Composite Materials

A typical composite material is a system of materials composing of two or more materials (mixed and bonded) on a macroscopic scale. For
example, concrete is made up of cement, sand, stones, and water. If the composition occurs on a microscopic scale (molecular level), the new
material is then called an alloy for metals or a polymer for plastics.
Generally, a composite material is composed of reinforcement (fibers, particles, flakes, and/or fillers) embedded in a matrix (polymers,
metals, or seramics). The matrix holds the reinforcement to form the desired shape while the reinforcement improves the overall mechanical
properties of the matrix. When designed properly, the new combined material exhibits better strength than would each individual material.
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Common Categories of Composite Materials

Based on the form of reinforcement, common composite materials can be classified as follows:
1. Fibers as the reinforcement (Fibrous Composites):
a. Random fiber (short fiber) reinforced composites

b. Continuous fiber (long fiber) reinforced composites

2. Particles as the reinforcement (Particulate composites):

3. Flat flakes as the reinforcement (Flake composites):

4. Fillers as the reinforcement (Filler composites):

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Benefits of Composites

Different materials are suitable for different applications. When composites are selected over traditional materials such as metal alloys or
woods, it is usually because of one or more of the following advantages:

Cost:

Prototypes

Mass production

Part consolidation

Maintenance

Long term durability

Production time

Maturity of technology

Weight:

Light weight

Weight distribution

Strength and Stiffness:

High strength-to-weight ratio

Directional strength and/or stiffness

Dimension:

Large parts

Special geometry

Surface Properties:

Corrosion resistance

Weather resistance

Tailored surface finish

Thermal Properties:

Low thermal conductivity

Low coefficient of thermal expansion

Electric Property:

High dielectric strength

Non-magnetic

Radar transparency

Note that there is no one-material-fits-all solution in the engineering world. Also, the above factors may not always be positive in all
applications. An engineer has to weigh all the factors and make the best decision in selecting the most suitable material(s) for the project at
hand.

Composition of Fiber Reinforced Composites

Common fiber reinforced composites are composed of fibers and a matrix. Fibers are the reinforcement and the main source of strength while
the matrix 'glues' all the fibers together in shape and transfers stresses between the reinforcing fibers. Sometimes, fillers or modifiers might
be added to smooth manufacturing process, impart special properties, and/or reduce product cost.
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Fibers of Fiber Reinforced Composites

The primary function of the fibers is to carry the loads along their longitudinal directions. Common fiber reinforcing agents include

Aluminum, Aluminum oxide, Aluminum silica

Asbestos

Beryllium, Beryllium carbide, Beryllium oxide

Carbon (Graphite)

Glass (E-glass, S-glass, D-glass)

Molybdenum

Polyamide (Aromatic polyamide, Aramid), e.g., Kevlar 29 and Kevlar 49

Polyester

Quartz (Fused silica)

Steel

Tantalum

Titanium

Tungsten, Tungsten monocarbide

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Matrix of Fiber Reinforced Composites

The primary functions of the matrix are to transfer stresses between the reinforcing fibers (hold fibers together) and protect the fibers from
mechanical and/or environmental damages. A basic requirement for a matrix material is that its strain at break must be larger than the fibers
it is holding.
Most matrices are made of resins for their wide variation in properties and relatively low cost. Common resin materials include

Resin Matrix

Epoxy

Phenolic

Polyester

Polyurethane

Vinyl Ester

Among these resin materials, polyesters are the most widely used. Epoxies, which have higher adhesion and less shrinkage than polyesters,
come in second for their higher costs.
Although less common, non-resin matrices (mostly metals) can still be found in applications requiring higher performance at elevated
temperatures, especially in the defense industry.

Metal Matrix

Aluminum

Copper

Lead

Magnesium

Nickel

Silver

Titanium

Non-Metal Matrix

Ceramics
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Modifiers of Fiber Reinforced Composites

The primary functions of the additives (modifiers, fillers) are to reduce cost, improve workability, and/or impart desired properties.

Cost Reduction:

Low cost to weight ratio, may fill up to 40% (65% in some cases) of the total weight

Workability Improvement:

Reduce shrinkage

Help air release

Decrease viscosity

Control emission

Reduce coefficient of friction on surfaces

Seal molds and/or guide resin flows

Initiate and/or speed up or slow down curing process

Property Enhancement:

Improve electric conductivity

Improve fire resistance

Improve corrosion resistance

Improve ultraviolet resistance

Improve surface toughness

Stabilize heat transfer

Reduce tendency of static electric charge

Add desired colors

Common materials used as additives include

Filler Materials:

Feldspar

Glass microspheres

Glass flakes

Glass fibers, milled

Mica

Silica

Talc

Wollastonite

Other microsphere products

Modifier Materials:

Organic peroxide, e.g., methylethylketone peroxide (MEKP)

Benzoyl peroxide

Tertiary butyl catechol (TBC)

Dimethylaniline (DMA)

Zinc stearate, waxes, silicones

Fumed silica, clays

Independent Material Constants

Hooke was probably the first person that suggested a mathematical expression of the stress-strain relation for a given material.

The most general stress-strain relationship (a.k.a. generalized Hooke's law) within the theory of linear elasticity is that of the materials without any plane of symmet
i.e., general anisotropic materials or triclinic materials. If there is a plane of symmetry, the material is termed monoclinic. If the number of symmetric planes increas
two, the third orthogonal plane of material symmetry will automatically yield and form a set of principal axes. In this case, the material is known as orthotropic. If th
exists a plane in which the mechanical properties are equal in all directions, the material is called transversely isotropic. If there is an infinite number of planes of ma
symmetry, i.e., the mechanical properties in all directions are the same at a given point, the material is known as isotropic.

Please distinguish 'isotropic' from 'homogeneous.' A material is isotropic when its mechanical properties remain the same in all directions at a given point while they
change from point to point; a material is homogeneous when its mechanical properties may be different along different directions at given point, but this variation is
consistant from point to point. For example, consider three common items on a dining table: stainless steel forks, bamboo chopsticks, and swiss cheese. Stainless st
isotropic and homogeneous. Bamboo chopsticks are homogeneous but not isotropic (they are transversely isotropic, strong along the fiber direction, relatively weak b
equal in other directions). Swiss cheese is isotropic but not homogeneous (The air bubbles formed during production left inhomogeneous spots).

Both stress and strain fields are second order tensors. Each component consists of information in two directions: the normal direction of the plane in question and th
direction of traction or deformation. There are nine (9) components in each field in a three dimensional space. Since they are symmetric, engineers usually rewrite th
from a 33 matrix to a vector with six (6) components and arrange the stress-strain relations into a 66 matrix to form the generalized Hooke's law. For the 36
components in the stiffness or compliance matrix, not every component is independent to each other and some of them might be zero. This information is summarize
the following table.

Independent
Constants

Nonzero
On-axis

Nonzero
Off-axis

Nonzero
General

Triclinic
(General Anisotropic)

21

36

36

36

Monoclinic

13

20

36

36

Orthotropic

12

20

36

Transversely
Isotropic

12

20

36

Isotropic

12

12

12

A more detailed discussion of stress, strain, and the stress-strain relations of materials can be found in the Mechanics of Materials section.

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Macromechanics of Lamina

From control surfaces of modern aircrafts, to hulls and keels of yachts, to racing car bodies, to tennis rackets, fishing rods, golf shafts and heads, laminated fiber
reinforced composite is one of the the most widely used composites in industry.
Unless otherwise noted, the following assumptions are made in our discussion of the macro-mechanics of laminated composites.
1.
2.

The matrix is homogeneous, isotropic, and linear elastic.

The fiber is homogeneous, isotropic, linear elastic, continuous, regularly spaced, and perfectly aligned.

3.

The lamina (single layer) is macroscopically homogeneous, macroscopically orthotropic, linear elastic, initially stress-free, void-free, and perfectly bonded.

4.

The laminate is composed of two or more perfectly bonded laminae to act as an integrated structural element.

Stress-Strain Relations for Principal Directions

Before discussing the mechanics of laminated composites, we need to understand the mechanical behavior of a single layer -- lamina. Since each lamina is a thin lay
one can treat a lamina as a plane stress problem. This simplification immediately reduces the 66 stiffness matrix to a 33 one.

Since each lamina is constructed by unidirectional fibers bonded by a metal or polymer matrix, it can be considered as an orthotropic material. Thus, the stress-strain
relations on the principal axes can be expressed by the compliance matrix [S] such that

] = [S][

] = [C][

or by the stiffness matrix [C] such that

Please note that the engineering shear strain

is used in the stress-strain relations, and, the notation S for the compliance matrix and C for the stiffness matrix are
misprints. Please consult this page for more information.
For both stiffness and compliant matrices are symmetric, i.e.,

only four of

which is twice the tensor shear strain

, and

are independent material properties. Again, the shear modulus G12 corresponds to the engineering shear strain
.

Please note that there can be many fibers across the thickness of a lamina and these fibers may not be arranged uniformly in most industrial practice. However, the
combination of the matrix and the fibers forms an orthotropic and homogeneous material from a marcomechanics standpoint. Some literature therefore schematicall
illustrates a lamina with only one layer of uniformly distributed fibers as shown below.

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Mechanical Behaviors of a Lamina

A continuous, unidirectional fiber reinforced composite lamina is an orthotropic material. As discussed in Stress-Strain Relations of Materials, there are 9 independen
material constants for an orthotropic material. For a thin plate such as a lamina, the plane stress assumption holds and the number of independent constants can be
further reduced from 9 to 4 (see this section for details).
The stress-strain relations can be written as

and since

only four of

, and

are independent material constants.

Due to the large number of possible fiber-matrix combinations and their volume fraction ratios, these constants are usually not available without conducting a series
experiments. Nontheless, estimated values can be obtained, assuming that the properties of both the matrix and the fibers are known.

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Determination of E1

Suppose the bonding between the fibers and the matrix is perfect, the strain of the fibers and the strain of the matrix have to be the same in the fiber direction (i.e.,
) when the lamina is subjected to a uniaxial force along the fiber direction.

The total force applied on the lamina is

where Af and Am are the the cross section areas of the fibers and the matrix, respectively. The Young modulus E1 can then be written

where V is the volume fraction and L is the length of the lamina. Notice that

based on the no-void assumption.

One can visualize the fibers and the matrix as two springs in parallel as illustrated below.

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Determination of E2

Again, assuming perfect fiber-matrix bonding, the stress of the fiber and the stress of the matrix are the same in the transverse direction of the fiber (
) when the lamina is subjected to a uniaxial force:

The transverse strain is the sum of the contributions from the fibers and the matrix which are in proportion to their respective volume fractions:

The Young's modulus E2 can be calculated using the serial-spring model:

In this case, the fibers and the matrix act like two springs in series:

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Determination of

12

The major Poisson's ratio

12

is defined as

As shown in the Determination of E1 section, we have

and,

The major Poisson's ratio can then be written as

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Determination of G12

Based on the same argument used in the Determination of E2 section, we assume that the shear stress

of the fibers and that of the matrix are the same, that is,

.
The shear strain is the sum of the contributions from the fibers and the matrix, which are proportional to their respective volume fractions:

The shear modulus G12 can therefore be calculated using the serial-spring model:

Material constants calculated from the above formulae are merely estimates and should not be trusted without further verification. The true material properties can o
be obtained through experiments.

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Coordinate Transformation is Necessary

The generalized Hooke's law of a fiber-reinforced lamina for the principal directions is not always the most convenient form for all applications. Usually, the coordinat
system used to analyze a structure is based on the shape of the structure rather than the direction of the fibers of a particular lamina.

For example, to analyze a bar or a shaft, we almost always align one axis of the coordinate system with the bar's longitudinal direction. However, the directions of th
primary stresses may not line up with the chosen coordinate system. For instance, the failure plane of a brittle shaft under torsion is often at a 45 angle with the sh
fight this failure mode, layers with fibers running at 45 are usually added, resulting in a structure formed by laminae with different fiber directions. In order to "br
each layer to the same table," stress and strain transformation formulae are required.

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Coordinate Transformation of Stress-Strain Relations for Lamina

If we define the coordinate transformation matrix as

and

The coordinate transform of plane stress can be written in the following matrix form:

Similarly, the strain transform becomes

Please notice that the tensor shear strain is used in the above formula. Suppose we define the engineering-tensor interchange matrix [R]

then

The stress-strain relations for a lamina of an arbitry orientation can therefore be derived as detailed below.

where the stiffness matrix is defined as

The complicance matrix is therefore

The individual components of the stiffness and compliance matrices can be found here.

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