Energy xxx (2014) 1e10

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

A small-scale CAES (compressed air energy storage) system for

stand-alone renewable energy power plant for a radio base station:
A sizing-design methodology
E. Jannelli, M. Minutillo, A. Lubrano Lavadera*, G. Falcucci
Department of Engineering, University of Naples Parthenope, Centro Direzionale Isola C4, Naples, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 15 May 2014
Received in revised form
24 September 2014
Accepted 5 October 2014
Available online xxx

In this paper, a novel CAES system (compressed air energy storage) is proposed as a suitable technology
for the energy storage in a small scale stand-alone renewable energy power plant (photovoltaic power
plant) that is designed to satisfy the energy demand of a radio base station for mobile
telecommunications.
The innovation introduced in this study concerns two aspects: the rst one is the using of a small-scale
CAES system integrated with a TES (thermal energy storage) unit with inter-cooling compression and
inter-heating expansion; the second one is the cooling energy production, that is obtained by the cold air
(3
C) at the turbine outlet of the CAES system. For this reason, the storage system is dened a PSS-CAES
(Polygeneration Small-Scale Compressed Air Energy Storage) system.
In this paper, a sizing-design methodology of the energy power plant has been illustrated and the
overall performance has been calculated.
Results have highlighted that the storage system has an efciency equal to 57%, that is an interesting
value considering its small size. Moreover, the contribution of the PSS-CAES unit on the cooling energy
requirements results equal to 17% with reference to the cooling energy required in the hours in which it
works.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
CAES
Stand-alone power plant
Energy storage
Renewable sources
Performance analysis
System design

1. Introduction
Current energy policies and strategies are mainly addressed to
sustain the diffusion of renewable energy source technologies, even
if they are often recognized as less competitive than the energy
conversion systems based on fossil fuels, due both to the intermittency of the energy sources (a mismatch between the electricity
production and the corresponding occurrence of load demand), and
to the high maintenance costs [1e4]. Thus, electricity storage systems are needed if the renewable power has to become a major
source of base-load dispatchable power [5,6].
Existing storage technologies, based on various processes,
include electrochemical batteries and fuel cells, supercapacitors,
thermal-storage materials, ywheels, PH (pumped hydro), SMES
(superconducting magnetic energy storage), chemical storage

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 39 0815476755.

E-mail addresses: elio.jannelli@uniparthenope.it (E. Jannelli), mariagiovanna.
minutillo@uniparthenope.it (M. Minutillo), antonio.lubrano@uniparthenope.it
(A. Lubrano Lavadera), giacomo.falcucci@uniparthenope.it (G. Falcucci).

(hydrogen and synthetic natural gas) and CAES (compressed air

energy storage) [7e9]. Each system is characterized by different
storage capacity, storage efciency and discharge time and thus, the
choice of the best technology depends on its application [10e14].
Generally, for large scale applications, pumped hydro (PH)
storage systems and compressed air energy storage (CAES) systems
are the most viable technologies [6,15].
The PH storage system is the oldest large-scale storage technology (the rst hydroelectric storage plant was built in 1892 in
Zurich, Switzerland [16]) and is widely deployed, while the interest
in CAES systems is more recent (the CAES system is in use only in
two places in the world, Huntorf, Germany, and McIntosh, Alabama,
USA) and an increasing number of studies are devoted to this
technology for large-scale application, in which the compressed air
is stored in underground caverns or rock formations [17].
In this paper, a novel CAES system is proposed as a suitable
technology for the energy storage in a small scale stand-alone
renewable energy power plant, that is designed to satisfy the
energy demand of a radio base station for mobile
telecommunications.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.10.016
0360-5442/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Jannelli E, et al., A small-scale CAES (compressed air energy storage) system for stand-alone renewable energy
power plant for a radio base station: A sizing-design methodology, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.10.016

E. Jannelli et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e10

Nomenclature
W
COP
E
t
g
M
T
m_
cp
b
p
k
hpol
j
Q
Q_

electric power [kW]

coefcient of performance of the cooling system
electric energy [kJ]
time [s]
number of PV base modules
air mass [kg]
temperature [
C]
ow rate [kg/s]
specic heat for a constant pressure [kJ/kg K]
compression/expansion ratio
pressure [bar]
isentropic expansion factor
turbo-machinery polytropic efciency
mass increasing ratio
thermal/cooling energy [kJ]
thermal/cooling power [kW]
efciency of the heat exchanger

At present, diesel generators satisfy the power requirements of

radio base stations with high costs for maintenance and fuel supply.
Thus, to reduce these operating costs, renewable energy power
plants, integrated with efcient energy storage systems, can be the
optimal solution [18].
Furthermore, the innovation introduced by the proposed storage system is based on the cooling effect that is obtained by the cold
air at the outlet of the turbine (during the energy production).
For this reason, the storage system can be dened a PSS-CAES
(Polygeneration Small-Scale Compressed Air Energy Storage) system [19,20].
The interest in this technology and in its performance is due to
the growing attention to the power supply, by means of renewable
sources, for telecommunications equipment in remote places
where the storage of energy has a strategic role.
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the performance of the
PSS-CAES system integrated with a PV power plant (photovoltaic),
by applying a design methodology based on mathematical models.

u
A
C

global heat transfer coefcient [W/m2 K]

heat exchange surface [m2]
heat capacity rate [kW/K]

Subscripts and superscripts

d
demand
el
electric
cool
cooling
eq
equipment
PV
photovoltaic plant
i
day
*
single photovoltaic module
e
expansion
c
compression
a
air
atm
atmospheric conditions
av
availability
o
diathermic oil
HE
heat exchanger

used in order to increase the efciency of the system by recovering

the available thermal energy. The thermal uid used in the TES unit
is a diathermic oil that is stored into two tanks (cold and hot tanks).
The power plant system is designed and sized not only to satisfy
the electric energy demand of the utility, without using fossil fuels
(electric generator) or batteries, but also to cool the telecommunications equipment. Thus, a constraint on the CAES unit, regarding
the temperature of the exhaust air from the last turbine has been
assigned: this temperature has to be equal to 3
C (a value higher
than 0
C to prevent freezing).
3. Design methodology
The design of the power plant (Fig. 1) is based on an analytical
procedure whose assumptions, constraints and iterative procedures are devoted to the optimization of the operating conditions
and performance. The study has been conducted by using a steadystate approach.

2. Plant conguration and description

3.1. Assumptions and constraints

The small-scale CAES system, proposed in this study, has been

sized to provide the storage of the energy from a stand-alone
renewable power plant that has been designed to satisfy the energy demand of a radio base station for mobile
telecommunications.
Fig. 1 shows the power plant conguration in which the main
sub-sections are highlighted: i) a renewable photovoltaic (PV) power unit; ii) a compressed air energy storage (CAES) unit that
consists of air compressors and turbines and an air storage tank; iii)
a TES (thermal energy storage) unit that consists of heat exchangers
and diathermic oil tanks.
Furthermore, backup power systems, such as electric generators
and battery packages, are considered too. These systems provide
power when the renewable energy power system or/and the storage system are out of service or in case it is necessary to reduce the
size of the PV power plant with respect to the optimal size calculated by the methodology.
The proposed CAES unit is an advanced adiabatic storage system
[10,11,21e24] in which inter-cooling compressions (3 volumetric
compressors) and inter-heated expansions (2 dynamic turbines) are
realized. Thus, a dedicated thermal energy storage system (TES) is

The power system is designed both to satisfy the electric power

demand and to produce cold air useful for the refrigeration of the
telecommunications equipment. Thus, the main constraint that has
been assigned regards the temperature of the air coming out from
the last turbine of the CAES unit. This temperature has to be equal
to 3
C.
Further design assumptions and constraints are summarized as
follows:
- The maximum and minimum pressures of the air tank have to
be xed.
- The pressure in the air tank increases or decreases according to a
linear trend [25e27].
- The gases are considered as ideal gases.
- The polytropic efciencies of compressors and the turbines have
to be assigned.
- The efciencies of the heat exchangers have to be assigned.
- The same temperature is assumed for the air at outlet of each
compressor.
- The same temperature is assumed for the air at inlet of each
turbine.

Please cite this article in press as: Jannelli E, et al., A small-scale CAES (compressed air energy storage) system for stand-alone renewable energy
power plant for a radio base station: A sizing-design methodology, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.10.016

E. Jannelli et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e10

Fig. 1. Power plant layout. MPB: Motor Power Block system; CAT: Compressed Air Tank; OT: diathermic Oil Tank; E: Expander; C: Compressor; HE: Heat Exchanger; P: oil Pump.

- The storage system (CAES) works when the PV power system is

out of service or is not able to satisfy the electric load.
Finally, the electric and cooling load proles and the weather
data of the plant installation site have to be assigned.
3.2. Components sizing procedure: the numerical approach
The sizing procedure is based on an iterative approach and it is
organized in three main steps:
- the sizing of the PV power unit;
- the sizing of the turbines (for power production in the hours in
which the PV unit does not operate) and consequently of the air
tank volume;
- the sizing of the compressors (to store the surplus of the PV unit
power production exceeding the electric energy demand).
Starting from knowledge of the weather data of the installation
site, the electric power production of a single PV module (100 kWp)
and the cooling energy demand have been determined. By
comparing the total electric energy demand (both for equipment
and for the cooling system at a xed COP (coefcient of

performance)) and the electric power production of the PV module,

the number of modules (or the PV unit size) have been evaluated. At
the beginning of this procedure, the calculated PV unit size represents a theoretical value (it is obtained by making equal the energies required and produced) and it will be corrected, at the end of
the iterative procedure, by using a parameter, the mass increasing
ratio, which depends on the storage system.
Moreover, by analysing the electric energy production and demand, the air mass that must be stored (to satisfy the electric energy demand by using the turbines) and the air mass that can be
stored (to store the surplus of the electric energy by compressing
the air in the storage tank), have been determined as well as the
size of turbines and compressors.
The iterative procedure ends when these masses become quite
equal, according to the chosen convergence value.
Moreover, the sizing procedure takes into consideration the
cooling effect that can be obtained by the exhaust air from the
turbine. This effect inuences the estimation of the PV unit size
because it has a direct impact on the electric energy demand (the
power consumption of the cooling system).
Fig. 2 shows the ow-chart in which the sizing procedure is
summarized, while the applied mathematical equations are
detailed in the following sub-sections.

Please cite this article in press as: Jannelli E, et al., A small-scale CAES (compressed air energy storage) system for stand-alone renewable energy
power plant for a radio base station: A sizing-design methodology, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.10.016

E. Jannelli et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e10

Finally, the numerical approach ends with the sizing of the

components of the TES unit.
3.2.1. Photovoltaic power module
The electric power demand (Wd) is assigned by both the electric
power consumption of the telecommunications equipment (Wel,eq)
and the cooling power requirements Q_ cool of the cooling system
(at xed COP value). Thus, it is given by:

Wd t Wel;eq t

Q_ cool t
Wel;eq t Wel;cool t
COP

(1)

* t can be
The electric power produced by a PV module WPV
determined by using a mathematical model.
The daily electric energy demand Ed;i and the daily PV module
* are:
energy production EPV;i

Fig. 2. The ow-chart that summarizes the sizing-design methodology.

Please cite this article in press as: Jannelli E, et al., A small-scale CAES (compressed air energy storage) system for stand-alone renewable energy
power plant for a radio base station: A sizing-design methodology, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.10.016

E. Jannelli et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e10

Zti
Ed;i

 
Wd;i t dt

where

(2)

g maxgi

(6)

EPV;i

Zti

*
WPV;i
t

(3)

where the subscript i, refers to ith day.

By comparing eqs. (2) and (3), it is possible to evaluate the
number of the modules gi needed to satisfy the daily energy
demand; thus:

gi

Ed;i
*
EPV;i

(4)

The PV power system is sized WPV taking into account the

maximum value of gi :
*
WPV gWPV

(5)

The calculated WPV represents the theoretical size of the PV unit

because it is evaluated without considering the efciency of the
storage system; it is obtained by making equal the required and
produced energies. The actual WPV will be determined at the end of
the iterative procedure (eq. (23)).
3.2.2. CAES unit components
In the compressed air energy storage system sizing (compressors, turbines and air tank), the following analytical procedure has
been adopted.
The electric power that has to be delivered by the turbines (We,i)
and the electric power that can be used to move the compressors
(Wc,i), in the ith day, are calculated by comparing the electric power
produced by the PV power unit (WPV,i) and the electric power demand (Wd,i).


WPV;i t  Wd;i t < 00We;i t WPV;i t  Wd;i t

WPV;i t  Wd;i t > 00Wc;i t WPV;i t  Wd;i t

(7)
(8)

Fig. 3. The behaviour of the main operating data (PV power production, turbine power production, compressor power consumption and air pressure in the storage tank) of the
power plant during two days.

Please cite this article in press as: Jannelli E, et al., A small-scale CAES (compressed air energy storage) system for stand-alone renewable energy
power plant for a radio base station: A sizing-design methodology, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.10.016

E. Jannelli et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e10

In Fig. 3, the behaviour of the main operating data of the power

plant during two days is shown (qualitative trends are shown). At
the top of the gure, the PV electric power production WPV and
the electric load (Wd) proles are illustrated. It is possible to note
that the electric load increases during the hours in which the PV
power production is high; in fact in these hours it is necessary to
satisfy also the cooling requirements, so that the electricity consumption increases. The power production of the turbines (We)
allows to satisfy the electric load requirements in the hours in
which the PV power unit does not work (eq. (7)). Furthermore, it
can be noted that the surplus of the PV electric power production
(eq. (8)) is used to move the compressors that allow to store the air
in the tank; as a matter of fact, the trend of Wc is in accordance with
that of WPV. Finally, in Fig. 3 the prole of the air pressure in the
storage tank is illustrated. It is worth noting that the pressure increases with a linear trend when the compressors work, as imposed
by the authors (it is an assumption).
The air mass that must to be stored (M), in order to satisfy the
requirements of the energy storage system, and the size of the air
tank are calculated in the most critical condition.
This condition can occur in two different situations:
Case A: when the daily electric energy demand assumes the
maximum value (eq. (9)); in this case the air mass that has to be
stored is MA.

Ed;max



max Ed;i

(9)

Case B: when the PV power plant generates the lowest quantity

of daily electric energy (eq. (10)); in this case the air mass that has
to be stored is MB.



EPV;min min EPV;i

(10)

The value of air mass that must be stored (M) and that determines the air tank size, results to be the highest:

M maxMA ; MB

(11)

The ideal gas law is applied to calculate the volume of the air
tank; the pressure is assigned according to the numerical assumptions while the temperature of the air storage tank is known
by solving TES unit sizing procedure.
The size of the turbines (ne is the number of turbines), according
to eq. (7) and to the constraint on the air temperature at inlet of
each turbine, are calculated by solving the following equations
system:

8


e
e
e
>
t  Ta;out
< We t ne m_ a tcp;a T Ta;in
k1
>
hpol;e
: T e t T
k
a;out be; ne t
a;in

13

s
pa t  patm
be;ne t
patm

(14)

where patm is the ambient pressure at the outlet (exhaust) of the

last turbine (two stage turbine module are used) and with pa(t) the
pressure of the air in the tank at the time t.
The air mass that must be stored is calculated by solving the
following equation in both cases (A and B).

m_ ea tdt

(15)

As explained above, the maximum obtained value, is used to size

the air tank (eq. (11)).
Taking into account the constraint on the air temperature at the
outlet of the last turbine, it is possible to calculate the available
cooling power Q_ cool;av .



e
Q_ cool;av m_ ea tcp;a T Tset_point  Ta;out

(16)

This cooling effect allows to reduce the electric power consumption Wel;cool due to the cooling system; thus, an iterative
procedure has to be adopted, in order to nd the right value of the
air mass that has to be stored in the tank.
Moreover, the size of each compressor (nc is the number of
compressors), according to eq. (8), is calculated by solving a system
of equations similar to that used for the turbine:



8
c
c
c
< Wc t nc m_ a tcp;a T Ta;out t  Ta;in

17

: c
c
Ta;out t Ta;in
bc; nc t

18

k1
k

hpol;c

c
c
where cp;a is the specic heat, Ta;in
and Ta;out
t are the inlet and
outlet air compressor temperatures, respectively, k is the isentropic
expansion factor and hpol;c is the polytropic efciency of the
compressors.
The compression ratio bc;nc t, for the single compressor, is
calculated as follows:

s
pa t  patm
bc;nc t
patm
nc

(19)

The air mass that can be stored M by using the compressors is

calculated for the Cases A and B. Thus, it results:



M max M A ; MB

(20)

where

Zti
MA;B

m_ ca tdt

(21)

12

where cp;a is the specic heat, m_ ea t is the turbine air mass ow

e t and T e
rate, Ta;in
a;out are the inlet and outlet air temperatures at
the turbines respectively, k is the isentropic expansion factor and
hpol;e is the polytropic efciency of the turbines.
The expansion ratio be;ne , for the single turbine, is calculated as
follows:
ne

Zti
MA;B

By comparing M and M, it is possible to correct the value of the

PV unit size. In particular, the mass increasing ratio has been
introduced; it is dened as follows:

M
M

(22)

This coefcient allows to calculate the increasing of the air mass

that can be stored (this increasing depends on the efciency of the
storage system) and, consequently, to estimate the new value of the
PV unit size:



*
jWPV
WPV j gWPV

(23)

The nal value of the PV unit size, achieved by applying the

iterative procedure, is obtained when the following condition is
satised:

MzM

(24)

Please cite this article in press as: Jannelli E, et al., A small-scale CAES (compressed air energy storage) system for stand-alone renewable energy
power plant for a radio base station: A sizing-design methodology, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.10.016

E. Jannelli et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e10

3.2.3. TES (thermal energy storage) components

The thermal energy storage (TES) unit has to be sized in order to
allow the inter-cooling compression and the inter-heating expansion. It is necessary to satisfy two constraints.
The rst one regards the air temperature at the compressors
outlet and at the turbines inlet:
c
Ta;out

e
> Ta;in

(25)

The second one regards the heat from the inter-cooling system
(Qc) and the heat needed at the inter-heating system (Qe):

Qc > Qe

(26)

Qc

Q_c t

Zti
Qe

(34)

where C is the ratio between Cmin and Cmax. In particular, Cmax is

dened as:

Cmax m_ ca tcp;a Tif m_ ca tcp;a T > m_ co tcp;o T

(35)

or

Cmax m_ co tcp;o Tif m_ ca tcp;a T < m_ co tcp;o T

(36)

Finally, the above described sizing procedure has been adopted

for the inter-heating system (Qe), as well.
4. Plant behaviour and performance

where:

Zti



1
1
ln
NTU
C1
C  1

Zti


dt

(27)



e
e
dt
ne m_ ea tcp;a T Ta;in
t  Ta;out

(28)

nc m_ ca tcp;a T

c
Ta;out
t

c
Ta;in

Q_e t

Zti
0

The NTU (number of transfer units) method has been applied for
sizing the counter-ow heat exchangers, so the energy balance, for
the analysis on the inter-cooling system, is solved by the following
equations system:

8 :


: c
>
c
c
>
t

n
m
tc
T
T
t

T
Q
c
c
p;a
>
a;out
a
a;in
>
>
>
< :


: c
HEc
HEc
Qc t nc mo tcp;o T To;out t  To;in
>
>
>


>
:
>
HEc
c
>
: Qc t Cmin Ta;out
1=
t  To;in

(29)

(30)

where DT is a value assumed by the designer (i.e. it is assigned

taking into account the available area for the installation of the heat
c
exchangers) and Ta;out
t is the air temperature at the outlet of the
compressors. Moreover, Cmin, is the minimum among the heat capacity rates:

Cmin m_ ca tcp;a Tif m_ ca tcp;a T < m_ co tcp;o T

(31)

or

Cmin m_ co tcp;o Tif m_ ca tcp;a T > m_ co tcp;o T

Ee;i
Ec;i

(33)

where NTU is the number of transfer unit, given by the following

relationship:

(37)

 The SPE (storage polygeneration efciency) is calculated as the

ratio between the total energy output and the energy input of
the storage system during the ith day.

SPE

Ee;i

Qcool;av;i
COP

Ec;i

(38)

The term Qcool;av;i =COP represents the equivalent electric energy

(at xed COP value) due to the cooling energy obtained by using the
cold air from the last turbine. Because this cooling energy allows to
reduce the electric power consumption of the cooling system, this
term can be considered as an energy output of the storage system
and thus it has to be considered in the storage system performance
analysis.
 The daily energy supply factor (ESF,i) is obtained by calculating
the daily electric energy demand Ed;i (during the ith day) and the
daily electric energy production of the PV unit EPV;i (during the
ith day).

(32)

By solving the system, the ow rate of the diathermic oil and the
inlet and outlet oil temperatures are calculated.
This procedure is carried out for the cases A and B (eqs. (9) and
(10)) in order to estimate the maximum value of the oil mass that
has to be stored and, consequently, the size of the oil tank.
Finally, the sizes of the heat exchangers, according to the NTU
method, are calculated as:

uA NTU*Cmin

 The SSE (storage system efciency) is calculated by evaluating

the energy output from the turbines (Ee;i is the electric energy
production by turbines during the ith day) and the energy input
for the compressors (Ec;i is the electric consumption of the
compressors during the ith day); it is dened in accordance with
Ref. [28], but considering that the proposed storage system is
adiabatic.

SSE

HE t at the outlet of the heat exchangers

The oil temperature To;out
is given by:

HEc
c
To;out
t Ta;out
t  T

The numerical methodology has allowed to size each component of the power plant and to estimate the plant performance. In
this study the following performance parameters have been
introduced.

ESF;i

Ed;i
EPV;i

(39)

It is also possible to estimate the annual energy supply factor

(ESF) considering the annual operation of the power system.
4.1. Utility description
In this study, a radio base station for mobile telecommunications has been chosen as utility. Thus, the proposed stand-alone
power system is designed and sized in order to satisfy the electric
energy demand, that is due both to the power supply for the
equipment (the technology adopted for the signal transmission

Please cite this article in press as: Jannelli E, et al., A small-scale CAES (compressed air energy storage) system for stand-alone renewable energy
power plant for a radio base station: A sizing-design methodology, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.10.016

E. Jannelli et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e10

Fig. 4. The electric energy consumption for the equipment and for the cooling system of the radio base station installed in Naples (Italy).

such as GSM (global system for mobile communications) or UMTS

(universal mobile telecommunications system) inuences the
electric load proles [29e32]) and for the cooling system.
In this analysis, the power supply for the equipment is a constant value equal to 2 kW, while the power supply for the cooling
system varies during the year, according to the temperature prole
of the installation site (Naples, Italy). In Fig. 4 the electric energy
consumption is shown.
The data of the installation site, that have been used to estimate
both the PV electric power production and the electric power
consumption of the cooling system, are summarized in Table 1.
4.2. Numerical results
The sizing procedure requires that some input data and constraints are assigned. In Table 2 these data are reported. In
particular:
- the average pressure in the air tank has been assumed equal to
30 bar (the minimum and maximum pressures in the air tank
are 25 bar and 35 bar respectively);
- the polytropic efciencies of compressors and turbines are
assumed equal to 85% and 75%, respectively;
- the air temperature at outlet of the last turbine is assumed to be
equal to 3
C.
By applying the proposed numerical methodology, the components of the power plant have been sized. In Table 3 the main data
regarding each plant sub-section (Fig. 1) are reported.

Table 1
Data on the installation site.
Location
Latitude
Longitude
Altitude
Number of heating degree-days
Average minimum temperature
Average maximum temperature
Monthly irradiation on horizontal plane (max)
Monthly irradiation on horizontal plane (min)

Naples (Italy)
40
510 4600 80 N
14
160 3600 12 E
0m
1034
8.7
C
24.7
C
7770 Wh/m2/day
1890 Wh/m2/day

Table 2
Input data and constraints.
e
Temperature of the air at the end of the expansion Ta;out

c
Inlet air temperature at the compressor Ta;in
The average air pressure in the storage tank
Max. air pressure in the storage tank
Min. air pressure in the storage tank
COP of the cooling system
Number of expansion stages (ne)
Number of compression stages (nc)
Turbine polytropic efciency hpol;e
Compressor polytropic efciency hpol;e
Heat exchangers efciency ()
Isentropic expansion factor (k)

3
C
15
C
30 bar
35 bar
25 bar
3
2
3
0.75
0.85
0.95
1.4

In Fig. 5, the electric energy production and the electric energy

demand are compared; in particular this comparison shows:
 the theoretical PV electric energy production (EPV theoretical):
it is obtained by the PV power unit whose size (19 kWp) is
Table 3
Details of the power plant's components: size and nominal operating data.
PV power unit
WPV e peak power
Azimuth of PV installation
Tilt of PV installation
Area occupied by PV plant
CAES unit
Air mass that must be stored (M)
Air mass that can be stored M
Air tank volume
Mass increasing ratio (J)
Compressor size
Compression ratio bchc
Compressor air ow rate m_ ca
c
Air temperature at compressors outlet Ta;out

Turbine size
Expansion ratio behe
Turbine air ow rate m_ ea
e
Air temperature at turbines outlet Ta;in
TES unit
Diathermic oil tank volume
DT according to the eq. (30)
UA of inter-cooling exchangers
UA of inter-heating heat exchangers

33 kWp
180

60

293 m2
465 kg
268 kg
39.1 m3
1.74
3.7 kW
3.1
0.025 kg/s
159
C
1.35 kW
5.8
0.011 kg/s
130
C
1.91 m3
5
C
0.55 kW/
C
0.26 kW/
C

Please cite this article in press as: Jannelli E, et al., A small-scale CAES (compressed air energy storage) system for stand-alone renewable energy
power plant for a radio base station: A sizing-design methodology, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.10.016

E. Jannelli et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e10

Fig. 5. Comparison between the electric energy production (EPV and EPV theoretical) and electric energy demand. Trend of the energy supply factor vs. months.

calculated (in the day with the worst irradiation condition) by

assuming that the plant is able to satisfy the energy demand
without taking into account the efciency of the storage system;
 the PV electric energy production (EPV): it is obtained by the PV
power unit whose size (33 kWp) is calculated by assuming that
the plant is able to satisfy the energy demand (in the day with
the worst irradiation condition) taking into account the efciency of the storage system (PSS-CAES); in this case the size of
the PV power unit is bigger as explained by the introduction of j
coefcient (eq. (22)).
It can be noted that, the calculated optimal size for the PV power
unit (33 kWp), causes a great surplus of the electric energy in each
month (the plant has a stand-alone conguration).
For example, in July (the month in which there is the maximum
PV energy production), the energy demand is equal to 1879 kWh,
the PV electric power production is 6162 kWh, but only 2334 kWh
are used to store the air in the PSS-CAES unit, providing a surplus in
electrical energy equal 3828 kWh.
In all the other months, the PV electric power production is
lower so also the surplus will be lower.
In Fig. 5 the energy supply factor (ESF) trend, calculated with
reference to each month, is shown too. It is worth noting that it
varies in the range 0.27e0.57 and the best performance is obtained
when the electric energy surplus (EPV  Ed) assumes the minimum
value that occurs during December. The annual ESF results equal to
0.33 (Table 4).
In Table 4, the performance of the power system, in terms of the
highest efciency values and of the energy balances, is summarized. The table highlights that the highest values of the SSE and
SPE are obtained during December and July, respectively; in
particular, a storage system efciency equal to 57% (it is calculated
considering the operation of the power system in the day with the
worst irradiation condition during the month of December) is very
interesting considering the small size of the CAES system; as matter
of fact, higher efciencies can be obtained only with larger sizes (on
the order of several megawatt) [29,33e36].
In Table 4, the results in terms of cooling energy production, that
can be obtained by using the cold air at outlet of the last turbine, are
illustrated too; it can be noted that the contribution of the PSSCAES unit on the cooling energy requirements results equal to 7%
if we consider the cooling energy needed during the day
(37.9 kWh), while if we consider the cooling energy required in the
hours in which the PSS-CAES works (15.2 kWh), its contribution is
equal to 17%, that becomes a very interesting value.

5. Conclusion
In this paper, a novel CAES system is proposed as a suitable
technology for the energy storage in a small scale stand-alone
renewable energy power plant that is designed to satisfy the energy demand of a radio base station for mobile telecommunications.
The numerical methodology proposed in this study is based on
an iterative approach that, by means of numerical assumptions and
constraints, has allowed to size each sub-sections of the power
plant and to calculate their operating conditions and performance.
The innovation introduced in this study concerns two aspects:
- the adoption of a small-scale adiabatic CAES system integrated
with a thermal energy storage (TES) unit with inter-cooling
compression and inter-heating expansion; this conguration
provides a storage system efciency (SSE) equal to 57%;
- the cooling effect obtained by the cold air (3
C) available at the
outlet of the last turbine (according to the assigned constraint);
this aspect allows to obtain a maximum storage polygeneration
efciency (SPE) equal to 59%; moreover, the contribution of the
PSS-CAES unit on the cooling energy satisfaction results equal to
17% with respect to the cooling energy required in the hours in
which the PSS-CAES system works.
The numerical results have highlighted that the stand-alone
conguration leads to an oversizing of the PV power unit that has
Table 4
Power plant performance.
Performance parameters
Storage system efciency (December)
Maximum storage polygeneration efciency (July)
Annual energy supply factor
Annual energies
Electric energy demand
Cooling energy demand
PV electric energy production
Theoretical PV electric energy (without storage)
Daily electric energies
Turbines' production case A
Turbines' production case B
Compressors' consumption case A
Compressors' consumption case B
Daily cooling energies (case A)
Cooling energy production by PSS-CAES
Cooling energy demand during the PV energy production
Cooling energy demand during PSS-CAES operation

0.57
0.59
0.33
18,803 kWh
3849 kWh
57,703 kWh
33,162 kWh
27.3
37.8
47.8
55.7

kWh
kWh
kWh
kWh

2.57 kWh
22.7 kWh
15.2 kWh

Please cite this article in press as: Jannelli E, et al., A small-scale CAES (compressed air energy storage) system for stand-alone renewable energy
power plant for a radio base station: A sizing-design methodology, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.10.016

10

E. Jannelli et al. / Energy xxx (2014) 1e10

to satisfy the daily electric energy demand, taking into account the
electric energy requirements for the telecommunications equipment, for the cooling system and for the storage system. As a
consequence the annual energy supply factor (ESF) is equal to 33%.
Acknowledgements
This work is supported by the Italian Research Project Fuel Cell
and Smart Hybrid GENeneration from fossil and renewable sources
e FC SMART GEN (PON01_02864).
References
[1] Serra LM, Lozano M, Ramos J, Ensinas AV, Nebra SA. Polygeneration and
efcient use of natural resources. Energy 2009;34:575e86.
[2] Lund H, Salgi G. The role of compressed air energy storage in future sustainable energy systems. Energy Convers Manage 2009;50:1172e9.
[3] Kim YM, Favrat D. Energy and exergy analysis of a micro-compressed air
energy storage and air cycle heating and cooling system. Energy 2010;35:
213e20.
[4] Ippolito MG, Di Silvestre ML, Riva Sanseverino E, Zizzo G, Graditi G. Multiobjective optimized management of electrical energy storage systems in an
islanded network with renewable energy sources under different design
scenarios. Energy 2014;68:648e62.
[5] Rubio-Maya C, Uche-Marcuello J, Martnez-Gracia A, Bayod-Rjula A. Design
optimization of a polygeneration plant fuelled by natural gas and renewable
energy sources. Appl Energy 2011;88:449e57.
[6] Kim YM, Lee JH, Kim SJ, Favrat D. Potential and evolution of compressed air
energy storage: energy and exergy analyses. Entropy 2012;14:1501e21.
[7] Gao D, Jiang D, Liu P, Li Z, Hua S, Xu H. An integrated energy storage system
based on hydrogen storage: process conguration and case studies with wind
power. Energy 2014;66:332e41.
[8] Ferreira H, Garde R, Fulli G, Kling W, Lopes J. Characterisation of electrical
energy storage technologies. Energy 2013;53:288e98.
[9] Koohi-Kamali S, Tyagi V, Rahim N, Panwar N, Mokhlis H. Emergence of energy
storage technologies as the solution for reliable operation of smart power
systems: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013;25:135e65.
[10] Minutillo M, Perna A. Renewable energy storage system via coal hydrogasication with co-production of electricity and synthetic natural gas. Int J
Hydrogen Energy 2014;39:5793e803.
[11] Madlener R, Latz J. Economics of centralized and decentralized compressed air
energy storage for enhanced grid integration of wind power. Appl Energy
2013;101:299e309.
~ o-Echeverri D. Economic viability of energy
[12] Bradbury K, Pratson L, Patin
storage systems based on price arbitrage potential in real-time US electricity
markets. Appl Energy 2014;114:512e9.
[13] Drury E, Denholm P, Sioshansi R. The value of compressed air energy storage
in energy and reserve markets. Energy 2011;36:4959e73.
[14] Ibrahim H, Ilinca A, Perron J. Energy storage systemsdcharacteristics and
comparisons. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2008;12:1221e50.
[15] Cavallo A. Controllable and affordable utility-scale electricity from intermittent wind resources and compressed air energy storage (CAES). Energy
2007;32:120e7.
[16] Roberts B. Capturing grid power. IEEE Power Energy Mag 2009:32.

[17] Raju M, Khaitan SK. Modeling and simulation of compressed air storage in
caverns: a case study of the Huntorf plant. Appl Energy 2012;89:474e81.
[18] Basbous T, Younes R, Ilinca A, Perron J. Pneumatic hybridization of a diesel
engine using compressed air storage for wind-diesel energy generation. Energy 2012;38:264e75.
[19] Marano V, Rizzo G, Tiano FA. Application of dynamic programming to the
optimal management of a hybrid power plant with wind turbines, photovoltaic panels and compressed air energy storage. Appl Energy 2012;97:
849e59.
[20] Proczka JJ, Muralidharan K, Villela D, Simmons JH, Frantziskonis G. Guidelines
for the pressure and efcient sizing of pressure vessels for compressed air
energy storage. Energy Convers Manage 2013;65:597e605.
[21] Bagdanavicius A, Jenkins N. Exergy and exergoeconomic analysis of a compressed air energy storage combined with a district energy system. Energy
Convers Manage 2014;77:432e40.
[22] Zhang Y, Yang K, Li X, Xu J. The thermodynamic effect of thermal energy
storage on compressed air energy storage system. Renew Energy 2013;50:
227e35.
[23] Buffa F, Kemble S, Manfrida G, Milazzo A. Exergy and exergoeconomic model
of a ground-based CAES plant for peak-load energy production. Energies
2013;6:1050e67.
[24] Wolf D, Budt M. LTA-CAES e a low-temperature approach to adiabatic compressed air energy storage. Appl Energy 2014;125:158e64.
[25] Budt M, Wolf D, Span R. Modeling a low-temperature compressed air energy
storage with modelica. In: Proceedings of the 9th International Modelica
Conference September 3-5, 2012, Munich, Germany.
[26] Kushnir R, Ullmann A, Dayan A. Thermodynamic models for the temperature
and pressure variations within adiabatic caverns of compressed air energy
storage plants. J Energy Resour Technol 2012;134:021901-1.
[27] Kushnir R, Dayan A, Ullmann A. Temperature and pressure variations within
compressed air energy storage caverns. Int J Heat Mass Transf 2012;55:
5616e30.
[28] Elmegaard B, Brix W. Efciency of compressed air energy storage. ECOS 2011:
2512e23.
hringer O, Kruck C, Eltrop L. Simulation and analysis of
[29] Hartmann N, Vo
different adiabatic compressed air energy storage plant congurations. Appl
Energy 2012;93:541e8.
[30] Lubritto C, Petraglia A, Vetromile C, Caterina F, D'Onofrio A, Logorelli M, et al.
New Energy for telecommunications power system. In: International conference INTELEC; 2007. Roma (Italy). p. 443.
[31] Lorincz J, Garma T, Petrovic G. Load whit trafc measurements and modelling
of base station power consumption under real trafc loads. Sensors 2012;12:
4281e310.
[32] Lubritto C, Petraglia A, Vetromile C, Caterina F, D'Onofrio A, Logorelli M, et al.
Telecommunications power systems: energy saving, renewable sources and
environmental monitoring. In: International conference INTELEC; 2008. San
Diego (USA).
[33] Masona JE, Archerb CL. Baseload electricity from wind via compressed air
energy storage (CAES). Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2012;16:1099e109.
[34] Grazzini G, Milazzo A. Thermodynamic analysis of CAES/TES systems for
renewable energy plants. Renew Energy 2008;33:1998e2006.
[35] Li Y, Wangb X, Li D, Ding Y. A trigeneration system based on compressed air
and thermal energy storage. Appl Energy 2012;99:316e23.
[36] Liu W, Yang Y, Zhang W, Xu G, Wu Y. A novel hybrid-fuel compressed air
energy storage system for China's situation. In: PROCEEDINGS OF ECOS 2012
e The 25th International Conference on Efciency, Cost, Optimization,
Simulation and Environmental Impact of Energy Systems, June 26-29, 2012,
Perugia, Italy.

Please cite this article in press as: Jannelli E, et al., A small-scale CAES (compressed air energy storage) system for stand-alone renewable energy
power plant for a radio base station: A sizing-design methodology, Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.10.016