How Embarrassing!

An Exploratory Study of Critical

Incidents Including Affective Reactions
Debra Grace
Griffith University

Using Critical Incident Technique, data are collected from

166 respondents who related incidents involving embarrassment experienced over a total of 44 different service
environments. In applying a functional analysis, a number
of embarrassment antecedents in the form of sources (e.g.,
customer, service provider, others present) and stimuli
(e.g., criticism, awkward acts, image appropriateness,
forgetfulness/lack of knowledge/error, environment/
surroundings, and violations of privacy) are identified.
Embarrassment was found to be manifested by emotional,
physiological, and behavioral reactions, and its long-term
consequences include both positive and negative behavioral intentions and word-of-mouth communications. The
Functional Analysis of Consumer Embarrassment provides an informative framework to enhance our understanding of affective reactions in service encounters and
provides a solid foundation for future research.
Keywords: service encounter; affective reactions; embarrassment; emotions; consumption; services

To date, the service encounter has received considerable attention in the literature (e.g., Bitner, Booms, and
Mohr 1994; Bitner, Booms, and Tetreault 1990; Verhoef,
Antonides, and de Hoog 2004), and this is deservedly so
given the impact that the service encounter has on customer evaluations, satisfaction, and loyalty in relation to a

service product. Defined as the dyadic interaction

between a customer and service provider (Surprenant
and Solomon 1987, p. 87) and a period of time in which
a customer interacts with a service (Shostack 1984,
p. 134), the service encounter is argued to comprise three
basic dimensions: the temporal duration of the interaction,
the spatial proximity of service provider and customer,
and the service encounters emotional content (Price,
Arnould, and Deibler 1995). In other words, the service
encounter represents a time period in which the customer
and the relevant service components (e.g., service personnel, service processes, servicescape) come together,
either remotely or in close proximity, to facilitate the
production and simultaneous consumption of a service.
Given the complex nature of the service encounter, where
many variables abound, predictability is difficult and
surprises (positive and negative) are common. Such surprises, or unexpected occurrences, represent interruptions
to tasks in relation to production and consumption and,
for the individual, result in arousal (affect) and, subsequently, affective reactions (emotions) (Pieters and van
Raaij 1988). Consequently, it could be suggested that
service encounters are breeding grounds for emotion.
The study of emotions within the services realm has
been relatively limited to examining broader emotional
states in relation to satisfaction and behavioral intentions.
For example, van Dolen et al. (2001) examined basic emotion categories such as disappointment, irritation, pleasure,

The author thanks an anonymous reviewer and the editor for their assistance in greatly improving the article, especially during several later rounds of the review process.
Journal of Service Research, Volume 9, No. 3, February 2007 271-284
DOI: 10.1177/1094670506295852
2007 Sage Publications

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JOURNAL OF SERVICE RESEARCH / February 2007

content, and positive surprise in relation to the affective

component of service satisfaction. Mattila and Enz (2002)
looked at positive and negative mood states and displayed
emotion in relation to service encounter evaluation, and
Foxall and Greenley (1999) established a link between
pleasure, arousal, and dominance and behavioral responses
in service settings. From these and other similar studies
(e.g., Johnson and Zinkhan 1991; Knowles, Grove, and
Pickett 1999), we know that the degree to which the customer evaluates the experience as either positive or negative and adopts approach or avoidance behaviors is largely
influenced by the emotions experienced during service
encounters. Therefore, the study of emotions in relation to
service encounters is important and, given the dearth of
research in this area, warrants enhancement.
However, it is important to delineate emotions and affective reactions. Affective reactions are the immediate reactions to the arousal (affect), and they are manifested in
many different ways, for example, in physiological, cognitive, emotional, and behavioral forms (Winkielman and
Berridge 2004). However, it is the combination of these
reactions that represent the emotion being experienced in
response to the stimuli. Thus, to enrich our understanding
of emotions in the service encounter, the focus of this study
is in relation to affective reactions. To do this, we must
identify individual or discreet emotions, which have particular relevance to the service encounter (as opposed to other
consumption situations; e.g., concerning physical goods).
One such emotion is that of embarrassment. Therefore, the
purpose of this study is to conduct an in-depth examination
(via functional analysis) of consumer embarrassment in
relation to the face-to-face service encounter. In doing so,
we will explore, more specifically, the affective reactions
(e.g., psychological, physiological, emotional, and remedial) of consumers in relation to emotion-inducing service
encounters and the long-term behavioral implications.

CONSUMPTION EMOTIONS
In exploring emotions in the context of consumption,
many have drawn on the work of emotions theorists (e.g.,
Izard 1977; Mehrabian and Russell 1974; Plutchik 1980),
and as a result, much of the work, to date, has been based
on frameworks developed in psychology. Arguing that the
measures developed by such theorists may not be the most
appropriate for consumer behavior applications, Richins
(1997) embarked on six empirical studies to study the
domain of consumption emotions, and this resulted in the
development of the Consumption Emotions Set (CES).
The CES comprises 16 emotion dimensions and is argued
to represent a relatively broad, but not exclusive, coverage

of consumption emotion states (Richins 1997, p.142) that

may include some emotional states that are probably
irrelevant to some of the phenomena studied in consumer
behavior research (p. 142). The CES was developed with
the intention of providing a solid starting point for further
research in relation to consumption emotion measurement,
and in addition, Richins strongly advocated for research
that examines, in depth, the character of individual consumption-related emotions and that identifies their
antecedent states (p.144). In fact, Izards (1977) differential emotions theory (DET) purports that discreet (or
individual) emotions have very distinct motivational properties, organization of expressive behavior, physiology,
perception, cognition, and behaviors that facilitate an
adaptive response to an event. Therefore, the identification
of antecedent states of particular emotions and their associated expressive behaviors of the individual (customer)
within the service encounter may well assist us in the prediction of future and/or long-term behavior of consumers.
One of the main distinguishing characteristics of
the service encounter is the simultaneous production and
consumption of a service product, and thus, we see the
consumer come together with the relevant service components. Although in some cases the service encounter may
involve the customer interacting only with technology
(e.g., remote service delivery), the vast majority of our
daily interactions involve contact with the likes of service
providers, service settings, and other customers within
service environments. Therefore, the focus of this study
is on the latter (and will be referred to as face-to-face
encounters) rather than the former. One distinguishing
factor between the face-to-face service encounter, in contrast to all other consumption situations (either remote
service consumption or the consumption of goods), is the
presence of others (e.g., service provider and/or other customers). Although the presence of others may exist when
driving a new car, drinking bottled water, or wearing new
shoes, consumption is not dependent on their presence
and thus can be accomplished solely. This is not the case
with the face-to-face service encounter, where, at minimum, the service provider must be present and, in many
cases, other customers and shopping companions are also
present. In fact, the presence of others is a prerequisite for
the face-to-face service encounter to occur. This is an
important distinction to make in the study of consumption
emotions because the presence of others may, in fact, have
an impact on the type of emotion aroused.
Richinss (1997) Consumption Emotion Set (CES)
includes dimensions such as anger, discontent, worry, sadness, fear, shame, envy, loneliness, romantic love, love,
peacefulness, contentment, optimism, joy, excitement, and
surprise. By her own admission, some of these emotions

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Grace / CRITICAL INCIDENTS INCLUDING AFFECTIVE REACTIONS

may be irrelevant to the consumption situation, and romantic love may well be one of those. However, given the
nature of the face-to-face service encounter as opposed to
other consumption situations, what is important here is to
identify those emotions that may have particular relevance
or even be peculiar to the face-to-face service encounter.
One such emotion, residing under Richinss umbrella
dimension of shame, which has particular relevance only
to the face-to-face service encounter, is that of embarrassment. As embarrassment involves complex cognitive
processessuch as the evaluations of ones behavior from
anothers perspective (Keltner and Buswell 1997, p. 251),
it is entirely dependent on the presence of others, just as is
the face-to-face service encounter under study here. For
example, other emotions such as anger, discontent, worry,
sadness, fear, and so forth are all emotions that can occur
in consumption situations pertaining to either goods or
services because, to be experienced, they are not dependent on the presence of others. Embarrassment is somewhat different because this emotion is induced when a
social transgression has been witnessed (or perceived to be
witnessed) by others. Some might argue that embarrassment is not only evident in the face-to-face service
encounter but can be also related to a sensitive product
(e.g., sanitary napkins, condoms, pornography). However,
it is not the consumption of a sensitive product that is
embarrassing to the individual but rather the purchasing of
the product, particularly when this is facilitated by a faceto-face service encounter in a retail environment. That is
why some consumers prefer vending machines or mail
delivery of sensitive products to avoid the embarrassment
of making the purchase at a retail outlet in the presence of
others. This supports the notion that embarrassment is the
only consumption emotion that is peculiar to the face-toface service encounter and, if we are to enhance our knowledge of service encounter emotions, must be worthy of
further investigation.

EMBARRASSMENT
Although encapsulated under the one dimension in
Richinss (1997) CES typology, embarrassment, shame,
and humiliation are quite distinct emotions. It is important
to acknowledge this distinction to understand why embarrassment has particular relevance in the context of face-toface service encounters over and above the others. First,
humiliation is defined as the enforced lowering of a
person or group, a process of subjugation that damages
and strips away their pride, honor and dignity (Lindner
2001, p. 47). In this sense, humiliation involves a victim
being forced into passivity and being made to feel helpless

273

(Lindner 2001) and is a strong emotion that can be felt for

many years after the act. This being the case, the likelihood
of humiliation, such as that described, occurring in the
service encounter would be restricted to cases only where
aberrant behavior was present, and this is beyond the scope
of this present study. More closely related to embarrassment is shame. However, shame is said to be experienced
when there is a perceived deficiency of ones core self as
opposed to embarrassment, which results from deficiencies in ones presented self (Klass 1990; Modigliani 1968;
Shott 1979). In other words, shame and embarrassment
differ in the degree of public exposure. It is possible to be
embarrassed only in the presence of real or imagined others, while shame can occur in a private act (Edelmann
1981, p.126). Thus, further evidence is provided to support
embarrassment as an emotion that has particular relevance
to the face-to-face service encounter in contrast to both
humiliation and shame.
Throughout the decades, there has been considerable
theoretical debate regarding the mechanisms that mediate
embarrassment. This has resulted in the proposal of many
models of embarrassment, some of which include the loss
of self-esteem model (Modigliani 1971), the social evaluation model (Manstead and Semin 1981), the personal
standards model (Babcock 1988), and the dramaturgic
model (Parrott, Sabini, and Silver 1988). However, Miller
(1996), having reviewed the literature, contends there are
only two valid theories of embarrassment: the social evaluation theory and the dramaturgic theory. Social evaluation
theory contends that, for an individual to be embarrassed,
his or her self-esteem, or his or her esteem in the eyes of
others, has been eroded. On the other hand, the dramaturgic theory models embarrassment as being derived from a
disruption of social performance (or anticipation of such
disruption), regardless of what an individual thinks of himself or herself. Moreover, Higuchi and Fukada (2002)
found support for both of these theories when examining
embarrassment in public situations. Their findings suggest
that embarrassment is caused by the disruption of social
interaction (dramaturgic theory) followed by the apprehension of social evaluation (social evaluation theory).
Consumer Embarrassment
To date, little is known about consumers and embarrassment. Largely, research within this domain has concentrated on examining embarrassment in relation to the
purchase of sensitive or embarrassing products. Such
research includes studies regarding the purchase of impotence drugs (Fost 1996), hearing aids (Iacobucci et al.
2002), unmentionables (Wilson and West 1981), and attitudes toward the advertisements of embarrassing products

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such as contraceptives and feminine hygiene products

(Rehman and Brooks 1987). Furthermore, embarrassment
has been investigated within the realms of coupon usage
(Bonnici et al. 1996) and in relation to the role of social
presence and purchase familiarity in the purchase situation
of an embarrassing product (Dahl, Manchanda, and Argo
2001). Dahl, Manchanda, and Argos (2001) findings suggest that consumer embarrassment is heightened when
there is a social presence during purchase selection, thus
supporting social evaluation theory. Verbeke and Bagozzi
(2002) further elaborate on this by saying the opportunities for incidents of embarrassment and shame are especially great in sales interactions because salespeople and
customers, by definition, come from different organizations
with different expectations and backgrounds (p. 731). It
was on this basis they explored embarrassment in relation
to boundary-spanning personnel and found that protective
actions (emotional coping responses) mediated the effects
of these emotions on salespersons performance. What we
dont know is what mechanisms mediate the effects of
embarrassment on the consumers performance in the
service encounter.

THE FUNCTIONAL APPROACH TO EMOTIONS

Functional accounts, or functional analysis, of emotions
have received widespread acceptance in the study of emotions (Parrott 1999). Based on the premise that emotions
facilitate human response to problems related to human
survival (Darwin 1872; Ekman 1992; Lutz and White
1986), which then, in turn, trigger specific appraisal and
experiential processes (Ekman 1992), functional analysis is
believed to have many benefits. For example, the functional
approach is said to heighten awareness of how emotions
affect people (Parrott 1999) and place great emphasis on
the dynamic process of emotion, and explore how the different components of emotion relate to one another in the
temporal unfolding of emotion (Keltner and Gross 1999,
p. 477). Moreover, the functional approach views emotions
as systems of interrelated components and encourages
empirical investigations that explore the consequences of
emotions in the form of proximal effects, long-term outcomes, and temporal processes (Keltner and Gross 1999).
Simply stated, the functional approach involves the
analysis of emotion over three sequential phases: (a) problem to be solved, (b) system of components, and (c) consequences (refer to Figure 1). As emotions are posited as
facilitating human response to problems related to human
survival (Darwin 1872; Ekman 1992; Lutz and White
1986), the problem to be solved in functional analysis is
exemplified by the antecedents of the emotion. The emotion, once triggered by the problem to be solved, is then

epitomized by a system of cocoordinated components

(system of components) that include emotional, physiological, and behavioral properties (Keltner and Anderson
2000). As a result, this system of components leads to
longer term consequences relating to the emotion.
In relation to the emotion of embarrassment, Keltner
and Anderson (2000) reviewed the literature according to
the tenets of functional analysis, and this provided a
summary of previous findings in relation to problems
embarrassment may solve, its associated responses, and its
consequences. In terms of antecedents, their study found
the literature to reveal such problems as physical
ineptness, cognitive shortcomings, and vicarious embarrassment among others. In relation to the system of
components feelings (e.g., awkwardness, foolishness)
and behaviors (facial display, blush, etc.) were identified,
and in relation to consequences, the literature revealed
findings focused on others responses (e.g., laughter, forgiveness) more so than the individuals consequential
responses. Although Keltner and Andersons (2000) literature reviewbased study provides us with a very general
understanding of the possible functions, components, and
consequences of embarrassment, it is not context specific
and, as such, may not be complete in a given social situation. For example, the examination of embarrassment in a
social setting consisting of friends or acquaintances (e.g.,
in the workplace or home) may reveal very different results
to the same examination in a social situation characterized
by players who are likely to be not well known to each
other (e.g., the service encounter). Thus, a context-specific
functional analysis of an emotion (e.g., embarrassment)
will inevitably contribute significantly to our existing body
of knowledge. In fact, an examination of consumer embarrassment in face-to-face service encounters will provide us
with (a) empirical evidence of embarrassment as felt by
the consumer in service encounters and (b) a framework
on which to understand the antecedents, responses (or
components), and consequences of embarrassment in the
service setting. To facilitate this learning, the following
broad research questions are posed:
Research Question 1: What are the antecedents of consumer embarrassment in the service encounter?
Research Question 2: What are the physiological, emotional, and behavioral components of consumer
embarrassment in the service encounter?
Research Question 3: What are the consequences of
consumer embarrassment in the service encounter?
METHOD AND ANALYSIS
An important part of any research design is the appropriate fit between the research objective, the research

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Grace / CRITICAL INCIDENTS INCLUDING AFFECTIVE REACTIONS

275

FIGURE 1
Development of the Research Design

Functional analysis of an emotion (theoretical framework)

System of components

Problem to be solved
RQ1: What are the antecedents
of consumer embarrassment in
the service encounter?

RQ2: What are the physiological, emotional

and behavioral components of consumer
embarrassment in the service encounter?

Cause

Consequences
RQ3: What are the consequences
of consumer embarrassment in the
service encounter?

Course

Result

Model of a critical incident (research method)

Self-Report Survey (research tactic)

Story (Critical Incident)

Q1: Please think of a time (in the past 6 months) that you have felt embarrassment in a buying
situation. (This can be when youre buying goods or services). In your own words, please tell us all
about your embarrassing situation, giving details from the start to the finish.

Cause of Embarrassment
Q2: Thinking of the embarrassing
story you just told, what do you
think was the main cause or
source of your embarrassment?
(For example, embarrassment
could have been caused from the
product you purchased, the
person who provided a service
to you, or something that you did
yourself or another customer did,
etc.).

Embarrassment

Consequences

Q3: At the point in your story

when you felt embarrassed, did
you experience any physical
signs of embarrassment (e.g.
blushing) or did you hide your
embarrassment well?

Q6: Having experienced your

embarrassing moment, would
you purchase that particular
product or use that service again?
What is the reason for your
answer?

Q4: Thinking of the embarrassing

story you just told, what were
your exact feelings at the
moment of embarrassment?

Q7: Having experienced your

embarrassing moment, was
there any other action you took
that you would like to comment
on?

Q5: Thinking of your

embarrassing story, what
immediate actions did you take
(if any) to try and cope with or
decrease your embarrassment?

Q8: Are there any other

comments you would like to
make about your embarrassing
story?

NOTE: Partially sourced from Edvardsson (1992); Keltner and Gross (1999).

approach, and the research tactics (Aaker, Kumar, and

Day 2001). As the overriding objective of this research
was to provide a functional analysis of consumer embarrassment (FACE), to examine affective responses within

the service encounter, it was important to select a data

collection method that was compatible with the theoretical framework. The data collection method chosen for
this research was the Critical Incident Technique (CIT)

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JOURNAL OF SERVICE RESEARCH / February 2007

and the ensuing discussion outlines the rationale behind

this choice. Furthermore, Figure 1 represents the development of the research design by depicting the translation of the theoretical framework (functional analysis)
into the research method (CIT) and the research tactics
(self-report survey).
Method (CIT)
The CIT was selected because of its appropriateness in
relation to the theoretical framework and the exploratory
nature of this study. Originating from a technique used by
Flanagan (1954), the CIT involves the gathering of critical incident accounts from respondents to gain insight
regarding the phenomenon of interest. Critical incidents
are defined as any observable human activity that is sufficiently complete in itself to permit inferences and predictions to be made about the person performing the act
(Flanagan 1954, p. 327).
The CIT method entails the gathering of respondent
stories that include the recollection of individual events or
multiple events that may be intertwined or sequential
(Keaveney 1995). Used extensively within the marketing
literature to explore domains such as service breakdowns
(Edvardsson 1992), service switching (Keaveney 1995),
service failures (Bejou, Edvardsson, and Rakowski 1996),
gift receipt and interpersonal relationships (Ruth, Otnes,
and Brunel 1999), service evaluations (OdekerkenSchrder et al. 2000), and service encounters (van Dolen
et al. 2001), the CIT method has demonstrated its usefulness as a reliable and valid data collection technique
(Keaveney 1995).
Edvardsson (1992) provides a good representation of
a critical incident via a basic model of cause, course, and
result and put this into practice in his study of airline critical incidents. Given this model of cause, course, and
result, the CIT method is particularly relevant to this
study of embarrassment via functional analysis. For
example, a functional analysis of an emotion begins with
the identification of the problem(s) solved by the emotion
or, in other words, the triggers, antecedents, or causes of
the emotion. Having triggered the emotion, the different
components of the emotion interact in the temporal
unfolding of the emotion or as the emotion runs its
course. Finally, to truly understand the function of emotions, the proximal effects and long-term consequences
of an emotion, or the result of experiencing an emotion,
completes the picture. On this basis, the theoretical
framework for this study (functional analysis) translates
efficiently into the chosen method (CIT), as shown in
Figure 1.
Given that the subject matter (i.e., embarrassment)
had the potential to produce sensitive incidents (from

the perspective of the respondent), careful consideration

was given to the mode of data collection. Although personal interviews, focus groups, and participatory observation are common in CIT research (e.g., Bejou,
Edvardsson, and Rakowski 1996; Edvardsson 1992;
Keaveney 1995), in this study, respondent anonymity
was a key factor for consideration to collect complete
and accurate stories. On this basis, the self-report
anonymous survey method of data collection was
deemed to be the most appropriate.
Self-Report Survey
Prior to designing the survey instrument, it was important to clearly define the boundaries of the critical incidents sought through the survey. Therefore, for the
purposes of this study, the critical incident was defined as
any purchase or consumption-related encounter, whereby
at some point in time, the consumer experienced a state of
embarrassment. This definition has three components: (a)
the incident pertains to a purchase or is consumption
related, (b) the consumer experiences the emotion himself
or herself, and (c) the emotion experienced (as perceived
by the consumer) is embarrassment.
Furthermore, given that the emotional, physiological,
and behavioral dimensions (i.e., affective reactions) of
embarrassment were sought through Research Question
2, these were also defined as follows:
Emotional reactions: the subconsciously aroused feelings or emotions of the consumer in response to the
embarrassment stimuli.
Physiological reactions: the uncontrollable reactions
pertaining to the normal functions of the body of
the consumer in response to the embarrassment
stimuli.
Behavioral reactions: the controllable actions or reactions of the consumer in response to the embarrassment stimuli.
As emotional reactions are based around feelings, they
are quite distinct and can be easily differentiated from physiological and behavioral reactions. In terms of the latter, it
could be argued that they are both behavioral reactions,
which in a sense they are. However, the distinction between
the two lies within the controllability of the reactions.
Physiological reactions are essentially uncontrollable bodily responses (e.g., blushing, heart racing), whereas behavioral reactions are those actions that can be consciously
controlled (e.g., verbal responses, exiting). It is on these
definitions that the survey instrument was based.
The survey opened by asking respondents to think of
a time (preferably in the past 6 months) when they had

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Grace / CRITICAL INCIDENTS INCLUDING AFFECTIVE REACTIONS

experienced embarrassment when buying goods or services

and, moreover, to recall their embarrassing story from start
to finish. Having related their story, they were then asked
specific prompt questions that encouraged them to further articulate certain parts of their story or expand further
on their story. For example, they were asked if they experienced any physical signs of embarrassment during the incident, what they did (if anything) to try and reduce their
embarrassment, and what their feelings were at the time.
Furthermore, they were asked about any other actions they
took, their future purchase/patronage intentions, and
whether they had any further comments to make in relation
to their story (refer to Figure 1 for a graphical depiction of
the survey questions within the research design).
Data Collection
To effectively gather data in a strictly anonymous
and nonthreatening manner, online survey administration
was deemed the most effective. As such, the survey was
developed and posted on the university Web site, which
allowed for self-administration and anonymous submission of stories. Respondents, from the general public,
were recruited via newspaper advertisements placed in
four capital cities in Australia and through regional radio
announcements. No incentives were offered to respondents, and participation was voluntary.
The data collection process resulted in the receipt of
243 consumer stories. However, respondents did not limit
themselves to submitting stories specifically related to
embarrassment, and as such, many stories received related
to buying/patronage incidents that did not necessarily
involve embarrassment. In accordance with the boundaries
of the critical incidents sought (as defined earlier), the stories were carefully scrutinized for their appropriateness
prior to analysis, thus eliminating any potential for data
contamination. As a result, 166 stories were retained for
analysis. Furthermore, even though respondents were
asked to recall recent incidents (within the previous 6
months), many wrote of incidents in the past but explained
that they still had vivid memories of the episode. This is
exemplified by the following respondent comment:
Although this (incident) happened about 25 years
ago, it may help in showing how long people remember their embarrassment, and stay away from that
particular store.
In fact, many of these older stories (most were within
past 2 years) were very detailed and provided rich information, and as such, they were retained for analysis.
Of the 166 useable responses, 30% of respondents
were male and 70% were female, with ages ranging from

277

18 years to 81 years (mean age of 43 years). Proportionate

to geographic population, respondents were relatively
evenly spread across all Australian states (e.g., Victoria
28%, Queensland 24%, New South Wales 21%, Western
Australia 15%, South Australia 8%, Tasmania/Northern
Territory 4%), thus demonstrating sample diversity. Consumption environments referred to in the stories included
a total of 44 different types of services and retail outlets (e.g., department stores, pharmacies, gymnasiums,
medical services, hotels, hair salons, florists, restaurants,
banks).
Analytical Procedure
Cause. The analytical process was conducted in two
phases. In the first phase, the task was to analyze the
causes or antecedents of embarrassment (in addressing
Research Question 1). The incidents (stories) were carefully content analyzed by two judges, and each incident
was classified into one of six categories of embarrassing
situations developed by Sharkey and Stafford (1990).
These six categories represented a collapsed version of
Sattlers (1965) 38 categories of embarrassing situations
and include (a) criticism, (b) awkward acts, (c) image
appropriateness, (d) forgetfulness/lack of knowledge/error,
(e) environment/surroundings, and (f) violations of privacy. Detailed descriptions of these categories can be
found in the appendix. Furthermore, judges were asked to
nominate the source of the embarrassment as either (a)
self (the individual), (b) service provider, or (c) others
present (e.g., other customers or shopping companions). Therefore, each judge constructed a matrix of the
antecedent stimuli by antecedent sources of embarrassment. The interjudge reliability was .89, which is in
excess of the acceptable level of .80 used as a benchmark
for sufficiency (Bitner, Booms, and Mohr 1990; Keaveney
1995). Consensus was then reached between the judges
regarding any disagreements.
Course and results. Three judges took part in the
second phase of the analysis, and this involved the content analysis of the reactions (emotional, physiological,
and behavioral) to and consequences of the embarrassing incident (addressing Research Question 2 and
Research Question 3). In this phase, there were no predetermined categories on which the judges were
instructed to classify the information as there were in
the first phase. The judges were, therefore, instructed to
simply content analyze the responses in relation to each
specific question. Given that the questions on the survey
in relation to these components of the story (refer to Q3
to Q8 in Figure 1) were quite specific, so too were the
respondent answers. This resulted in there being little

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TABLE 1
Antecedents of Embarrassment: Stimulus Source
Self
Criticism
Awkward acts
Image appropriateness
Forgetfulness/lack of knowledge/error
Environment/surroundings
Violations of privacy
Total

17
4
22

43 (26%)

disagreement between judges, and this was evidenced by

high interjudge reliability on all judgments being greater
than .95. On this basis, final discussions between judges
resulted in any disagreements being quickly resolved.

RESULTS
Problems to Be Solved
(Sources of Embarrassment)
Table 1 provides the matrix produced by the analysis
conducted to address Research Question 1, which clearly
shows the antecedents of embarrassment in the form of
stimulus by source. In terms of stimulus, the largest category (representing 43% of incidents) was criticism followed by forgetfulness/lack of knowledge/error (23%),
awkward acts (18%), violations of privacy (10%), and
image appropriateness and environment/surroundings
both being 5%. In relation to sources, in 66% of incidents, the embarrassing stimulus was produced by the
service provider, in 26% of the cases by the consumer,
and in 8% of the cases by others present at the time. The
results also reveal that the largest category in relation to
Stimulus Source was criticism coming from the service
provider, and this was evident in 43% of all responses.
An example of a critical incident reported that was classified as being criticism (stimuli) by the service provider
(source) is the following quote:
I entered a lingerie shop to buy a nice gift for my
girlfriend of 1 year. I approached the counter and
told the sales assistant that I wanted to buy some
lingerie for my girlfriend. As I am in my 40s, she
must have assumed I was married (which I have
never been), and she very sarcastically and loudly
snapped at me why dont you buy some nice
lingerie for your wife instead!!!! I was shocked
and extremely embarrassed. I dont know what her
problem was, but I left in a hurry never to return
(and never to forget). I will stick to buying chocolates for my girlfriend in futureit is a lot safer!

Service Provider
72
5
16
5
11
109 (66%)

Others

8
1

5
14 (8%)

Total
72 (43%)
30 (18%)
5 (3%)
38 (23%)
5 (3%)
16 (10%)
166 (100%)

The second largest Stimulus Source category was

forgetfulness/lack of knowledge/error by the consumer,
which represented 13% of all incidents. Here is a
reported incident that exemplifies this classification:
Browsing in my lunchtime, I thought I would ask at
the large and very crowded bookstore whether or
not they had the latest UBD (street directory). Well
up to the very crowded counter I go and promptly
asked whether they had the latest IUD (contraceptive). The salesperson looked at me as if I was fulfilling a dare, the people around me just looked . . .
and I fled straight back to work. I was mortified. I
felt that every person on the street had been in that
shop and were sniggering behind my back!
System of Components
(Embarrassment Dimensions)
Table 2 provides a summary of the responses analyzed
in relation to the emotional, physiological, and behavioral reactions to the embarrassment cause. As such, these
responses or reactions represent the manifestations (or components) of embarrassment. In relation to emotional reactions, respondents were very forthcoming when asked about
their feelings during the embarrassing incident. In fact,
90% of respondents reported negative feelings, whereas
only 10% said they were unaffected or satisfied. Anger and
humiliation were the most commonly reported feelings
(50%), whereas the remaining 40% of responses included
being upset (unhappy), self-conscious, feeling foolish,
depressed, frustrated, and shocked. In fact, the degree to
which some respondents were emotionally affected by the
incident is evidenced by the following comments:
I felt humiliated and angry. I was near tears and
feared that I was actually going to cry in front of
the salesperson. I still feel upset recalling the story.
In the context of physiological reactions, 61% of
respondents reported that they did experience a physical
reaction to the embarrassing stimuli, whereas 39% felt

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Grace / CRITICAL INCIDENTS INCLUDING AFFECTIVE REACTIONS

279

TABLE 2
Responses to Embarrassment
Source

% of Respondents

Emotional responses

90

Physiological responses

10
61

Behavioral responses

39
57

Future patronage intentions

43
73

Word of mouth

27
61
39

that they experienced no physical reaction. Of those who

experienced a physical reaction, blushing was the most
common form at 35%. However, other physiological
reactions such as crying, shaking, heart racing, and nausea were also reported. The comments of one respondent
sums up the extent to which a physical reaction to embarrassment stimuli can be quite severe:
Oh the works . . . palpitation, blushing, shaking!!
You name it, I had it. Worst of all was the excruciating feeling that I had been made to look like a
fool in public.
Behavioral reactions experienced by respondents
included making a quick exit (flight), which was the most
common response, reasoning with staff, applying humor
to the situation, threatening retribution, avoiding eye contact, and making apologies or small talk. However, 43%
of respondents recalled that they felt there was nothing
they could do to improve the embarrassing situation or
that they did not know how to reduce their embarrassment
so they did not take any action at all. One respondent in
applying humor to the situation recalled her reaction:

Type of Behavior
Anger
Humiliation
Upset (unhappy)
Self-conscious
Foolish
Depressed
Frustrated
Shocked
Unaffected/satisfied
Blushing
Shaking
Heart racing
Crying
Nausea
Unaffected
Exited quickly
Reasoned with staff
Applied humor
Threatened retribution
Other (small talk, apologies, no
eye contact, etc.)
Did nothing/unable to do anything
Boycott at all costs
Avoid if possible
Repatronage unavoidable
No change to intentions
Negative
Positive
Did not mention to others

% of Responses
35
15
10
6
6
6
6
6
10
35
8
7
6
5
39
23
8
5
4
13
43
54
14
5
27
55
6
39

I made a joke of it. I laughed at what she said and

then made some self-deprecating comments to try
and turn the situation into something amusing rather
than embarrassing.
Consequences of Embarrassment
Consequences generally fell into two broad categoriesfuture intentions and word-of-mouth communicationsand these are detailed in Table 2. On the point
of future purchase/patronage intentions, only 27% of
respondents said that they would continue to use as normal. Of the remaining 73%, the majority said they would
not use in the future (54%), or they would avoid if it were
possible for them to do so (14%) or that they did not want
to use again but because of lack of alternatives, they felt
forced to do so (5%). Comments of respondents included
the following:
I have never been back to that caf even though it
is in my neighborhood.
I am forced to use the service (pharmacy) again, as
it is the only one available to me.

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JOURNAL OF SERVICE RESEARCH / February 2007

In relation to word-of-mouth communications, 61% of

respondents made reference to telling others about their
experience. In fact, 55% of respondents recalled spreading negative word of mouth about the service/product,
whereas 6% of respondents spread positive word of
mouth about the service/product as their embarrassing situation had been handled in a positive manner.
However, more often than not, the word of mouth was
negative, as evidenced by these respondent comments:
I told all my friends not to shop at (store name), as
well as the Yahoo Group I am in for larger size
women.
Anybody who would listen, I would tell them my
story.
Summary of Results
A content analysis of 166 consumption-related embarrassing incidents resulted in the identification of antecedents
of embarrassment, which were grouped into categories
based on stimuli and source of embarrassment. Having
come in contact with the embarrassment stimuli, consumer
embarrassment is manifested through emotional (e.g.,
anger, humiliation), physiological (e.g., blushing, shaking), and behavioral (e.g., flight, reasoning) reactions. As a
result, the long-term ramifications of embarrassing consumption situations included severely diminished repurchase/repatronage intentions and considerable occurrence
of negative word of mouth. A graphical depiction of the
FACE appears in Figure 2.

DISCUSSION
Given the nature of embarrassment and the service
encounter, which are both strongly characterized by the
presence of others, it is not surprising to find that consumer embarrassment is alive and well in this domain. In
fact, given that embarrassment results from the flustered
uncertainty that follows the loss of a coherent script in
interaction (Miller 1992, p. 204) and given that service
encounters are often conceptualized as a combination of
scripts and roles, the lack of previous research attention
to embarrassment in this setting represents a significant
oversight. What we now know, in accordance with the
theoretical framework adopted here (i.e., functional
analysis), is that embarrassment is aroused in response to
interruptions to tasks, such as awkward acts, criticism,
forgetfulness, and so forth, and these create problems
for the consumer, which need solving. In response to the
problem, automatic response mechanisms (both controllable and uncontrollable) are activated in the consumer,

and although these differ in kind (e.g., emotional physiological, behavioral), together they represent the experience
of embarrassment. Finally, the longer term consequences
of the experience of embarrassment are demonstrated
through the consumers postevent word-of-mouth communications and level of future patronage.
In drawing on previously developed categories of
embarrassment stimuli (e.g., from Sharkey and Stafford
1990) and applying them in the analysis of embarrassment antecedents specifically in the context of the service
encounter, embarrassment stimuli in the form of criticism,
awkward acts, image appropriateness, forgetfulness, lack
of knowledge, violations of privacy, and the environment
have been confirmed. However, in comparing the findings
of this study in relation to those of Sharkey and Stafford
(1990), we see vast differences in the frequencies associated with each stimulus category. For example, Sharkey
and Stafford, when examining embarrassing situations of
students, found that awkward acts, violations of privacy,
and forgetfulness accounted for more than 75% of all
embarrassing situations reported, whereas the findings
here show overwhelmingly that criticism (43%) was the
most common, followed by (but to a much lesser extent)
forgetfulness/lack of knowledge/error (23%) and awkward acts (18%). This being the case, it appears that the
antecedents of embarrassment are quite context specific
and thus will vary according to situation.
What is surprising is that, in the service encounter
where one party (service provider) is supposed to serve
the other (customer), it is the server who ultimately
causes the customer to be the recipient of the embarrassment. In fact, the findings show that in 66% of embarrassing incidents, it was the service provider who was the
source of the embarrassment to the customer, over and
above the individual and other customers. Furthermore,
most of the embarrassment caused by service providers
was through criticism in the form of unsolicited negative
comments, accusations, discrimination and stereotyping, and nonverbal criticism, such as being made the
focus of attention, rejections, and ignoring. In this sense,
as opposed to making errors, lacking knowledge, or
engaging in awkward acts, the embarrassment did not
occur mistakenly but intentionally. Therefore, as the findings show, this has a severe long-term affect on the consumers behavior, and this is in line with the arguments of
Westbrook (1987), who advocates that those emotions
that have an attribution of causal agency to the seller
are likely to affect postpurchase behavior. Furthermore,
critical incident research shows that unprompted and
unsolicited employee actions are highly linked to customer satisfaction (Mattila and Enz 2002, p. 270), and
therefore, negative employee actions would be similarly
associated with dissatisfaction.

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Grace / CRITICAL INCIDENTS INCLUDING AFFECTIVE REACTIONS

281

FIGURE 2
Functional Analysis of Consumer Embarrassment (FACE)

Sources of Consumer Embarrassment

EMBARRASSMENT

Service Provider
Criticism
Awkward Acts
Forgetfulness/Lack of Knowledge/
Error
Violations of Privacy
Environment

Consumer

Emotional
Dimension
Anger
Humiliation
Upset (Unhappy)
Self-conscious
Foolish
Depressed
Frustrated
Shocked

Awkward Acts
Image Appropriateness
Forgetfulness/Lack of Knowledge/

Error

Consequences of
Consumer Embarrassment
Behavioral
Dimension
Flight
Reasoning
Humor
Honesty
Threaten Retribution

Physiological
Dimension

Others Present
Awkward Acts
Image Appropriateness
Violations of Privacy

Problem to Be Solved

Word-of-Mouth
Negative
Positive
Future Intentions
Boycott
Avoid if can
Repatronage
unavoidable
Use as normal

Blushing
Shaking
Heart Racing
Crying
Nausea

System of Components

In applying a functional analysis to embarrassment,

clearly the system of components in relation to embarrassment in the service encounter is revealed and can be
described as having emotional, physiological, and behavioral dimensions. On this basis, we can say that embarrassment is experienced via, and can be described as, feelings,
changes in bodily functions, and the verbal and nonverbal
actions of the consumer. In terms of the emotional dimension, the most common reported feeling manifesting the
embarrassment was anger. This exemplifies the complex
nature of emotions. For example, the emotion of embarrassment is described via a feeling of anger, yet we know
that embarrassment and anger are different emotions.
However, the results of this study have shown that embarrassment can be described via a number of feelings or combination of feelings. For example, some described their
embarrassment as experiencing a combination of anger and
humiliation. If one was to apply the same analysis to the
emotion of anger, one might find its emotional manifestation to be via feelings of hatred and frustration. Similarly,
the same could be said for the other dimensions (i.e., physiological and behavioral) of emotions in that different

Consequences

combinations of behaviors may represent different emotions. Although there may be commonality between behaviors associated with one emotion and another, it is the
combination of the behaviors that will differentiate the two.
In relation to the physiological dimension of embarrassment, the findings clearly suggest that the body does
react significantly to this emotion, and as approximately
half of the incidents showed, this reaction is visible to
others (e.g., shaking, blushing, crying). Given that such
displayed emotion is highly likely when consumers experience embarrassment, this gives the service provider the
opportunity to identify emotional distress and act on it
accordingly. In fact, Mattila and Enz (2002) advocate that
displayed emotion during service encounters correlates
highly with service evaluation, and therefore, service
providers can improve their performance by picking up on
these cues to enhance the customers evaluation of the
episode. In addition to the visible emotional signs, behaviorally, there are immediate telltale signs of embarrassment in the form of coping behavior (e.g., flight, applying
humor, small talk, no eye contact), and these can also be
used to signal consumer distress to the provider.

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JOURNAL OF SERVICE RESEARCH / February 2007

Given the detrimental effect of embarrassment on consumers, both emotionally and physically, and the negative postconsumption ramifications (e.g., negative word
or mouth, reduced patronage), organizations need to
begin to address these deficiencies. Whether the poor
performance by service personnel is due to a lack of
appropriate training or ineffective recruitment strategies
or a combination of both needs to be determined. It is evident from the findings that in many cases, service personnel have inadequate or inappropriate interpersonal
skills, and this is severely affecting their customer relations. This being the case, an individuals capacity to
communicate effectively should take precedence in the
selection and recruitment process, and communication
and human relations should dominate training programs.
The findings of this study (refer to Figure 2) provide
clear direction with regard to the areas of communication
that warrant addressing in staff training programs (e.g.,
stereotyping, accusations, discrimination). Furthermore,
an examination of consumer reactions to embarrassment
(both emotional and physical) and the coping strategies they employ (flight, humor, threatening retribution)
may assist staff to recognize the symptoms of consumer
dilemma to deal with situations in an empathetic fashion.
Future Research
The implications of this research go a lot deeper than
that related to staff training and recruitment strategies.
What we need to ask ourselves is why the interaction
between personnel and customers is, so often, poorly executed when service personnel and customers do not form
mutually exclusive categories of individuals. For example,
all service personnel are consumers, and many consumers
are service personnel, in some form or another. This being
the case, one would expect that the ability to place oneself
(service personnel) into anothers (customers) shoes (i.e.,
show empathy) would be effortless. However, there is evidence here to suggest the contrary. It would appear that
some type of schizophrenic metamorphosis often takes
place as individuals jump from one side of the counter
to another, and this notion warrants further investigation.
Moreover, we need to ask what it is about the service
encounter that induces individuals to engage in aberrant
behavior that they may not normally exhibit in other
social exchanges also involving interaction with strangers.
It is suggested, here, that maybe the connotations associated with the label customer drive this aberrant behavior,
and if so, then we need to determine what these connotations are and why they exist.
The findings also validate the importance of examining
individual emotions and the role they play within the service
encounter and the influence they have on future outcomes.

In a practical sense, this is so because in-process emotions, more than post consumption judgments, are what
firms have the responsibility and the opportunity to manage (Dub and Morgan 1996, p.161). Consequently, by
understanding what it is that customers are feeling and
how they react to these emotions, marketers will be more
effective in tailoring their product offerings in accordance
with the consumers emotional needs. Future research that
examines the relationship between individual emotions,
satisfaction, and behavior is important. It is suspected,
from the findings here, that one episode involving a strong
negative emotion, such as embarrassment, may quickly
negate, in the consumers mind, the good of many previous satisfactions. If this is so, then does this also hold true
for other emotions, and is there, in terms of behavioral
outcome influence, a hierarchy of emotions that transcends the notion of satisfaction?
Although the implications for future research in the
area of emotions, in general, are abundant, there is still
much more we need to know in terms of consumptionrelated embarrassment. First, the findings of this study
suggest that a major cause of embarrassment resides
within the communication that occurs between service
personnel and customers. This being the case, given different communication styles across high-context and lowcontext cultures, it would be expected that a replication of
this study in other cultures may not necessarily produce
the same results as that found here. Furthermore, it may
be that differing results also exist across cultures where
only subtle differences are evident. As such, the examination and comparison of consumer embarrassment across
cultures would be a fruitful exercise in furthering our
understanding of consumption emotions and culture.
Second, we need to appreciate and understand individual
differences in the context of emotional response, and this is
clearly indicated within the psychology literature, particularly in relation to embarrassment. For example, Kelly and
Jones (1997) found that some individuals are more prone
to experiencing embarrassment than others. They appear to
have a lower threshold for embarrassment and, thus, are
more likely to become embarrassed across a variety of situations (pp. 307-8). Therefore, we should investigate how
an individuals propensity to be embarrassed (embarrassibility) influences the way in which he or she behaves
within, and responds to, consumption situations. For
example, the relationship between individual embarrassment sources and an individuals threshold for embarrassment would be one such area worthy of investigation.
Limitations
Although the CIT method has proven to be an effective
method of collecting information, particularly in relation

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Grace / CRITICAL INCIDENTS INCLUDING AFFECTIVE REACTIONS

to emotions, the data are limited to content analysis

whereby relationships are implied rather than tested for
causality (Ruth, Brunel, and Otnes 2002). Other problems
associated with this method include social desirability
bias and issues in relation to respondent memory. To
address the former, this study allowed for the anonymous
submission of stories from respondents, thus encouraging
accurate accounts of the phenomenon of interest. With
regard to respondent memory, as previously discussed,
respondents felt compelled to relate stories that were outside the required time frame for the survey (past 6 months)
based on the argument that the incident was still very clear
in their memory. This raises issues concerning respondent
memory, particularly in relation to emotions. The findings, here, in the context of embarrassment, suggest that
the passing of time did not impede respondent recollection or their ability to relive the emotions relating to the
incident, and this should be considered in future research.
CONCLUSION
Given that we live in an era where customer relationship marketing is touted as the cornerstone to marketing success, understanding and enhancing the interaction
between providers and customers is paramount. The findings of this study suggest that there is considerable potential for such interactions to be wrought with problems
involving complexities associated with human emotions
and behaviors. As a result, this research has raised many
questions that need to be answered. However, in doing
so, a solid foundation for future inquiry has been laid in
this important area of consumer research.
APPENDIX
Embarrassment Stimulus
The embarrassment stimulus categories used in this study
were taken from Sharkey and Stafford (1990). The definitions
provided below represent an adaptation of the categories used
by Sharkey and Stafford, which reflects the context within which
this study was undertaken.
1. Criticism
Verbal criticism in the form of unsolicited negative comments, accusations, discrimination, and stereotyping.
Nonverbal criticismbeing made the focus of attention, rejections, and ignoring.
2. Awkward acts
Improper or inappropriate acts
Ungraceful/clumsy/awkward act
Expression of emotions
Verbal blunders

283

3. Image appropriateness
Look of ones body
Look of ones clothing
Look of ones possessions (e.g., shopping bags)
4. Forgetfulness/lack of knowledge/error
Forgetfulness
Lack of knowledge/misunderstanding
Mistake/error
5. Environment/surroundings
Equipment failure
Process failure
Layout failure
6. Violation of privacy
Body/clothing exposure
Invasion of body/clothing through an intimate act
Invasion of ones space
Revealing privacy/secrecy

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Debra Grace is a senior lecturer in marketing at Griffith

University, Gold Coast, Australia. She holds a Bachelor of
Business with Honors in marketing and management and a PhD
in marketing. Her research and teaching interests lie within the
services marketing, branding, and consumer behavior areas. As
such, she has a number of publications within journals that have
their focus in these areas, such as the European Journal of
Marketing, the Journal of Services Marketing, the Journal of
Retailing and Consumer Services, and Services Marketing
Quarterly.

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