Coac An ISO solelen ‘Main Centre 704, Above Big Apple, Near Batra Cinema, Mukherjee Nagar - Delhi - 09 Web: paramountcoachingcenter.com Email : paramount.no1@gmail.com 4; 011-27607854, 88608-22222, 88603-33333, 88608-33333PHYSICSica expressed in terms of laws of Quan physica are called physical quantities. The tities like length, mass, time, temperature, volume and density etc, which can be Teawured are known as physical quantities. ‘A physical quantity is represented by a number followed by # unit, The ‘number plus unit! is known as the ‘magnitude’ of the physical quantity PHYSICAL QUANTITIES ARE OF TWO TYPES: (i) Basic physical quantities, (ii) Derived physical quantities. BASIC PHYSICAL QUANTITIES: Physical quantity expressed in terms of standard units which are independent of each other are called Basic Physical Quantities. There are a total of 7 basic physical quantities. Length, mass, time, inten quantities of physics can be expressed in tefmns of these physical quantities. Basic Physical Qual are also Known as Fundamental ‘physical Quantities. R DERIVED PHYSICAL Q1 oe A Physical Quantity expreg AN term of 2or more fundamental units ha independent qu area existence are called Derived ‘al Quantitites. It is obtained by multiplyi iding one basic physical quantity with @fgtNer basic physical quantity. Aunitis aq Pay dimension used asa standard of meas t () There shogttd We a standard unit of measugéifien (ii) A com ison should be made between the standard of measurement and the quantity to be measured. NI uNr St units in short. PHYSICAL QUAN IES THE SEVEN BASIC INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENTS, Ny Basic Physical Nanfe SS Symbol of| quantity unit TTength etre ™m 2. Mass (-|Sefeerom | te 3. Time '& second s 4. Electric curre! ampere A 5. Temperatur’} kelvin K 6. Luminou: it candela ca 6. Lami Meee| “onote | ret They Med of light in vacuum is 299,792,458 m/s fry MEFRE 'Y e ctre is the SI unit of length. A metre is the 6B of path travelled by light in vacuum during ectric Current, temperatur huey 1¢ interval of y and amount of substance.All gtheM) 299,792,458 of a second T kilometre = 1000 metres] T 1 centimetre =—— metre 100 2. KILOGRAM Kilogram is the SI unit of mass. 7 1 millimetre =~— metre 1 quintal = 100 ke T tonne = 1000 kg_ 1 gram = kg 1000 1 milligram = 1000 T —— gram ; Kilogram is denoted by the symbol kg, gram The international system of units is called py g and milligram by mg.ND ‘Second is the SI unit of time. seconds = T minute [24 hours ‘day ‘Ampere is the SI unit of electric current The ampere is the constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length and of negligible circular cross- section placed 1 metre apart in vacuum, would produce between them a force of 2x 10’ newtons Ber metre of length, Kelvin is the SI unit of temperature. The triple point of water is temperature at which all the three phases of water (ice, liquid and water vapour) co-exist in dynamic equilibrium. The triple point of water hav been assigned a temperature of 273.16 kelvin. The Kelvin is 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the Triple Point of water. 6. Mole is the SI unit of the amount of substance. A mole is the amount of substance which contains as many elementary particles {atoms, molecules or ions) as there are in 12 grams of carbon-12. % ‘CANDELA Candela is the SI unit of Luminous ingensity™ (Luminous intensity means brightness of Nght) IP any monochromatic source of light product frequency of 540x 10"? Hz in a definitgirection and if its intensity be 1/683 watt/ ster; then Luminous intensity is of 1 Candela. PREF) ‘Value Prefix ibol 10" exa- 10° peta- P 107 ter T 10° G 10° et u_| 10° - K 107 1ecto- h : ‘deca- da deci- d ‘centi- 5 10 milli- m™m 10° micro 7 10° Tano- an 10" Pico- P 10°" Temto- T C10 atto- a DERIVED UNITS (OR DERIVED SI UNITS) ‘A unit obtained by multiplying or dividing one base unit by another base unit is called derived unit. The derived physical quantities like area volume, density, pressure, force, eneggy, spr velocity, acceleration, power, momenth7h ge, all ary ‘ined derived'SI units which have been from the base SI units. The base SI unit of di: (which is 5 length) is metre (m) and tha le is second (s) So unitof di Preis) 1 speed = Unitof distaneforsceth) - m/sorms Unitof spec es Z The SI unit epost is m/s of ms". NITS: Wame ofthe (| pHame of the [Symbol of the Derived qu: ‘ved SI Unit|Derived 81 unit ‘Arca ® juare metre | _m* Vel cubic metre | m Talogrma per — cube metre _|_e/m’or ke metres per m/sorms | velocity) _| second | ceeleration | metre per m/s oF me" second square jomentum ———Ticlogram meter} km/s or kems! per second Force (and weight] newton n Work (and energy] joule F Power watt W 4 Pressure pascal PaMOTION, DISTANCE. A body is said to be in motion (or moving) when its position changes continuousl with respect to a stationary object taken asa reference point. _ ‘The distance travelled by a body is the aci length of the path covered by a moving body respective of the direction in which the body travels, . When a body moves from one posi another, the shortest (straight line) distance between the initial position and final position of the body, along with direction, is known as its displacement A Nok . c ¢ When a body travels from A to B and tndeae the distance travelled = p + b and displacement = h Distance is a scalar quantity magnitude only) but displace: magnity because it has MOE direction. 8 UNIFORM MOTION A body has a ul equal distances in eq i how small these distance-time gra] for line. Ye ise it has. ‘a vector ‘s well as a notion if it travels vals of time, no matter fAtervals may be. The fniform motion is a straight ND DISPLACEMENT NON - UNIFORM MOTION A body has a non-uniform ‘ unequal distances in equal intervalsgPuyne KS ~~ >> ® Distance x Time AS [Phe motion of a freely falling body is an gxulnple of non uniform motion. The distance-time Bh for a body having non-uniform motion is a Nirved line. Non-Uniform accelerated motion, SPEED, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION The motion of a body can be described by three terms: speed, velocity and acceleration SPEED ‘Speed of a body is the distance travelled by it per unit time motion is also called ncetravelled, Time taken! Speed = If a body travels a distance 's’ in time 't then its speed 'v is given by: ¥= | Where v = Speed s = Distance travelled {= Time taken (to travel that distance) ‘The SI unit of distance is metre (m) and that of time is second (s), therefore, the SI unit of speed js metres per second which is written as m/s or ms".__ Speed has magnitude only, it has no Specified direction, therefore, speed is a scalar quantity AVERAGE SPEED The average speed of a body is the total distance travelled divided by the total time te to cover this distance. Total distance travelled Average speed verse Total time taken UNIFORM SPEED (OR CONSTANT SPEED} A body has a uniform speed ifit travels equal distances in equal intervals of time. VELOCITY Velocity of a body is the distance travelled by it per unit time in a given direction. Velocity of a body is its speed in a specified direction. Velocity = Distance travelled in a given direction/Time taken ves/t v= velocity of the body 8 = distance travelled {in the giv direction) t = time taken (to travel that di tance) The unit of velocity is the same as thaeéf 1 % speed (m/s or ms") AS Velocity has magnitude as welasdirection. Velocity is a vector quantity. vas/t Q. savxt velocity if it travels in Distance travelled velocity « time over equal distances in VE! (ii) By keeping the speed constant but by changing the direction. AVERAGE VELOCITY: init 1al velocity + final velocity 2 Average Velocity ACCELERATION Acceleration of a body in defined an the ray, of change of velocity of a moving body with ure Acceleration = change in velocity/ time take, for change > Change in velocity = final velo — ining, velocity ws Acceleration ~ nal velocaty, Wahi velocity ‘tune taken Accele A € , a= Acceleratlu.pf the body v= Final yglocity of the body u = Initidl Polarity of the body t= Tigfitaen) for the change in velocity Phe SMyunit of acceleration is m/s? or ms Ax prcclleration is a vector quantity and when a beak fs moving with uniform velocity, it acgéteration will be zero. @NIPORM ACCELERATION A body is said to be accelerated if it tr straight line and its velocity increases by equal ‘amounts in equal intervals of time. A body has a uniform acceleration if its velocity changes at a uniform rate. Here are some examples of the uniformly accelerated motion () The motion of a freely falling body is an example of uniformly accelerated motion. The motion of a bicycle going down the slope of a road when the rider is not pedalling and wind resistance is negligible, is also an example of uniformly accelerated motion. The motion of a ball rolling down an inclined plane is an example of uniformly accelerated motion (ii) (i) A body has a non-uniform acceleration if its, velocity increases by unequal amounts in equal intervals of time. In other words, a body has non: uniform acceleration if its velocity changes at a non. uniform rate. RETARDATION (OR DECELE! NEGATIVE ACCELERATION) When the velocity of a moving object TION,gecreases With ome wh: dane then the ace ile travelling in a straight ‘HM eration of the object is said to be = megatve Negative a leration is called retardation The third equation of motion is, ation is measured in ame "+28 and known as posi che same way as acceleration, that is, retardation aera me relation ss equal te change in velocity / time taken and has h SoSEaS SNES eae ae ated ee, @ actually acceleration with the negative sign ences, : U = Initial veloci EQUATIONS OF UNI .CCELERATED a = Acceleratio ae MOTION . 8 = Distance udyehed There are three equations for the motion of those bodies which travel with a uniform LRCULAR M acceleration. These equations give relationship puhenelbed betwee: sat velocity, final velocity, time taken, Cifcular path wi acceleration and distance travelled by the bodies Co xed pinin h_ustiform speed (constant speed), its motion js caffed uniform circular motion, 2 EBT ROUATION oF Circular @i¥tign is accelerated even though ST EQUATION OF MOTION the speed of the SeG# Jemains constant. The motion Pleas Best equation of motion is:v= ut at It in a cirgle mt fant speed is an example of ges the velocity acquired by a body in time 't’ and accelerate ion. Though the speed may not kmown as velocity. nme relation. . chap, direction of motion changes Consider a body having initial velocity «u', continuollty. When a satellite (like the moon) goes. Suppone itis subjected to a uniform acceleration arofindWe carth with constant speed, it velocity ‘a’ so that after time its final velocity becomes V’. suniform because the direction of motion of Now, from the definition of acceleration we kn aes ow fatellite changes continuously. Thus, the that: oye of a satellite is accelerated. Acceleration + change in vel In uniform linear motion, the direction of motion is fixed. So, uniform linear motion is not accelerated. Speed and direction both remain constant Os FORCE ¥ = final velocity of Hb [Alloree can | produce three effects’ u + initial velocity body (1) A force can change the speed of a body. It can a= acceleration’ make a stationary body move from rest or t= time take; increase or decrease the speed of a moving body. (2) A force can change the direction of motion of Body in time ‘t ant ‘as postion-time relation. A force is an external influence which tends i body. ry ion of motion is a ly asuebenitg pe Aor aroe Gavched by a (3) A force can change the shape of a body. ity Aw to change the speed and direction of a moving body bebcity + final velocity) or which tends to change the shape of a body. : rn NEWTON'S FIRST LAW OF MOTION ssutt Kat? A body at rest will remain at rest, and @ m= body in motion will continue to remain in'motion sree cance travelled by the body in time ‘t! itv straight line with a uniform speed, unless it is 3 = dis 5 y : compelled by an external force to change its state = initiel velocity of the body of rest or of uniform motion. Newton's first law is also called the ‘Law of inertia’. 5 a = accelerationInertia is that property of a body due te which it resists a change in its state of rest oF 0 uniform motion. Greater the inertia of a body, greater will be the force required to bring a change in its state of rest or of uniform motion. ‘There are three types of inertia: (Q) Inertia of rest (Q)_ Inertia of motion (3) Inertia of direction In fact, mass is a measure of the inertia of a body. If a body has more mass, it has more inertia. When a bus starts suddenly, the passengers fall backward. This is due to the fact that because of their inertia, the passengers tend to remain in their state of rest (or stationary state) even when the bus has started moving. When a running car or bus stops suddenly, the passengers are jerked forward because due to inertia the passengers tend to remain in their state of moving (which they possessed in a moving car or bus) even though the car or bus has come to rest. It is dangerous to jump out of moving bus because the jumping man, who is moving with thy high speed from the bus, would tend to remgtn i motion (due to inertia) even on falling to the ground, and get hurt due to the resistance offel ground. Thus, Newton's first law of a e law of inertia of matter. Newton's first jotion says that a force is something whic) fges or tends to change the state of resi ‘uniform motion of a body. NEWTON'S. ND. The force acting proportional to the produ; and the ‘acceleration’ action of the force, the acceleration. dy is directly mass’ of the body the body by the cts in the direction of Force = mi acceleration SOY The eration produced in a body is directly propdftional to the force acting on it and inversely proportional to the mass of the body. UNITS OF FORCE The S.I. unit of force is newton which is denoted by N. A Newton is that force which when acting on a body of mass Ikg produces an acceleration of 1m/s?in it. Femxa The first law of motion is, in fact, @ specia) case of the second law, because whepaphe appliey, force F is zero, then the acceleratio ia! ary and the body remains in its st at or et uniform motion. It is obvious t second \e force applieg body law gives us a relationship bet We have all ta cricket player lowers his hands while cgtching a ball to stop it, He never stops a cricket(6@l suddenly keeping his hands stationary. ation can be explained on the bagjs Aw /s second law of motion as follow: Niet player stops fast moving cricket oa Se then the change in the velocity of the; ym high value to zero value will be in a rt time or rather retardation of the ball will ry large. And due to large acceleration of the , the player will have to apply a large force to ‘op it (because force = mass * acceleration). Since ‘the ball also exerts an equal force on the hand of the player, the player's hand may get hurt when he stops the fast ball suddenly. When the cricket player stops the same ball gradually by lowering his hands alongwith ball, he takes a longer time to stop the ball. The same change in velocity of the ball is now brought about in a longer time and the acceleration (or rather retardation) of the ball becomes comparatively small. And because of smaller acceleration, the player will have to apply smaller force to stop the ball gradually. It is also a known fact that when @ man falls from a height to a concrete floor, he receives greater injuries than one who falls on & sandy floor from the same height. T! 0 due to the same reason. MOMEN: The momentum of a body is defined as the Product of its mass and velocity. Momentum = mass * velocity Pe=mxy where P= momentum m = mass of the bodyv= velocity (or speed) of the body If a body is at rest, its velocity is zero and ence its momentum is also zero. Thus, the total momentum is a vector quantity and takes place in the direction of velocity. The S.1. unit of momentum ig m/s or kg ms". A karate player can break a pile of tiles or a slab of ice with single blow of his hand. This is because a karate player strikes the pile of tiles or the slab of ice with his hand very fast. In doing so the entire momentum of the fast moving hated ie reduced to zero in a very short time. This exerts a very large force on the pile of tiles or the ice slab which is sufficient to break them apart. A cricket ball is not very heavy but when it is thrown with high speed (or high velocity), it acquires a very large momentum and sometimes hurts the batsman. The js why a batsman often ducks toa bouncer, On the other hand, a car or bus may not be running at @ high speed (or high velocity) but because of its high mass, it has a very high momentum which may hurt the person coming in its way. LATIONS! BETWEEN Fi E [OMENTUM: Force = mass x acceleration or F=mxa Acceleration = Change in velocity / Time OO t = OS es ° t where (mv - mu) of the body in time 't’, Force = chi jomentum / time taken ie Force = change of momentum i fnother definition of Newton's in which can now be stated as: rce applied to a body is directly the rate of change of momentum jange in momentum Every action has an equal and opposite (faction. Action and reaction act on two different bodies, but they act simultaneously. TO 11) Nn 7 THIRD LAW OF MOTION 1. HOW DO WE WALK : When we walk on the ground. Pushes the ground backward and 1en our foot rgturn, the ground pushes our foot orb forward reaction exerted by the groun foot makes us walk forward. On the sli ground or ice, the friction is much less, cannot exert a backward action force ery ground or ice rd reaction force on 2. When a plet is fired from a gun, the force sending the ward is equal to the force sending th; ard. But due to high mass ofthe & Wves only a little distance backward ckward jerk or kick to the shoulder in. The gun is said to have recoiled. AE! LANE: Jet aeroplanes utilize the principle of action oF reaction. In the moder jet aircraft, the hot ‘eases obtained by the rapid burning of fuel rush out of a jet at the rear end of the aircraft at a great speed. The equal and opposite reaction of backward going gases pushes the aircraft forward at a great speed. The rockets also work on the principle of action and reaction. In a rocket, the hot gases produced by the rapid burning of fuel rush out of ajet at the bottom of the rocket at a very high speed. The equal and opposite reaction force of the downward going gases pushes the rocket upward with a great speed. 4. THE CASE OF A BOAT AND THE SHIP During the rowing of a boat, the boatman pushes the water backwards with the oars. The water exerts an equal and opposite push on the boat which makes the boat move forward. In fact, harder the boatman pushes back the water with oars, greater is the reaction force exerted by water and faster the boat moves forward. When a man jumps out of a boat to the bank of the river, the boat moves backwards, away from him. Thi due to the fact that to step out of the boat, the man presses the boat with his foot in the backward direction. The push of the man on the boat is they the man nve action. The boat exerts an I farce in the forward direction which enables him tot forward, This forve exerted by the boat on the ia reaction, Since the boat is floating on water and not fixed, it moves backward due to the action force: exerted by man. 5. THE CASE OF HOSE PIPE: When firemen are directing a powerful stream of water on fire from a hose pipe, they have to hold the hose pipe strongly because of its tendency to go backward. The backward movement of the hose pipe is due to the backward reaction of water rushing through it in the forward direction at a great speed. 6. THE CASE OF HORSE PULLING A CART: According to the third law of motion, the horse exerts some force on the cart, and the cart exerts an equal and opposite force on the horse So, it seems that the force being equal and opposite cancel out and hence the cart would not move. But it is only the force on the cart which determines whether the cart will move or not, and the force exerted by the cart on the horse affects the hor alone. Thus, if the horse is able to apply ¢ force to overcome the frictional forces presdit, thy cart will move. So, to make the cart move th its feet. bends forward and pushes the ground When the forward reaction to the bac] of the horse is greater than the op} force of the wheels, the cart move THE LAW OF CONSERVATIO} [OME When two bi another, their total mom push ictional act upon one ‘mains constant acting. The law of ‘means that whenever , then some other body int of momentum. This law mentum is neither created ¢ law of conservation of so known as the principle of f momentum. The principle of fonservatioh of momentum is in accord with Newton's third law of motion which says that action and reaction are equal and opposite. The total momentum of the bodies before and after the collision is the same. This means that the momentumof the two bodies remains constant, must lose an equi can also be sta APPLICATIONS OF THE LAW OF COnBI OF MOMENTUM ‘The working, of rockets and jet aeroplane 4b based on law of conservation of momentien The chemicals inside the rockad burn ap, Pans out through the til nozzle of ae POO heey velocity and the rocket movga ute b momentum of the ganen, Alt 6 MAN Of pane emitted is comparatively ®nal but they hace very high velocity an@&bénce a very lary momentum. An egal mgmentum is imparted the rocket in the op| {direction, 80 that, inspir, of its large masyg the rocket goes up with a hiss velocity. 6 In jet siglo, fa large volume of gase produced vane bustion of fuel is allowed 1, ERVATION escape ‘a jet in the backward direction. Dus to Ae, igh speed or velocity, the backwari ruahltg gises have a large momentum. They art ah equal and opposite momentum to the je ine due to which the jet aeroplane moves fard with a great speed. Thus, the rockets and aeroplanes work on the principle of conservation momentum. The momentum is also conserved when a bullet is fired from a gun. Initially, before a bullet is fired from @ gun, both, the bullet and the gun, are at rest. So, before a bullet is fired, the initial momentum of the bullet and the gun is zero, Now, when a bullet is fired from a gun, then the bullet has the momentum given by: mass of bullet and velocity of bullet. The bullet imparts an equal and opposite momentum to the gun due to which the gun jerks backwards. The gun is said to recoil. The momentum acquired by the gun is According to the law of conservation of momentum = Mass of bullet x Velocity of bullet = Mass of gun x Recoil velocity of gun Since mass of gun is large, the recoil velocity is less. FRICTION When we push an object with only a small amount of force, it does not move at all. It means that the surface on which the object is resting ¢xerts some force on the object and this force must be acting in a direction opposite to the force of ou Push. In other words, some force is acting on thestationary object which oppose: opposing force is friction ground also slows down or stope sat” between the ball and the ground rhe that: the force which always opposes one body over another body in cont called the force of friction oF just tet CAUSE OF FRICTION Every object has a rough the mane ey spe ROU SuHise, though eye. When we see through a mi Meer icroscope, that the surfaces of all the bodies are reg ound sits moti A ball movi n. This ing on the to the frictios + We conchide: ion are rough and others are less Some an aneh. some on the surface are in the form of tiny hille seas others form grooves. These tiny hills and athe get entangled with one another. The interloseny cy the two Surfaces opposes the manion gf king of over another and gives rise to frictional force. W, can say that: friction is due to the roughness of surfaces LAWS OF FRICTION The four important laws of friction are given below: 1. Friction opposes the motion at 2. Friction depends on the nature of the two” surfaces in contact. In other words, friction depends on the kind of materials, smoothness and degree of lubrication " . Friction is independent of the area of ¢ontact between the two surfaces Frictional force is directly proportional to the weight of the body which ten@s:to move. This is why it is difficult to move heavier objects. ION IS OF THREE TYPES: U) Static friction, . 2) Dynamic frictiop™, () Rolling frictiag (J @) Static Friction = Jt is the friction exerted on a object wrebt. Static friction 1s also known as limiting{riction. (b) Sliding Peiction : It is the friction exerted when an object slides over a surface. Sliding friction is slightly less than static friction. Dynamic friction is also known as sliding friction or kinetic friction (9 Rotting Fricpion : It is the friction exerted when an oBject roils over a surface.Rolling friction is less than sliding friction and static friction FRI ‘The rolling friction is due to two reason: (i) The rolling body deforms the si tt on which it rolls, = aes ens of contact with the sustace med at its points the road are successively de! and cause rolling friction. Some force be applied by is obvious that if the whe fard and the road is tions le iene a also hard, then theffefor hence the rolling friction, should have sufficie! ‘pressure in the car tyres to reduce the ig friction. The rollihglietion can never be zero. Rolling friction is righ WEs9 than sliding friction. Since the rolling“tictfon Ts much less than the sliding friction, fore, it is easier to roll a heavy drum thafet it. “Most of the suitcases these days are fitted with small wheel due to which it becomes very oqehient to pull them from one place to another. ICTION EXERTED LIQUIDS AND GAS! In Science, the common name of gases and liquids is fluids. The frictional force exerted by fluids is called drag. The liquids and gases, however, exert much less friction as compared to solid surfaces. The friction due to air is still smaller. This can further be reduced by giving a streamlined shape to the body. The special shape of a body (or object) around which a fluid (air or water) can flow past easily, is called streamlined shape. The shape of boats and ships are made ‘streamlined’ so that they experience the minimum friction while moving. in water. Even the shapes of fishes and other marine animals are such that they face the minimum friction while in water. Air exerts the force of friction on all the bodies which move through it and opposes their motion ‘The most interesting example of the friction of air is the case of a meteor (or shooting star). Meteors are the stone like objects which enter into the earth's atmospherg from the outer space and are at a very high speed. When the meteors fall through the-earth’s atmosphere, their motion opposed by the friction of air. Due to the very high speea of meteors through air, the heat is produced bitrT f by the friction of air. Due to the very high speed o meteors through air, the heat is seen by night. shooting stars coming down the sky during TT Most of the meteors falling from the sky are pies and burn up completely before reaching the es ee of earth. Only the very large meteors burn pai tally and reach the earth's surface. The meteors wl surface are called meteorites. @ necessary evil. WHERE FRICTION 18 USEFUL We are able to walk because friction prevents us from slipping. Walking on slippery ground is difficult because the friction force is not great enough to prevent slipping. Without friction, belts could not drive machines and the brakes could not be applied. Without friction, nails and screws cannot be used to hold things together and knots cannot be tied. Friction also enables us to write on paper. The lighting of a match stick is another useful application of friction. The surface of the head of a match-stick and the sides of the match — box are deliberately made rough to increase the friction. The tyre surfaces are made corrugated ai rough 80 that the friction between the tyrg road increasea. Due to greater hen, kK) better grip on the road which’ pAgye: skidding of the vehicle, Spikes are provided in th and athletes to increase frjagn slipping. (i) Friction reduces the. (i) Friction produ: the machin. (iil) Friction w x the rubbing machine part: sradupiiy ' ne parts (iv) Sok ) Tyres to frictioy wear out due to friction, les and automobiles wear out due aD DUCING FRICTIO Friction is due to the roughness of surface, Any process which makes the two surfaces smo, will reduce the friction. The Important methods of Oo" friction are: 1. By polishing. 2. By applying lubricants fe surfaces. 3. By using ball-bearing balll - bearings reduces friction ey ing sliding friction into rolling frigfon. 4. By using role and Wheels. 5. By streamlinin, Brease) ¢, force acting on a unit area of a force depends on the area which it acts. ressure depends on two factors: 1 ‘applied. ‘@ over which force acts. The same force can produce different sures depending on the area over which it acts, for example, when a force acts over a large area of ‘an object, it produces a small pressure, but if the same acts over a small area of the object, it produces a large pressure. We can now define pressure as follows. Pressure is the force acting perpendicularly on “unit area of the object. Pressure = Force / Area The SI unit of measuring pressure is Rewtons per square metre’ which ie also called Pascal. acting on the surface of a ine pressure as follows: Thrust Per unit area is called pressure. Pressure = A school bag has wide strap made of thick that the weight of bag may fall were largearea of the shoulder of the ch, pressure on the shoulder, if th. © school bag FACTORS AFFECTI bag ill be overs smaitare etn gjge sett Mushwunant free cred ya quid depends will produce a large pr oulder. This ‘ohume of the solid object immersed in essure on the shoulder the child and it will Become very paints aL to carry the heavy school bag, 2. Why a knife: A sharp knife cuts objects better duc tits very i 1 thin edge. Pat A i.e Lesser is the area, higher is the pressure 3. Why the pressure on r man is walking than when he {s standing When a man is walking, then at one time only one of his feet is on the ground. Due to thie the force or weight of man falls on i the ground and produces ino! ground. The tractors have wide tyres so that there is less pressure on the ground and the tyres do not sink in to comparatively soft ground in the fields Wooden sleepers are kept below the railway into the ground for the same reason. It is easier to walk on soft ground if &e flat shoes rather than shoes with pointed h« is because a flat shoe has greater are contact with the soft sand due to which tyer¥gs less pressure on the soft ground. Duc sgtMy the flat shoes do not sink much in soft sq it is easy to walk on it. ay INCIPLI Qd es that when an Archimedes’ princij 7 ersed in a liquid, it object is wholly or parti experiences a buoyant MgcY which is equal to the weight of liquid disp] y the object Buoyant fc ‘ing on an object = weight of liquid display that object fe of buoyant force is equal to If IMhid displaced by the immersed Eround is more when a a smaller area of Pressure on the the wei object. When’an object is immersed in a liquid, it experiences an upward force. This upward force is called ‘buoyant force’ or ‘upthrust' and tendency of @ liquid to exert an upward force on an object placed in it is called buoyancy. sharp knife cuts better than a blunt the liqu 1 The magnitude of buoyant force acting on a solid object does no ‘i depend on the nature of the solid object re force exerted by depends ‘on the density of the liquidya Wich the object isimmersed. As the di uid increases, the buoyant force exer) APPLICATIONS OF AR‘ 1. The hydromeyérs uw density of liqaggs ‘The buoyar also increases RINCIPLE for determining the le based on Archimedes 3. Ar@humé§es principle is used in designing DE ry t © substances appear to be heavy fis others are light, The density of a substance icfined as mass of the substance per unit lume Density = _!aSSof the substance volume of the substance The SI unit of density is ‘kilograms per cubic metre’ DENSITIES OF SOME COMMON SUBSTANCES Substance [Density | Density can also [920 kg/m* | 0.92 * 10° kg/m’ 1.0 4] Aluminium . 5 7.8» 10° kg/m* a 13600 kg/m] 13.6 * 10° kg/m 7[ Gold [19300 kg/m'] 19.3 « 107kg/m’ The relative density of a substance is the ratio of its density to that of the density of given reference material. Specific gravity means relative density with respect to water. The term ‘relative density” is oftenpreferred in modern scientific Usage. Relative demaity = Density of the substance/ Density of water Relative density of a substance = Weight of the substanee / Weight of an equal volume of water The Relative density of a substance is the Fao of the weaght of any volume of the substance fe the weaght ofan equal volume of water GRAVITATION According to Newton's law of gravitation (or universal law of gravitation), every body in the Universe attracts every other body with a force which ts directly proportional to the product of the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. myn Gravitational force Fa Where G = gravitational Constant NOTE: If we double the distance between two bodies, the gravitational force becomes one-fourt and if we halve the distance between two beatie then the gravitational force become four ties Value of gravitational constant (G) 9,67 10 Nm? / ke? nN Unit of gravitational constant = N@u kg ? NEWTON’: Ww GRAVITATION Newton's third la object exerts a force second object exert on the first object also holds good PRetion says that: an her object, then the jal and opposite force Reton’s third law of motion Re force of gravitation. This means thatwht) h exerts a force of attraction on an obgc§ test the object also exerts an equal force on tag in the opposite direction. Thus, even a falling Bbject attracts the earth towards itself The mass of a stone is very small, due to which the gravitational force produces a large acceleration in it. Due to large acceleration of stone, we can see the stone falling towards the earth. The mass of earth is very large. Due to the very large . earth, the same gravitational 4, ass of the pee eceleration in th produces very small a FALLING OBJECTS Earlier it was thought that the bgbter obj, fall slowly and the heavier objects fallarore rap This was later found to be wrong by Galifeo. Gai, dropped two stones of different masses from ;; top of the leaning tower of piga,@nd found 1), they hit the ground at the @ame time. From 1), Galileo concluded that the decdleration of an obje., falling freely towardy the earth does not depend the mass of the object. It was suggested by Galle that the slow speed offeather, while falling, is di, to the fact that,its surface area is very large compared to it , So the feather experience, much more gpsistange from air and its speed ig slowed dows, [-vaetum, all the objects fall at the same rate, ACERLERATION DUE TO GRAVITY “Whe uniform acceleration produced in Ae falling body due to the gravitational pull of @earth is known as acceleration due to gravity it is denoted by the letter 'g. The value of 'g “thanges slightly from place to place but for most of the purposes it is taken as 9.8m/s?. Thus, the acceleration due to gravity, g = 9. 8m/s? The value of acceleration due to gravity 'g is maximum on the surface of the earth. It decreases on going above the surface of earth or on going inside the surface of the earth. Since the acceleration due to gravity does not depend on the mass of the body, all the bodies (whether heavy or light) fall with the same acceleration towards the surface of the earth. ‘gis minimum at equator and maximum at poles. APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON’ GRAVITATION NEWTON'S LAW OF GRAVITATION Helps - 1. To determine the mass of the earth accurately 2. To determine the masses of the sun, the moon and the planets. To estimate the masses of the double stars.(A double star is a pair of stars revolving around their common centre of mass). The two stars of a double star system which revolve around each other are held together by the LAW OF 3 12gravitational force between them 4. In discovering new stars and planets A large number of stars show « regul motion against the background of more "eat stars, An irregularity (or unsteadiness) in the motion of a star indicates that it might have another star lose to it, which is very faint and not visible, bor exerts a large gravitational pull and makes the motion of original star irregular (or unstess), The irregularity in the motion of a star is called ‘wobbling’. And the star itself ig said to wobble" The wobbling in the motion of stars indicates the presence of another star near it (whose gravitational pull causes the wobbling) {a)When a body is falling vertically downwards, the acceleration due to gravity, g, is taken as positive That is, acceleration due to gravity = 49.8 m/s? (o)When a body is thrown vertically upward, its velocity decreases, so the acceleration due to gravity, g, s taken as negative That is, acceleration due to gravity for a body thrown upwards = -9.8 m/s" (c)When a body is dropped freely from a heights its initial velocity ‘U' becomes zcro {d)When a body is thrown vertically upwafs, its final velocity +" becomes zero : Surv ‘The mass of a body is the quanyig Btdmatter (or materia contained in ft. MaedQitna scalar quantity and it is measured by ee equal Seen ace The unit of mass kag. The mass of a body is constant and “sy ‘change from place to place tifenrth attracts teh Baers with equal force, they have equal masse WEIGHT ‘The earth aftrdete every body towards its centre with a cpggtipforee which depends on the mma nga pin acctraton duc to grant rea pubes Meignt ofa body isthe force sith hich fine MNpeted toward the centre ofthe earth Force Pmase x acceleration Thedownward force ating on a body of mess ‘in gen by. Force £ mass x acceleration due to gravity Tho Stunit of force and hence that of weight is Newton. ‘ 13 Another unit of weight i llog iograrn - wright 1 kg.wt = 9.8 Newton a measured sith a spring bal ‘The weight of a body fe given by W = mx & and since the value of changes (pry place te place, therefore, the weight of a body alge changes from place to place. Thus, not constant. he Seige of a body is We know that the valtlg 8facceleration due to gravity, 'g decreases afjweiko down inside the earth and becomes gerd atape centre of the earth So, whatever be theveightof a body on the surface of the earth, its weight. Becomes zero when it is taken to the cenjre of the earth WEIGHT OF AM OBJECT ON THE MOON ‘The gfdiitational pull of the moon is about ‘one-sixthyof Mhai of the earth, therefore, the weight of ag objecton the moon will be about one-sixth of what iston the earth. ceNTRE OF MASS The centre of mass of a body is that point \dhb¥e the whole mass of the body can be thought po be concentrated ‘All the bodies are attracted towards the centre of the earth by a force which is directly proportional to their mass. This force is called the ‘weight of the body. The whole weight of a body can be supposed to act at a point called the centre of gravity. The centre of gravity of a regularly shaped body lies at the geometrical centre of the body. ‘The centre of gravity of a body can be inside the material of the body or outside it. If the body is solid throughout, then its centre of gravity lies inside the material of the body. If the body is hollow, then its centre of gravity lies outside the material of the body. WEIGHTLESSNESS The weight of a body is the force with which the earth attracts it. An object is said to be ‘weightless’ when it is falling freely under the action of gravity. HT! ACE ‘An astronaut in a spaceship orbit the earth about 1000 kilometres above its surface. At that istance from the earth, the force of gravity of earthis still quite strong. Since the acceleration due to gravity, ‘g’ is not zero, therefore, the weight of astronauts in the spaceship certainly cannot be zero. But still we say that he is ‘weightless’. It is because when the astronaut in the spaceship is orbiting the earth, then both the astronaut and the spaceship are in a continuing state of free fall towards the earth with the same acceleration due to gravity. Since the downward acceleration of the_ astronaut is same as that of the spaceship, he does not exert any force on the sides of the astronaut to the spaceship and appears to be floating ‘weightlessly’. Thus, the astronaut is weightless with respect to the spaceship and appears to be floating. ‘A weighing machine kept in the space vehicle will show his weight to be zero. Though the free fall of a body produces a feeling of weightlessness but a true weightlessness can be experienced by a spaceship in a region of outer space where the acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ is zero, PROJECTILES A falling object having a horizontal velocity is called a projectile and it moves in a curved path called parabola. In other words, an object havi Thus, a projectile possesses two ‘The vertical distance travelled by a projectile does not depend on the speed with which it js thrown horizontally. , The horizontal distance travelled by projectile depends on the speed withawhich it ig thrown horizontally. It has been fo t larger the initial speed with which it is nally greater will be the horizontal dign¥ytravelled by fattraction of the sun jolving around it in their tational attraction of the i ee earth which maj the moon (or artificial satellite) go around th speatedly. Y NY ow ny uniform horizontal motion and a uniform v: ee) acceleration simultaneously is called a projfctile. 0 simultaneously: Ky ha (i It possesses a horizontal moti. constant velocity. (ii It possesses a vertical motion rds with @ constant acceleration. wy Two coins,one droppe; ly and the other thrown horizontally fi 1e same height, 1 the vertical und. This means ‘the projectile has no take same amount of tii distance from the table ¢ vertical motion of @ projectile is independent of its horizontal motion. The vertical distance ‘h' travelled by a projectile thrown horizontal parallel to the ground, in time 't' is give by 1/2 gt’, which is the same as that for an object dropped vertically downwards from the same position. 14WORK, ENERGY AND PowER Work is done when a for Fa an a force produces motion, two factors: @ body depends on 1. Magnitude of the force (¥) 2. Distance through which t Work is said to be don: application of a force moves a body is equal to the produ: the body and the distai the direction of force. W=FxS iT OF wo! The unit of work is 'N written a as Nm. 1 Joule = 1 Newton « 1 metre The SI unit of work is joule WORK DONE AGAINST GRAVITY Whenever work is done against gravity, the amount of work done is equal to the product of Weight of the body and the vertical distance through which the body is lifted. IRMULA_FOR WORK DONE WHEN A FORMULA FOR WORK DONE WHEN A BODY MOVES AT AN ANGLE TO THE DIRECTION OF FORCE W =F Cosgxs where W = Work done, F = Foree ‘applied, S = Distance moved and @= angle betWeen the direction of motion of body and the direction of force applied i) WHEN THE FORCE ACTS {@T)RIGHT ANGLES 1O THE DIRECTION OF MOTION Cos 90° = 0 £% W-Fxoxsmo Y This means thanWhen the displacement of the body is perpendicular to the direction of force, no work is done. Tirus, the work done in the case of earth mgving ageund the sun is zero and the work done in théigase of a satellite moving around the earth is also vero. POWER Power is defined as the rate of doing work. Power = Work done /Time taken Being a fraction of two scalar quantities, work and time, power is a scalar quantity. he body moves.(s) © when the point of Work done in moving ct of force exerted on nce moved by the body in lewton metre’ which is 15 oe UNIT OF POWER The unit of power is SI unit of power is wai work at 1 joule per se: ENERGY Energy is the ability to do wath of energy possessed by a body, i amount of work it can do released. The S.1. unit of en is “joules per second” tt and it is the rate of d ‘cond, Ce. amount qual to the eW its energy is joule. Energy is a scalar quantity, 9? kinetic eneRcy “~~ or 20PERIODIC MOTION Motion which repeats itself after a fixed interval of time is known as periodic motion. The periodic motion in which a body moves back and Forth continuously is called vibratory motion. In physics, the motion of a simple pendulum is an ecample of vibratory motion. |ON OF A SIMPI ‘Asimple pendulum consists of a small metal pall suspended by a long thread from a rigid support, in such a way that the bob is free to swing back and forth. A simple pendulum completes ever swing in exactly the same time, provided its length is kept constant. Whether the amplitude of oscillations a pendulum is large or small, the time taken for one complete oscillation remains the same. ‘Simple harmonic motion is oscillat ng motion of an object in which the acceleration of the object is- (Always in the opposite direction to the displacement from equilibrium (i) Proportional to the displacement from The time-period of a simple pendulum does not depend on. (i) Mass of the bob (ii) Nature of material of the bob (iii) Amplitude of oscillations FORMULA FOR THE TIME-PERIOD ee PSIMPLE PENDULUM AR i SOY an, Ve () The time-perigoka simple pendulum is directly proportional 6 the square root of its length.As thedlepéth of a pendulum is increased, its time-period also increases. (i) The time-fetiod of a simple pendulum is inversely proportional to the square root of the acceleration’ dué to gravity at that place. 4. AMPLETUDE SA &uhe pendulum swings to and fro,the maximiti displacement of the bob from its central poaitign on either side is called the amplitude of equilibrium. pendulum ‘The motion of a simple pendulum is af" S"FREQUENCY OF OSCILLATIONS example of simple harmonic motion fC ~ ‘The number of complete oscillations made KEEPS SIMPLE PENDULUM by a simple pendulum in one second is called its OSCILLATING “=” frequency. The SI unit of frequency is ‘hertz’. ‘Once the pendulum bob is pulled Rone side Frequency of a pendulum of time-period © an ee ae Per the restoring forc@axerted by will be 1/7. So, ‘Frequency ip the reciprocal of asity and tension in the thread WRK tends to Time:period’, Freauency = 1 / Time period ‘and keeps WAVE MOTION bring the bob back to its mean it oscillating. 1, LENGTH OF PENDULUM The length of thread Wom the point of suspension to the centr ’@Q9% is called length of the pendulum. 4 2. OSCILLATIONS > ‘One com, he f and-fro movement of the pendulum bab ‘d oscillation. The taken by the pendulum bob to make one complete oscillation is called time-period of the pendulum. ‘The time-period of a simple pendulum depends on: () Length of the pendulum. (ii) Acceleration due to gravity. 2 Wave motion is a vibratory disturbance travelling through a material medium and is due to the repeated motion of the particles of the medium about their mean position. Only energy is transferred by wave motion, matter is not transferred from one place to another by wave motion. Sound is also an example of wave motion. ‘A wave is a vibratory disturbance in a medium which carries energy from one point to another without there being a direct contact between the two points. MECHANICAL WAVES (OR TIC WAY ‘Those waves which need a material medium for their propagation, are called mechanical waves or elastic waves. Sound waves and water waves are mechanical waves or elastic waves.|ON- MECHANICAL WAVES) Those waves which do not need a material medium for their propagation and can travel even through vacuum are called electromagnetic waves. ELASTIC WAvEs | ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 1 Electromagnetic waves can be transmitted even through vacuum . Elastic waves require material medium like lids, liquids or gases, for their propagation . Elastic waves are due ‘0 the vibrations of the [particles of the medium fhrough which they pass| 2. Electromagnetic waves are due to the varying Jelectric and magnetic fields in space. |. Elastic waves have a jow speed 3.All the electromagnetic waves have a very high speed of 3*10'm/s. Elastic waves have ery high frequency and large wavelength J4. Electromagnetic waves Ihave very high frequency and extremely short wavelength IS. Elastic waves can be ransverse waves of longitudinal waves 5S. Electromagnetic eh are only transversewavesd | ¥ TRANSVERSE WAVES ‘Awave in which the particles of the mediur, vibrate up and down ‘at right angles’ to the directic in which the wave is moving, is called a transvers, wave. EXAMPLES OF TRANSVERSE Wi The water waves formedidn Whe surface of water in a pond are also trany aves, CRESTS AND TROUGH! WAVE The ‘elevationf or ‘huffip’ in a transverse wave is called crest. A cresbis tbAt part of the wave which is above the line of zero disturbance of the medium The ‘depression /® ‘hollow’ in a transverse wave is called trough. A treyeR is that part of the transverse wave which 46 belowthe line of zero disturbance. A transverse, wave consists of crests and troughs. TRANSVERS| Distance—+ (from source) Trough ERENCE BETWEEN SOUND WAVES WAVES (OR RADIO W/ a err aees e cular to the fon in which the ve travels ‘AND SOUND WAVES: h. Sound waves are 1 jongitudinal waves in| tr hich the vibrations are ravels Rs Sound waves canr6® aa Light waves can travel ‘even through vacuum, 3. The speed of light waves in air is very, very large. It in 3=10%m/s 4. Light wave are due to the varying electric and magnetic field 5. Light waves have ver hight frequencies and small waveleritty LONGITUDINAL WAVES A wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate back and forth in the ‘same direction’ in which the wave is moving is called a longitudinal wave. EXAMPLE OF LONGITUDINAL WAVES 1, The waves which travel along a spring when it is pushed and pulled are longitudinal waves. 2. The sound waves in air are longitudinal waves. COMPRESSIONS AND RAREFACTIONS OF A LONGITUDINAL WAVE A compression is that part of a longitudinal wave in which the particles of the medium are closer to one another then they normally are and there is. momentary reduction in volume of the medium A rarefaction is the part of a longitudinal wave in which the particles of the medium are farther apart than normal and there is a momentary increase in the volume of the medium. A longitudinal wave consists of compressions and 22rarefactions travelling through a medium. Compression Rarefaction Compression Rarefaction Greater Less Greater Less density density density density E BETWEEN PULSE _AND PERIODIC WAVE DIC WAVE. Tene es continuous wave of long PULSE. T. A pulse is a wave of short duration 12. A pulse is not repetitive. | duration. 13. A pulse is se up by a | 2. Ave iodic wave is single disturbance in the | repewr.ve ‘medium. A petodic wave has a basic. 4. When a pulse is formed, the medium oscillates for pattern which repeatoffsell after a fixed interval. ashort while and then | 3. A periodic wave is Set up/ returns to its original by acontinuous. undisturbed position. disturbance in themedium. 4. When a periattic Wtfve is. 5. A pulse is formed in a c formed, the medittts ‘small part of the medium. So, in the formation of a | oscillates fora Taig time pulse, only a part of the after it idedistrbed. medium is displaced from | 5. A periodi'wave stretches its original undisturbed over'the entire length of the 1position. jut So, in the 4 in of a periodic A\ wile, every point of the >| medium is displaced. LSES ANI ic WAN 1.The we et{up by a single disturbance in the medifit are called pulses. The formatin of water waves on the surface of water when a stone is dropped into it is an example of wave pulses. The sound waves produced by the clapping of hands is also an example of wave pulses. The ‘shock wave’ caused by supersonic plane or that resulting from an explosion, also co) (iii) consists of a single pulse or a few pulses. 2.The waves set up by continuous disturbange in the medium occurring due to regular vibrations are called _ periodic waves. PHASE A the points on wave it etre ine same state of vibration are sai in the same phase with respect to one stig ose points on a wave which are in diffe tes of vibration are said to be out of phaj a ERISTI nore waveuenotH \._/ The distance between two nearest points in a wave wl the same phave of vibration iscalled the 1h he distance between two consecutive f a transverse wave is called the wavel th. The distance between two comses froughs of a transverse wave is also caieShndWavelength:The distance between a crest Saikaadjacent trough ie equal to half the aaleddngth AMPLITUDE ‘The maximum displacement of the particles of the medium from their original undisturbed positions(i. . mean position), when a wave passes through the medium, is called amplitude of the wave. 3. TIME-PERIOD ‘The time required to produce one complete wave is called time-period of the wave. The time taken to complete one vibration is called time- period. 4. FREQUENCY ‘The number of vibrations produced in one second is called frequency of the wave. 5. VELOCITY O} ‘The distance travelled by a wave in one second is called velocity of the wave. The S.I. unit for measuring the velocity of a wave is metres per second, Velocity of a wave = frequency of wave * wavelength of wave 23