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Computer Assisted Language Learning

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MALL: the pedagogical challenges

a

Jack Burston
a

Language Centre, Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol,

Cyprus
Published online: 14 May 2014.

To cite this article: Jack Burston (2014) MALL: the pedagogical challenges, Computer Assisted
Language Learning, 27:4, 344-357, DOI: 10.1080/09588221.2014.914539
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2014.914539

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Computer Assisted Language Learning, 2014

Vol. 27, No. 4, 344 357, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2014.914539

MALL: the pedagogical challenges

Jack Burston*

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Language Centre, Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus

In this paper the development of mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) over the
past 20 years is reviewed with a particular focus on the pedagogical challenges facing
its exploitation. Following a consideration of the definition of mobile learning, the paper
describes the dominant mobile technologies upon which MALL applications have been
based: MP3 players, personal digital assistants, and mobile phones. It then identifies the
prevalent methodological approach that has underlain the great majority of MALL
implementations: a behaviorist, teacher-centered, transmission model of instruction.
However, though rarely implemented, MALL is equally capable of supporting more
innovative constructivist, collaborative, learner-centered instruction, examples of which
are examined. Besides being restricted by a pedagogical approach very much out of step
with methodologies that have guided foreign language teaching for nearly four decades,
MALL has also been constrained by access to technology. In part, this problem has
been due to the necessity of acquiring mobile devices for student usage and the costs
associated with mobile network and Internet connections. Even more so, the
exploitation of mobile devices for language learning has been hampered by a lack of
hardware standardization and entrenched operating system incompatibilities. The paper
concludes that MALL has yet to realize its full potential and that achieving this aim is
more a matter of pedagogy than technology. The financial and technological factors that
have impeded the effective exploitation of MALL are likely to be resolved as operating
system incompatibilities are overcome by market forces and students as well as teachers
acquire suitable mobile devices for their own personal use. The future of MALL lies in
the exploitation of the communication and multimedia affordances of mobile devices in
ways that support collaborative, task-based learning both within and outside of the
classroom.
Keywords: mobile-assisted language learning; mobile phones; mobile communication;
foreign language instructional technology; learning theories

1. Introduction
Mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) has existed now for nearly 20 years. During
this time, the capability of mobile devices has improved enormously, especially with
mobile telephones which have incorporated the functionality of hand-held computers and
audio-video recorders and players. However, as previous reviews have shown (Burston,
2014; Kukulska-Hulme & Shield, 2008), pedagogically MALL has been largely constrained to behaviorist, teacher-centered, tutorial applications. It has likewise been slow
to exploit the communicative potential of available technology. However, mobile devices
can be effectively exploited to adapt instruction to the physical environment of learners.
Likewise, the communicative functionality of mobile phones can be used to foster productive learner learner interactions. So, too, the multimedia affordances of current
mobile devices lend themselves well to task-based learning. The pedagogy underlying

*Email: jack.burston@cut.ac.cy
2014 Taylor & Francis

Computer Assisted Language Learning

MALL what it has been, what it is and what it can be
follows.

345

is the focus of the review that

2. Defining mobile-assisted language learning

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In discussing the pedagogical challenges of MALL, it is useful to first make clear what is
meant by mobile learning. Generally speaking, definitions of mobile learning fall into
two categories depending upon whether primary importance is given to the mobility of
the learner or to the use of portable devices. Placing the focus on the mobility of the
learner results in a very broad definition, such as that offered by Sharples, Taylor, and
Vavoula (2005, p. 5):
It is the learner that is mobile, rather than the technology. . .interactions between learning and
technology are complex and varied, with learners opportunistically appropriating whatever
technology is ready to hand as they move between settings, including mobile and fixed
phones, their own and other peoples computers, as well as books and notepads.

Under this definition, any technology that allows flexible access qualifies as a support
for mobile learning. Web-based programs, for example, offer great flexibility with their
use in time and space so they would be included in the definition even though the physical
devices needed to access them, such as desktop computers, may in fact normally be stationary. Likewise, learning that takes place via a notebook, netbook or tablet computer,
or even with printed books and notepads, would be considered mobile.
Those who place the focus on the use of easily portable technology restrict the notion
of mobile learning to that which can be supported by hand-held devices that can be carried around in a pocket or handbag:
For our purposes, then, mobile learning refers to learning mediated via handheld devices
and potentially available anytime, anywhere. (Kukulska-Hulme & Shield, 2008, p. 273)

Within the specific context of MALL, Palalas (2011, p. 76 77) proposes a definition
which incorporates both aspects of mobility:
MALL can be defined as language learning enabled by the mobility of the learner and . . .
portability of handheld devices . . .

Inasmuch as nearly all published research on MALL has in fact focused on the use of
hand-held devices in an out-of-class environment, Palalas definition will be adopted in
the following discussion of the pedagogical challenges facing the field.
3. Dominance of mobile phone technology
Efforts to exploit MALL have been going on now for nearly two decades, based primarily
on three hand-held technologies: MP3 players, personal digital assistants (PDA), and
mobile phones. The iPod (and other similar portable MP3 players that it spawned) offered
audio playback and recording facilities. The PDA (and other early micro-computers) provided basic computer programming capability and access to the Internet. The mobile
phone supported communication, both voice and text.
Not unexpectedly, early attempts to exploit PDAs and mobile phones encountered
technological shortcomings that impeded their pedagogical application. The use of

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graphics and video was restrained by low screen resolution, restricted bandwidth, slow
processing speed and limited storage capacity. Audio quality on a PDA or mobile phone
also left much to be desired for language learning.
Remarkable progress has been made in mobile phones compared to what they were
when MALL began. With prices falling and functions increasing, mobile phones are virtually everywhere. In 2013, mobile phone subscriptions were estimated to be 6.8 billion,
with the actual number of mobile phone users put at 4.3 billion, i.e., over 60% of the
entire world population (mobiThinking, 2013). In developed countries, mobile phone subscriptions now represent over 128% of the population. The ubiquity of mobile phone
ownership, especially among adolescents and young adults, has thus made the mobile
phone the technology of choice among MALL application developers. Moreover, the
technical sophistication of mobile phones has now reached the point where even entry
level models incorporate functionalities earlier found only on MP3 players and PDAs:
high quality audio recording and playback, graphics and video playback, programmability, and access to the Internet. Digital still and video cameras, and accompanying large
data storage capacity, are likewise commonly found on most mobile phones these days.
In effect, smartphones have replaced MP3 players and PDAs (and for casual users at least,
still and video cameras). As a consequence, MALL has now essentially become synonymous with mobile phone applications.

4. Pedagogical challenges
4.1. Content delivery applications
To date, MALL has very much followed the path traced by computer-assisted language
learning (CALL), which can best be described as one step forward for the technology,
two steps back for the pedagogy (Mioduser, Nachmias, Oren, & Lahav, 1999, p. 233).
Like CALL programs in the 1980s and related Web-based adaptations in the 1990s, most
of the applications described in published MALL research lack an explicit theoretical
foundation. In their overview of mobile-based learning up to 2007, Kukulska-Hulme and
Shield characterize most MALL programs as conforming in effect to a transmission
model approach:
Such approaches support teacher-learner communication and use the mobile device to deliver
content rather than encouraging learners to communicate with each other or with their tutors.
(Kukulska-Hulme & Shield, 2008, p. 274)

Since 2007, the emphasis in MALL has continued to be on content delivery within an
implicitly behaviorist, teacher-centered framework (Burston, 2014). Text-based tutorial
applications involving drill and repetition of the type advocated by B.F. Skinner (1957)
continue to be the norm. The learning of vocabulary and grammar has figured prominently. So, too, have simple true/false/multiple choice quizzes.
While the use of tutorial drill paradigms is not without pedagogical justification, its
predominance stems rather from practical considerations: vocabulary and grammar drills
are relatively easy to program and they can be self-correcting. Short and simple exercises
also lend themselves to the very fragmented kind of learning that typifies mobile conditions. Anytime, anywhere most often equates with brief time periods squeezed between
other activities.
There are qualitative constraints as well on the nature of what can be learned in a mobile
tutorial environment that basic drill exercises can address. Outside distractions (e.g., on a

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bus, in a train, in a doctors waiting room, etc.) are not conducive to concentrated attention.
For this reason, tutorial MALL has been largely devoted to the review and practice of what
is already known. New content can be presented, but only to the extent that it can be packaged in small, self-contained units, that require minimal cognitive processing.
Small screen size and cumbersome text input methods impose constraints on the
amount of data that can be displayed to users and what can be expected by way of learner
response. Tutorial MALL applications adapt to these constraints by limiting the amount
of text displayed and restricting learner text input to clicking options (true/false, multiple
choice) or dragging objects.
The constraints of screen size and text input, though intrinsic to mobile phone
usage, can be circumvented through the use of images and sound. It must be said,
however, that MALL applications have been slow to exploit these multimedia functionalities. Owing to technological constraints, multimedia applications were initially
based only on hand-held computers. Some prototype mobile-phone-based multimedia
programs have been developed for pilot studies (Amer, 2010; Anaraki, 2009; Khazaie
& Ketabi, 2011; Liu, 2009; Salameh, 2011; Saran, Cagiltay, & Seferoglu, 2008;
Tschirhart, OReilly, & Bradley, 2008; Yamada, Kitamura, & Yamauchi, 2011), but
until recently only the platform that underlies the MobLang program (Burston, 2011,
2012) has made extensive use of graphics, video and audio for language learning on
mobile phones. This is now starting to change with commercial producers making
stand-alone apps and Web-based language learning programs accessible to Apple and
Android mobile devices. However, as Kim and Kwon (2012) point out in their analysis of Apple apps for English as a second language (ESL), these remain form-focused,
audio-lingual and test-based in nature.
Aside from overcoming technical constraints, the use of audio for content presentation
and learner input has its own obvious pedagogical justification. Hearing the target language spoken, associating the written form of a language with its proper pronunciation,
and being able to record and compare a learner response with a native-speaker model are
all important for language learning. However, the pedagogical exploitation of mobile
audio is not without its own practical constraints since it requires the use of a headset
(or otherwise quiet surroundings) and an environment in which learners do not feel selfconscious about speaking out loud (Demouy & Kukulska-Hulme, 2010). The use of
mobile audio is most definitely not anywhere, anytime.
4.2. Feedback and monitoring
Although the use of mobile phones has proven to be an effective means of content delivery, MALL tutorial applications continue to face the pedagogical challenge of providing
feedback and monitoring. Response feedback essentially remains limited to displaying a
correct answer or indicating a Right/Wrong evaluation. Except for ex post facto learning outcome testing, the instructor monitoring of student performance has been rare.
A number of factors contribute to the one-way teacher-to-learner directionality of
most tutorial MALL applications, but the most fundamental has been the lack of the infrastructure, technical and human, required to support two-way interaction between learners
and instructors in a mobile environment (Petersen & Divitini, 2005). As a consequence,
very few projects have attempted to address the issue of providing systematic feedback
and student monitoring. The earliest attempt by Brown (2001) linked learners to instructors who were available to answer student questions by phone. In a similar vein,
Li (2009) used SMS to provide feedback to student responses.

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The use of an audioblog linked to an online audio recording and playback facility
(Evoca), accessible via mobile phones, allowed the archiving and asynchronous monitoring of student oral production (Hsu, Wang, & Comac, 2008). The instructor used the blog
for post-listening and speaking assignments, which students completed using Evoca. The
blog likewise allowed the instructor to interact with individual students through audio
and text comments also made via Evoca. Other instructors have used an entirely audiobased server system (Learnosity) to track student speaking and listening skills (Cooney &
Keogh, 2007; Demouy & Kukulska-Hulme, 2010; Robertson et al., 2009). Students dialed
into a telephone answering service and left spoken responses to pre-recorded oral
prompts. Student recordings were saved to a central server, from which they could be
retrieved by instructors for correction and commenting that was sent to a website for student access. While these pilot projects have shown that it is possible to provide effective
teacher learner interaction in a tutorial MALL application, given the costs in technical
and human resources, their scalability for widespread use remains to be demonstrated.
4.3. Personalized instruction
Though the great majority of MALL applications before and since Kukulska-Hulme and
Shields (2008) review have adhered to the behaviorist, teacher-centered, transmission
model paradigm (Burston, 2014), this is certainly not the only pedagogic approach that
mobile learning can support. While applied very much within a transmission model of
instruction, situated learning theory (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989), with its insistence
on the crucial role of real-life context in the learning process, has motivated research
models that personalize instruction based on the learners environment. The Japanese
polite expressions learning assisting system (JAPELAS) program (Ogata & Yano,
2004b), for example, provided appropriate polite Japanese expressions deriving from the
learners situation and personal information. Server-based systems have also been developed to adapt content delivery to the physical location of students. In the TenseITS project
(Cui & Bull, 2005), students indicated where they were when logging into the program,
which determined the duration and complexity of instruction received (e.g., a short
review module while waiting for a bus, a longer more complex lesson while in the library,
etc.). The PALLAS prototype (Petersen & Markiewicz, 2008, 2009) likewise adjusted lesson content delivery based on the learners age, skill level, native language, interests and
courses taken as well as environmental factors such as location, time, and day. So, too,
item response theory (Hambleton, Swaminathan, & Rogers, 1991), which underlies the
operation of computer-adaptive testing based on question difficulty level, was exploited
to create a personalized intelligent mobile learning reading program dynamically adjusted
to the vocabulary knowledge level of learners (Chen & Chung, 2008; Chen & Hsu, 2008;
Li et al., 2010).
A number of programs have exploited location-aware devices to tailor learning to the
physical surroundings. Global positioning system (GPS) technology was used in the
CLUE system (Ogata & Yano, 2003, 2004a) and MicoMandarin (Edge, Searle, Chiu,
Zhao, & Landay, 2011) in order to contextualize vocabulary acquisition. GPS was likewise exploited to collect and share data in real life situations to support communicative
competence in the language-learning outside the classroom with handhelds (LOCH) program (Ogata et al., 2006; Paredes et al., 2005) and the ubiquitous computer-supported
collaborative learning (UCSCL) prototype (Cheng, Hwang, Wu, Shadiev, & Xie, 2010).
Radio frequency identification tags were used in the Chinese language learning system
(CLLS) project (Chen & Chou, 2007) to identify environmental objects which served as

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the basis of location specific oral conversations. The Context-Aware Writing System
(Chen, Chang, Lin, & Yu, 2009) did likewise to foster written communication related to
different locations. Barcode readers were similarly employed in the handheld English
language learning organization (HELLO) prototype (Liu, Tan, & Chu, 2007, 2010) to
support listening and speaking activities. The personalised context-aware ubiquitous
learning system (PCULS) initiative (Chen & Li, 2010) adapted a wireless area network to
match student location to vocabulary learning. Skipping location-aware devices altogether, Hwang and Chen (2011) applied the principles of situated learning simply by running their food-related vocabulary program with children at lunch time.
To summarize, from the earliest published MALL research to the present time, there
have been a dozen projects that have attempted to personalize the learning experience
within a transmission model of instruction. All of them can best be described as prototype
experiments of short duration involving small numbers of students and little or no objective assessment of learning outcomes.
4.4. Constructivist/collaborative approaches
While the above attempts to personalize instruction represent an improvement over traditional teacher-centered content delivery, and help to compensate for the lack of feedback
and monitoring in tutorial programs, overall MALL remains very much out of step with
recognized best practice in foreign language teaching. Summing up the overview of
MALL undertaken by Kukulska-Hulme and Shield (2008), and cautioning about the need
to move forward, Godwin-Jones (2011, p. 7) paints a rather disappointing picture of the
pedagogy underlying mobile language learning to date:
. . . for the most part uses of mobile devices were pedestrian, uncreative, and repetitive and
did not take advantage of the mobility, peer connectivity, or advanced communication features of mobile devices. Most activities were teacher-led and scheduled, not leveraging the
anytime, anyplace mobile environment. Oral interactions and learner collaboration were
infrequently used.

Though relatively few in number, some projects have however risen to the challenge
of adapting the use of mobile devices to communicative learner-centered activities based
on interactionist methodological approaches (Gass, 1997). In one of the earliest experiments, collaborative learning through learner-to-learner interaction was supported by
linking mobile phones to a computer-based bulletin board system where students could
share their learning discoveries via text contributions (Dias, 2002a, 2002b). As the technology improved, the sharing of learner-produced data has been extended to photos and
audio recordings made on mobile devices (Cheng et al., 2010; City College Southampton,
2005; Joseph, Binsted, & Suthers, 2005; Pemberton, Winter, & Fallahkhair, 2010; Wong,
Chin, Tan, & Liu, 2010). Vocabulary acquisition and listening comprehension have been
facilitated through the linking of mobile phones to a bulletin board for pre-listening and
post-listening discussions (Nah, White, & Sussex, 2008). Micro-computers have been
used in conjunction with Skype to support peer-assisted pronunciation correction (Lan,
Sung, & Chang, 2007). Mobile phones (as well as PDAs and early micro-computers)
have also been used to support learner-to-learner collaboration for reading (Lan et al.,
2007) and translation activities (Chang & Hsu, 2011).
Constructivist learning theory (Ausubel, 1963), which assumes that knowledge is
acquired through an active process of meaning building, has been linked specifically to
the noticing hypothesis (Schmidt, 1990) in the design of a program that focuses attention

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on salient linguistic features (Kukulska-Hulme & Bull, 2008, 2009). In this proposed system, multimedia facilities of mobile phones are used to create language learning diaries
in which text, images, and audio can be exploited to allow students to reflect individually
and collectively on their language learning. Similarly, group blogs accessible from
mobile phones have been created to support study-abroad students (Comas-Quinn,
Mardomingo, & Valentine, 2009; Petersen, 2007; Petersen, Chabert, & Divitini, 2006;
Petersen, Divitini, & Chabert, 2008; Shao, 2011) as well as to foster the integration of foreign students in a home-stay country (Shao, 2011; Shao, Crook, & Koleva, 2007).
Among the attempts to ground MALL applications on learner-centered, communicative
methodologies, three projects inspired by task-based learning theory (Ellis, 2003) stand out
for their innovative use of mobile technology. The earliest was the LOCH project
mentioned above (Ogata et al., 2006; Paredes et al., 2005) in which L2 (second or foreign
language) Japanese learners were given tasks that required them to use the language in
real-life situations (e.g., interview someone, gather information, buy something) and to collect and share data with each other using PDA-based text and voice communication. In the
HELLO prototype, also mentioned above (Liu et al., 2007, 2010), L2 English learners
working in small groups were sent on treasure hunts and engaged in relay races guided by
maps on their PDAs. These activities were followed-up with related virtual dialogue practice and collaborative story creation recorded on their mobile devices. More recently (Tai,
2012), smartphones were used to integrate problem-solving tasks into an L2 English curriculum. Learners used their mobiles as part of a classroom response system to prepare for an
out-of-class task (going to the scene of an imaginary burglary to track down the culprit) in
which they used their GPS-equipped phones to collect and share Internet-based data and
communicate with each other and their teacher to obtain information and guidance. On
their return to class, learners reviewed and compared the resources they collected and discussed their solutions.
5. Access to technology
Ironically, it is precisely in the areas where they potentially have the most to offer
mobility, peer connectivity, oral interactions and learner collaboration that the advanced
communication features of mobile phone technology have been, and continue to be, the
least exploited in MALL. Despite the ubiquitous presence of mobile devices, the adoption
of innovative language learning pedagogies has been hampered by a fundamental problem
of access to technology, which remains one of the greatest challenges facing MALL.
While at first glance technology access might not appear to be a pedagogical issue, no
matter how good the pedagogy, it is of no relevance if learners cannot access it.
5.1. Financial considerations
In part, especially in earlier MALL projects, limited access to mobile technology has been
due to financial constraints. Programs involving MP3 players have usually required providing students with the necessary equipment (Allan, 2007; Belanger, 2005; Hasegawa,
Amemiya, Kaneko, Miyakoda, & Tsukahara, 2007; Palalas, 2011). Without exception,
this has been the case in studies using PDAs (Liu et al., 2007, 2010; Ogata et al., 2006;
Paredes et al., 2005) and smartphones (Tai, 2012). Likewise, the costs of using mobile
phone networks and Internet connections have been an inhibiting factor, especially when
the transmission of audio and video resources is involved (Begum, 2011; Cavus &
Ibrahim, 2009; Kukulska-Hulme, Sharples, Milrad, Arnedillo-Sanchez, & Vavoula, 2009;
Kukulska-Hulme & Shield, 2008; Stockwell, 2008).

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5.2. Funding support

Funding support for the acquisition of the required hardware and network connections is,
of course, an obvious factor in achieving access to mobile technology. However, it is one
that is complicated by the role that individual ownership plays in the effective use of
mobile devices (Comas-Quinn & Mardomingo, 2012; Kukulska-Hulme & Traxler, 2007).
As Kukulska-Hulme (2009, p. 159) observes:

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. . . anyone who becomes involved in mobile learning will quickly notice that . . . ownership
of the device makes a difference, since a tool that has only been borrowed may not be used
in the same way as one that is owned and very familiar.

Individual ownership is closely linked to the characteristically personal way in which

mobile phones are used, which offers the potential of individualized learning, adaptable
to time, place and social circumstances. The funding challenge therefore becomes one of
getting suitable mobile devices into the pockets and handbags of learners. Fortunately, as
costs come down, full-featured smartphones are becoming increasingly common and
already account for nearly 52% of new mobile phone sales (Gartner, 2013). Among the
student population in developed countries smartphone ownership is even higher. Moreover, it is already being claimed that the near-term future of personal computing (PC) lies
with mobile devices:
It appears that smartphone sales will far surpass their PC counterparts, with the numbers
expected to reach 1.5 billion units in 2016. Comparing this to the number of PCs that have
been sold [in 2011], which stood at 350 million units, it isnt hard to see why some tech pundits are declaring the death of PCs and heralding the new age of mobile devices. (Android
Authority, February 29, 2012)

There is, thus, good reason to expect that in the short term the funding requirements
for making mobile technology widely accessible will be manageable and largely borne
by users themselves for their own personal purchases.

5.3. Standardization issues

More than financial considerations, access to mobile technology has been hamstrung by
standardization issues. Even when personally owned mobile phones have been used,
unless usage is restricted to the lowest common denominator of functionality, the general
lack of hardware standardization (screen size, button functions and placement, basic functions) has made it impossible to provide access to all potential learners. When more than
simple text messaging has been involved, it has proven necessary to supply mobile
phones to learners (Burston, 2012; de Jong, Specht, & Koper, 2010; Robertson et al.,
2009; Tai, 2012; Wong & Looi, 2010).
With regard to operating systems, the situation in MALL now is very much akin to
that of CALL 20 years ago, as Godwin-Jones (2011, p. 7) laments:
Its unfortunate that today in mobile software development, we seem to have gone back
to the days when developers had to make a choice that excluded a large part of their
possible market, as in deciding between Mac-based HyperCard or Windows only Toolbook. The Web has been an environment which has brought peace to the platform
religion wars but we are starting to see a new war of words being waged between iOS
and Android partisans.

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Such platform wars are not restricted to Apple versus Android phones, but are equally
in evidence in the rapidly evolving iPad and related tablet computer market, a domain
into which MALL is just beginning to venture (Brown, 2012; Brown, Castellano, Hughes,
& Worth, 2012; Chen, 2013; Gabarre, Gabarre, Din, Shah, & Karim, 2012; Gilbert, 2012;
Lys, 2013; Vinothini, 2013). With the merging of mobile phone, tablet and PC computer
operating systems, the Windows 8 camp is also set to enter the fray in a big way. The prospect of being able to program on one operating system regardless of device type, mobile
or stationary, is bound to have an enormous impact on the issue of platform compatibility.
The best hope here is that the size of the world market for mobile devices, which for
mobile phones alone is over four times larger than that for PCs (Android Authority,
2012), will make it worthwhile for programmers to develop for multiple platforms.

6. Conclusion
Despite the considerable progress it has made over the past two decades, MALL still faces
many challenges. Pedagogically, MALL has lagged behind developments in learning theory
and teaching methodologies. Behaviorist, teacher-centered, transmission model programs
continue to dominate MALL applications. Within this framework, program developers are
yet to adequately address the issue of response feedback and learner monitoring.
Though very much in the minority, even from the earliest published MALL research,
numerous studies attest that mobile devices are capable of much more than presenting
unidirectional text messages, question/answer routines and flashcard activities. Learnercentered pedagogical approaches have inspired a range of MALL applications that
include vocabulary acquisition, listening, speaking, reading and translation activities. So,
too, mobile phones are increasingly being used in conformity with their intrinsic functionality, i.e., as powerful multimedia communication devices, to build and maintain language learning communities. These communicative-oriented programs give a glimpse of
the way forward in MALL. As the most innovative MALL projects demonstrate, mobile
devices can be used to incorporate problem-solving tasks into the language learning process, not only in out-of-class usage for collaborative communication and the creation of
linguistically related artifacts, but also as part of in-class preparation for these tasks. As
well, mobile devices can be used in class or out to further integrate MALL into the curriculum through related web-based computer-mediated communication activities like discussion forums, chats, blogs and wikis.
Smartphones and tablet devices have now reached a point in their development where
they are capable of pedagogically supporting virtually anything that can be done with a
desk-bound PC. Moreover, they add an anytime, anywhere, dimension to language learning that allows instruction to be individualized in a way that is just not possible with stationary computers. Notwithstanding, unless and until access to appropriate mobile
technology becomes truly ubiquitous, MALL is bound to remain on the fringes of foreign
language pedagogy. While teachers and learners can increasingly be expected to be
equipped with the required mobile devices, privately purchased for their own general use,
whatever pedagogical materials are produced will have to be able to run on these devices.
For this to be possible, the problems of hardware standardization and platform compatibility will have to be resolved. Last, and most importantly, for MALL to realize its full
potential, the pioneering work of the early adopters of the past two decades is going to
have to be pursued and further developed by classroom instructors with appropriate training in pedagogy no less than instructional technology.

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Notes on contributor

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Jack Burston is a language-teaching specialist with a formal background in theoretical and applied
linguistics, second language acquisition and testing. He also has considerable expertise in computer-assisted language learning, foreign language software evaluation and language-center design.
Jack is the former software review editor of the CALICO Journal and a former member and chair of
the CALICO executive board. He was the editor of the IALLT Language Center Design Kit and the
Digital Language Lab Solutions volume. He was one of the coordinators of the MobLang project, a
European Union funded project which is using mobile phone technology to teach basic language
skills aimed at bridging linguistic and ethnic divisions.

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