a transfer function with x
x
1
being the output and Q the input we have: G(s)

Q
As
Force and pressure are related by the law F = pA. The transfer function with p as the input and F as the
F
output is: G(s)
A
p
7.3

MODEL FOR A FLOW METERING VALVE AND ACTUATOR

The input to the system is the movement of the valve xi. This allows a flow of oil into the cylinder of Q m 3/s
which makes the cylinder move a distance xo.
Making a big assumption that for a constant supply pressure the flow rate is directly proportional to the
valve position we may say:
Q = kv xi
(Note this is a gross simplification of the real case where the relationship is more complex.)

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kv is the valve constant and examining its units we find they are m 2/s
The area of the piston is A m2.
The velocity of the actuator is v = dx o/dt and this is related to the flow and the piston area by the law of
dx
Q k vxi A o
continuity such that
dt
Changing to a function of s this becomes kv xi = Asxo
x
1
Expressed as a transfer function we have G(s) o (s)
xi
(A/k v )s
The units of A/kv are seconds and we deduce this is yet another time constant T.
x
1
G(s) o (s)
xi
Ts
Note that this is not quite the standard first order equation 1/{Ts+1} and the difference is that the output
will keep changing for a given input, unlike the previous examples where a limit is imposed on the output.
If the actuator is a motor instead of a cylinder the equation is similar but the output is angle instead of linear
motion.

WORKED EXAMPLE No.4

A hydraulic cylinder has bore of 90 mm and is controlled with a valve with a constant k v = 0.2 m2/s
Calculate the time constant T. Given that x i and xo are zero when t = 0, calculate the velocity of the
piston and the output position after 0.1 seconds when the input is changed suddenly to 5 mm.
SOLUTION
A = D2/4 = 6.362 x 10-3 m2
T = A/kv = 6.362 x 10-3 / 0.2 = 0.032 seconds

G(s)

xo
1
(s)
xi
Ts

Tsxo x i
T

dx o
xi
dt

x
dx o
0.005 m
velocity i
0.156 m/s
dt
T
0.032 s

Velocity = distance /time

velocity is constant.

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distance = x o = v t = 0.156 x 0.1 = 0.0156 or 15.6 mm assuming the

17

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.4

1.

A hydraulic motor has a nominal displacement of 5 cm 3/radian. Calculate the torque produced at a
pressure of 120 bar.
(60 N m)

2.

A hydraulic cylinder has bore of 50 mm and is controlled with a valve with a constant k v = 0.05 m2/s
Calculate the time constant T. Given that x i and xo are zero when t = 0, calculate the velocity of the
piston and the output position after 0.2 seconds when the input is changed suddenly to 4 mm.
(0.039 s, 0.102 m/s and 20 mm)

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18

7.4

ADVANCED HYDRAULIC MODEL

Consider the same system but this time let the actuator move a mass M kg and have to overcome a damping
force. Further suppose that the valve now meters the pressure and not the flow rate such that the pressure
applied to the cylinder is p = kvxi. Consider the free body diagram of the actuator.

The applied force is due to pressure Fd and this is determined by the pressure acting on the area A such that:
Fp = pA.
The applied force is opposed by the inertia force Fi and the damping force Fd.
Fi = M d2xo/dt2 and Fd = kd dxo/dt.
Balancing forces gives
Substituting p = kvxi. we have
In Laplace form we have
Rearranging it into a transfer function.

d2xo

dx o
dt
dt
2
d xo
dx o
k vxiA M
kd
2
dt
dt
2
k v x i A Ms x o k d sx o
x
1
G(s) o (s)
2
xi
(M/Akv )s (k d /Ak v )s
pA M

kd

If we examine the units we find M/Akv = T2 where T is a time constant.

The critical damping coefficient is Cc = (4 M A kv) and the damping ratio is kd/Cc
x
1
G(s) o (s) 2 2
The transfer function becomes:
xi
T s 2 Ts

Note the similarity with the standard 2nd order equation 1/{T2s2 + 2Ts + 1}. The difference is again due to
there being no limitation on the output. If the actuator is a motor instead of a cylinder, the transfer function
is similar but the output is angle and angular quantities are used instead of linear quantities.

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19

WORKED EXAMPLE No.5

A hydraulic cylinder has bore of 90 mm and moves a mass of 80 kg. It is controlled with a valve with a
constant kv = 20000 Pa/m. The damping coefficient is 180 Ns/m.
Calculate the time constant T, Cc and .
Given that xi and xo are zero when t = 0, calculate the initial acceleration of the mass when the input is
changed suddenly to 5 mm.
Calculate the acceleration when the velocity reaches 2 mm/s.
Calculate the velocity when the acceleration is zero.
SOLUTION
A = D2/4 = 6.362 x 10-3 m2
T = (M/Akv)= {80/(20000 x 6.362 x 10-3) = 0.793 seconds
Cc = (4 M A kv) = 201.78 Ns/m
= kd/Cc = 0.892
x
1
or in terms of time
G(s) o (s) 2 2
xi
T s 2 Ts
xi = (T2 x acceleration) + (2T x velocity)
The initial velocity is zero.
0.005 = 0.7932 a + 0
a = 7.952 x 10-3 m/s2
When v = 0.002
0.005 = 0.7932 a + (2 x 0.892 x 0.793 x 0.002)
a = {0.005 - (2 x 0.892 x 0.793 x 0.002)}/0.7932 = 3.452 x 10-3 m/s2
The system initially accelerates and will eventually settle down to a constant velocity with no
acceleration. Put a = 0.
0.005 = 0 + (2 x 0.892 x 0.793) x velocity
velocity = 0.00353 m/s or 3.53 mm/s.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.5

A hydraulic cylinder has bore of 50 mm and moves a mass of 10 kg. It is controlled with a valve with a
constant kv = 80 Pa/m. The damping coefficient is 2 Ns/m.
Calculate the time constant T, Cc and . (7.98 s, 2.5.7 Ns/m and 0.798)
Given that xi and xo are zero when t = 0, calculate the initial acceleration of the mass when the input is
changed suddenly to 10 mm. (0.157 mm/s2)
Calculate the acceleration when the velocity reaches 0.1 mm/s. (0.137 mm/s2)
Calculate the velocity when the acceleration is zero. (0.785 mm/s)

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20

8.

ELECTRIC SYSTEM ELEMENTS MODELS

8.1

RESISTANCE

Consider electrical resistance as in a resistor pictured.

Applying Ohm's Law we have V = I R
V/I = R
This may be a function of time or of s.
The equation may be expressed in terms of charge Q.
V
Since I = dQ/dt I(s) = sQ hence
G(s)
(s) sR
Q
This is similar to the model for the damper and is an example of a zero order system.
8.2

CAPACITANCE

Consider an electrical capacitor typically as in the picture

The law of a capacitor is Q = C V V/Q = 1/C
This is similar to the model for spring.
Differentiating with respect to time we have dQ/dt = C dV/dt
dQ/dt is current I so the equation may be expressed as I = C dV/dt
As a function of s this becomes I (s) = C sV
V
1
The transfer function is G(s)
and is another first order system.
(s)
I
sC
8.3

INDUCTANCE

An electrical inductor is usually idealised as a coil of wire. This is found in

electronic equipment and things like electrical transformers (idealised in the
diagram). The magnetic field produced by the current flowing produces a
magnetic field. When the current changes, the magnetic field changes and
interacts with the coil to produce a back e.m.f. In order to make the current
change, a forward voltage V must be applied. The law relating the voltage
and rate of change in current is given by Faraday's Law.
dI
d 2Q
V L
L 2
dt
dt
This is similar to the model for a mass and can be either a first or 2nd order
equation as required.
Expressed as a function of s we have V (s) = L sI or Ls2Q
V
G(s)
(s) sL or s 2 Q
I
This is a second order system

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21

8.4

POTENTIOMETER

Consider a variable resistor or potentiometer as

shown. These may be linear (sliding action) or
angular (rotary action).
If the supply voltage is constant and the current
is tiny, the output voltage V is directly
proportional to the position x or angle so a
simple transfer function is obtained.
V
G(s) o (s) constant k p (linear)
x
V
G(s) o (s) constant k p (angular)

These are zero order systems.

8.5

R -C SERIES CIRCUIT
Consider the electric circuit shown. The input
voltage Vi is the sum of the voltage over the
resistor and the capacitor so
Vi = I R + I /Cs
Vi = I (R + 1/Cs)

The transfer function is then

The output is the voltage over the capacitor so

Vo = I/Cs
V
I/Cs
1
G(s) o (s)

Vi
I(R 1/Cs) RCs 1

The units of RC are seconds and this is another electrical time constant T. The transfer function may be
written as
V
1
G(s) o (s)
Vi
Ts 1
This is the standard first order equation and is the same as both the spring and damper and the thermal
example.

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22

8.6

L - C - R in SERIES
Consider the electric circuit shown. This is 3 sub-systems in
series. In this case we will take the output as the voltage on the
capacitor and the input as the voltage across the series circuit.
The input voltage is the sum of all three voltages and is found by
adding them up.
Vi = I R + I sL + I/sC

The output voltage is Vo = I/sC The transfer function is then

V
I/Cs
1
G(s) o (s)

Vi
I(R sL 1/Cs) RCs CLs 2 1
G(s)

Vo
1
(s) 2
Vi
s CL sRC 1

If we examine the units of CL we find it is seconds2 and we have yet another time constant defined as
T2 = CL and the equation may be rewritten as:
V
1
G(s) o (s) 2 2
Vi
T s 2 Ts 1
The damping ratio is defined as

and

L
is called the critical damping value.
C

L
C
Note this is the standard 2nd order equation identical to the mass-spring-damper system.
4

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23

WORKED EXAMPLE No.6

A Capacitance of 200 F is connected in series with a resistor of 20 k as shown.

1
The transfer function is o (s)
i
(Ts 1)
The voltage across the resistor is suddenly changed from 3V to 10V.
Calculate the time constant T.
It can be shown that the voltage varies with time by the formula Vo Vi V e

t
T

Sketch the graph of Vo vertically and time horizontally..

SOLUTION
T = RC = 20 x 103 x 200 x 10-6 = 4 seconds
Put in the values T = 4

Vo Vi

V e T

V = 10 3 = 8 Vi = 10
-t/4

Vo = 10 7e

Evaluating and plotting produces the result below. It is an exponential growth.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.6

1.

Calculate the time constant for an RC circuit with a resistance of 220 and capacitance of 470 nF.
(103 s)

2.

Calculate the second order time constant and the damping ratio for a R-L-C circuit with L = 5 H,
C= 60 F and R=6.8 .
(17.3 s and 11.8 )

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24

ELECTRIC MOTORS

Electric motors form part of many mechatronic systems and there are various models for the many types of
motors that exist. Students studying electrical engineering should be familiar with this. The following is a
brief summary of the models.
9.1

FIELD CONTROLLED MOTOR

The main theory is not covered here. It can be shown that for a d.c. servo motor with field control that:
T = if
T is the torque produced, if is the current in the field coil and kf is a constant.
If the motor drives an inertial load and has damping the dynamic equation becomes
d 2
d
kd
2
dt
dt
2
T Is k d s (Is2 k d s) k f i f
T I

G(s)

(s) 2 f
if
Is sk d

This models the relationship between the shaft angle and the
control current.

9.2

ARMATURE CONTROLLED MOTOR

It can be shown that the torque (T) is related to armature
voltage (Va), resistance (Ra) and angle of rotation by the
formula:
d k
where k is a constant.
T Va k

dt R a

The torque must overcome inertia and damping as before so

T Is 2 k d s
Equating we get

T (Is2 k d s) Va ks

With rearrangement we find

k
k
k 2s

Va
Ra
Ra
Ra

k 2s
k

Is 2 k d s
Va

R
R
a
a

(k/R a )

G(s)
(s) 2
Va
Is sk d k 2s/R a

This models the relationship between the angle of the shaft and the control voltage.
The next section is optional for study, students applying the work to mechatronic systems will find that the
study of closed loop control circuits is very important but this is a large and complex area to study.

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25

10. CLOSED LOOP SYSTEMS TRANSFER FUNCTION WITH UNITARY FEED BACK.
A simple system with an input and output as shown is called an open loop system as the output has no affect
on the input.

Open Loop System Block

The next diagram shows the simplest way of converting an open loop system into a closed loop system using
feed back and error detection. The input is i and output o and the overall objective is to make the output
match the input. An example is getting the temperature of a refrigerator to match the setting of the
thermostat.
We require the output to change and match the value of the input (set value). The input to the open loop
block is the error e. The error is obtained by comparing the output value with the input value with the
signal summing device. This produces the result e = i - o and because o is subtracted, this idea is
called NEGATIVE FEED BACK. The block diagram shows that the signal passes around a closed loop
hence the name CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM.

G(s)

o
e

Closed Loop System Block Diagram

o
substitute e i - o
G(s)
i - o

divide every term by o

G(s)

1
i
-1
o

rearrange

i
1
-1
o
G(s)

i
1
1 G(s)
G(s)
1

1
invert and o
or
o G(s)
G(s)
i 1 G(s)
1/G(s) 1

1
The transfer function for the closed system is hence G cl (s) o
i 1/G(s) 1
Lets revisit the hydraulic open loop transfer functions derived previously.
When the hydraulic valve and actuator is turned into a closed loop system, the two transfer functions
become:
1
1
G cl
for the first order version and G cl 2 2
for the second order version.
Ts 1
T s 2 Ts 1
These models are mathematically identical to the transfer function of the mass-spring- damper and the L-CR circuits.
Note that for any system with an open loop transfer function G(s) the closed loop transfer function with unit
1
feedback is G cl
1/G(s) 1
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26

WORKED EXAMPLE No.7

An open loop system has a transfer function G(s) = 2/(s2 + 2s + 1). Derive the closed loop function
when unit feedback is used.
SOLUTION
G cl

1
1
2
2
2
2
2
1/G(s) 1
s 2s 1
s 2s 1 2
s 2s 3
1
2

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE No.7

1.

An open loop system has a transfer function G(s) = 5/(4s2 + 2s + 2). Derive the closed loop function
when unit feedback is used.
Gcl = 5/(4s2 + 2s + 7)

2.

An open loop system has a transfer function G(s) = 10/(s3 +5s). Derive the closed loop function when
unit feedback is used.
Gcl = 10/(s3 + 5s + 10)

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27