Additional Course in Lie of Project - Theory of Equations & Fuzzy Set

THEORY OF EQUATIONS &
FUZZY SETS
B. Sc. MATHEMATICS
SIXTH SEMESTER
ADDITIONAL COURSE IN LIEU OF PROJECT
UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT
SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
CALICUT UNIVERSITY P.O., THENJIPALAM, MALAPPURAM-679 635
UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT
SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
B.Sc. MATHEMATICS
STUDY MATERIAL
SIXTH SEMESTER
ADDITIONAL COURSE IN LIEU OF PROJECT
THEORY OF EQUATIONS & FUZZY SETS

Prepared by:
Vinod Kumar P.
Santhosh
Assistant Professor
Assistant Professor
P. G.Department of Mathematics
P. G.Department of Mathematics
T. M. Government College, Tirur
Govt.BrennenCollege,Thalassery.
Email: vinodunical@gmail.com
Email:
P.K.
Scrutinised by ;
Dr. Anilkumar. V.
Associate Professor,
Department of Mathematics,
University of Calicut.
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Module-I
THEORY OF EQUATIONS
Prepared by:
Vinod Kumar P.
Asst. Professor
Dept. of Mathematics
T. M. Govt. College, Tirur.
THEORY OF EQUATIONS
1.0 Introduction
In this module, we will study about polynomial functions and various
methods to find out the roots of polynomial equations. Solving equations was an
important problem from the beginning of study of Mathematics itself. The notion of
complex numbers was first introduced because equations like x2 + 1 = 0 has no
solution in the set of real numbers. The fundamental theorem of algebra which
states that every polynomial of degree >1 has at least one zero was first proved by
the famous German Mathematician Karl Fredrich Gauss. We shall look at
polynomials in detail and will discuss various methods for solving polynomial
equations.
1.1. Polynomial Functions

Definition:
A function defined by
f ( x ) = a 0 x n + a1 x n 1 + ..... + a n , where a o 0, n is a non negative
integer and ai (i = 0, 1.,n) are fixed complex numbers is called a polynomial of

degree n in x. Then numbers
a o , a1 ,...., a n
are called the coefficients of f.
If is a complex number such that f()= 0, then is called zero of the

polynomial.
1.1.1
Theorem ( Fundamental Theorem of Algebra)

Every polynomial function of degree n > 1 has at least one zero.
Remark:
Fundamental theorem of algebra says that, if f(x) = a 0 x n + a1 x n1 + ..... + a n ,
School of Distance Education, University of Calicut

where a 0 0 is the given polynomial of degree n > 1, then there exists a complex
number such that a 0 n + a1 n 1 + ..... + a n = 0 .
We use the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, to prove the following result.
1.1.2
Theorem
Every polynomial of degree n has n and only n zeroes.
Proof:
Let f ( x) = a 0 x n + a1 x n 1 + ..... + a n , where a o 0, be a polynomial of degree n > 1.
By fundamental theorem of algebra, f(x) has at least one zero, let 1 be that zero.
Then ( x 1 ) is a factor of f(x).
Therefore, we can write:
f(x) = ( x 1 ) Q1 ( x) , where Q1(x) is a polynomial function of degree n - 1.
If n -1 > 1, again by Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, Q1 (x) has at least one zero,
say 2 .
Therefore, f ( x) = ( x 1 )( x 2 )Q2 ( x) where Q2 ( x) is a polynomial function of
degree n - 2.
Repeating the above arguments, we get
f ( x) = ( x 1 )( x 2 ).....( x n )Qn ( x), where Qn (x) is a polynomial function
of degree n - n = 0, i.e., Qn (x) is a constant.

Equating the coefficient of xn on both sides of the above equation, we get
Qn ( x ) = a o .
Therefore, f ( x) = a o ( x 1 )( x 2 )....( x n ) .
If is any number other than 1 , 2 ,.... n , then f (x) 0 is not a zero of f(x).
Hence f(x) has n and only n zeros, namely 1 , 2 ...., n .
Note:
Let
Then,
f ( x) = a o x n + a1 x n 1 + ... + a n ; a o 0 be an nth degree polynomial in x.

a o x n + a1 x n 1 + ... + a n = 0 --------- (1)
is called a polynomial equation in x of degree n.

A number is called a root of the equation (1) if is a zero of the polynomial f(x).
2

So theorem (1.1.2)can also be stated as : Every polynomial equation of degree n
has n and only n roots.
1.1.3
Theorem
If the equation a o x n + a1 x n 1 + .... + a n = 0 , where a o , a1 ,....a n are real numbers
(ao 0) , has a complex root + i , then it also has a complex root i . (i.e.,
complex roots occur in conjugate pairs for a polynomial equation with real
coefficients).
Proof:
Let
f(x) = a o x n + a1 x n1 + .... + a n , a o 0
Given that + i is a root of f(x) = 0.

Consider ( x ( + i ) ( x ( i ) = ( x ) 2 + 2 .
Divide f(x) by ( x ) 2 + 2 .
Let Q(x) be the quotient and Ax + B be the remainder.
Then,
f ( x) = ( x ) 2 + 2 Q( x) + Ax + B
= [( x ( + i ))( x ( i ))]Q( x) + Ax + B
f ( + i) = 0 + A ( + i) + B = A ( + i) + B = (A + B) + iA
But f ( + i) = 0 .
Equating real and imaginary parts, we see that A + B = 0 and A = 0

But 0 A = 0 and so B = 0
The remainder Ax + B is zero. i.e., [( x ( + i )) ( x ( i ))] is a factor of f(x)

i.e., i is a root of f(x) = 0.
1.1.4. Theorem
In an equation with rational coefficients, the roots which are quadratic surds
occur in conjugate pairs.
Proof:
Let f ( x) = a o x n + a1 x n 1 + ... + a n , a o 0 , be an nth degree polynomial with
rational coefficients.
Let + is a root of f(x) = 0.
Divide f(x) by ( x ( + ))( x ( )) = ( x ) 2 .

3

Let Q(x) be the quotient and Ax + B be the remainder.
Proceeding exactly as in the above theorem, we get Ax + B = 0.
Thus we conclude that is also a root of f(x) = 0.
1.1.5. Theorem
If the rational number p
, a fraction in its lowest terms (so that p, q are
integers prime to each other, q 0) is a root of the equation a o x n + a1 x n1 ... + a n = 0

where a 0 , a1 ,...., a n are integers and a o 0, then p is a divisor of a n and q is a
divisor of ao .
Proof:
p
Since
is a root the given polynomial equation, we have
a o p + a1 p
q
q
n 1
+ ... + a n 1 p + a n = 0
q
Multiplying by qn , we get
a o p n + a1 p n1 q + .... + a n 1 pq n 1 + a n q n = 0
------------ (1)
Dividing by p, we have
ao p
n 1
+ a1 p
n2
q + ... + a n 1q
an q n
=
p
n 1
Now, the left side of the above equation is an integer and therefore
an q n
is also
p
must be an integer. Since p and q have no common factor, p must be a divisor of

an .
Also, from (1),
a1 p n 1 q + .... + a n 1 pq n 1 + a n q n = a o p n
Dividing this expression by q, we get
a1 p
n 1
+ .... + a n 1 pq
n 2
+ an q
n 1
ao p n
=
q
Since the left side is an integer and since q does not divide p, q must be a
divisor of a 0 . This completes the proof.

Corollary
Every rational root of the equation x n + a1 x n 1 + .... + a n = 0 ,where each a i is
an integer must be an integer.
Moreover, every such root must be a divisor of the constant a n .
Proof:
This follows from the above theorem, by putting a 0 =1.
Multiple Roots
If a root of f(x) = 0 repeats r times, then is called an r-multiple root.
A 2- multiple root is usually called a double root.
For example, consider f(x) = (x - 2)3 (x - 5)2 (x + 1).
Here 2 is a 3 - multiple root, 5 is a double root, and -1 is a single root of the
equation f(x) = 0.
1.1.6. Theorem
If is an r - multiple root of f(x) = 0 then is an (r 1 ) multiple root of
f1 (x) = 0, where f1(x) is the derivative of f(x).
Proof:
Given that is an r - multiple root of f(x) = 0.
Then
f ( x) = ( x ) r ( x) where ( ) 0.
Now, by applying product rule of differentiation, we obtain:

f 1 ( x) = ( x ) r 1 ( x) + ( x) r.( x ) r 1
= ( x ) r 1 [( x ) 1 ( x) + r ( x)]
When x = , ( x ) 1 ( x) + r ( x) = r ( ) 0
is an (r 1) multiple root of f1 (x) = 0.
Remark:
If is an (r 1) -multiple root of f1(x) = 0, similarly as above, we can see that
will be an (r 2 ) multiple root of f11 (x) = 0 ; (r 3) - multiple root of f111 (x) = 0,
and so on.

Solved Problems
1. Solve x 4 4 x 2 + 8 x + 35 = 0 , given 2 + i 3 is a root.
Solution :
Given that 2 + i 3 is a root of x 4 4 x 2 + 8 x + 35 = 0; since complex roots occurs in
conjugate pairs 2 i 3 is also a root of it.
[ x (2 + i 3 )][ x (2 i 3 )] = ( x 2) 2 + 3 = x 2 4 x + 7 is a factor of the given
polynomial.
Dividing the given polynomial by this factor, we obtain the other factor as
x2 + 4x + 5 .
The roots of x 2 + 4 x + 5 = 0 are given by
4 16 20
= 2 i .
2
Hence the roots of the given polynomial are 2 + i 3 , 2 i 3 , 2 + i and 2 i .

2. Solve x4 - 5x3 + 4x2 + 8x 8 = 0, given that one of the roots is 1 5 .
Solution:
Since quadratic surds occur in conjugate pairs as roots of a polynomial equation,
1 + 5 is also a root of the given polynomial.
[ x (1 5 )][ x (1 + 5 )] = ( x 1) 2 5 = x 2 2 x 4 is a factor.
Dividing the given polynomial by this factor, we obtain the other factor as x2 3x + 2.
Also, x2 3x + 2 = (x 2) (x 1)
Thus the roots of the given polynomial equation are
1 + 5 ,1 5 ,1, 2 .
3. Find a polynomial equation of the lowest degree with rational coefficients

having
3 and 1 2i as two of its roots.
Solution:
Since quadratic surds occur in pairs as roots, 3 is also a root.
Since complex roots occur in conjugate pairs, 1 + 2i is also a root of the required
polynomial equation. Therefore the desired equation is given by
( x 3 ) ( x + 3 ) ( x (1 2i) (x (1 + 2i) ) = 0
i.e., x 4 2 x 3 + 2 x 2 + 6 x 15 = 0
4. Solve 4x5 + x3 + x2 3x + 1 = 0, given that it has rational roots.
Solution:
Let
f(x) = 4x5 + x3 + x2 3x + 1.
6

By theorem (1.1.5.), any rational root p
(in its lowest terms) must satisfy the
condition that, p is divisor of 1 and q is positive divisor of 4.

So the possible rational roots are 1, , .
Note that f(-1) = 0, f ( ) = 0. But f(1) 0, f( -) 0, f() 0 and f(-1/4) 0.
Since f(-1) = 0 and f () = 0, we see that (x + 1) and (x ) are factors of the given
polynomial. Also by factorizing , we find that
f(x) = (x ) (x + 1) (4x3 2x2 + 4x 2)
Note that x = is a root of the third factor, if we divide 4x3 2x2 + 4x 2 by x ,
we obtain
f(x)
= (x )2 (x + 1) (4x2 + 4)
= 4 (x )2 (x + 1) (x2 + 1)
Hence the roots of f(x) = 0, are , , -1, i.

5. Solve x3 x2 8x + 12 = 0, given that has a double root.
Solution:
Let
f(x) = x3 x2 8x + 12
Differentiating, we obtain:
f1(x) = 3x2 2x 8.
Since the multiple roots of f(x) = 0 are also the roots of f1(x) = 0, the product of the
factors corresponding to these roots will be the g.c.d of f(x) and f1(x). Let us find the
g.c.d of f(x) and f1(x).
3x
3x2 2x 8
x3 x2 8x + 12
3x2 6x
4
4x 8
3x3 3x2 24x + 36 x
4x 8
3x3 2x2 8x
- x2 16x + 36
3
- 3x2 48x + 108 - 1
- 3x2 + 2x + 8
-50
50x + 100
x2
Therefore, g.c.d = (x 2)
f(x) has a factor (x 2)2.
7

Also, f(x) = (x 2)2 (x + 3)
Thus the roots are 2, 2, - 3 .
6. Show that the equation x3 + qx + r = 0 has two equal roots if 27r2 + 4q3 = 0.
Solution:
Let
f(x) = x3 + qx + r
-------------- (1)
Differentiating, we obtain: f1(x) = 3x2 + q ------------------ (2)

Given that f(x) = 0 has two equal roots, i.e., it has a double root, say .
Then is a root of both f(x) = 0 and f1(x) = 0.
From the 2nd equation, we obtain 2 = -q /3
Now the first equation can be written as: ( 2 + q) + r = 0
3r
i.e.,
(-q /3 + q) + r = 0
=
2q
27r2 + 4q3 = 0
Squaring and simplifying, we obtain:
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1.2. Relation between the Roots and Coefficients of a Polynomial Equation

Consider the polynomial function f(x) = aoxn + a1xn-1 + ..+ an, a 0 0
Let 1 , 2 ,....., n be the roots of f(x) = 0.
Then we can write
f ( x) = a o ( x 1 )( x 2 )....( x n )
Equating the two expressions for f(x), we obtain:

a o x n + a1 x n 1 + .... + a n = a o ( x 1 ) ( x 2 )...( x n )
Dividing both sides by a 0 ,
a
a
x n + 1 x n1 + .... + n
ao
ao
= ( x 1 ) ( x 2 )....( x n )
= x n S1 x n 1 + S 2 x n 2 .... + (1) n S n
where Sr stands for the sum of the products of the roots 1 , ...., n taken r at a
time.
Comparing the coefficients on both sides , we see that
S1 =
a
a1
a
, S 2 = 2 ,.... S n = (1) n n .
ao
ao
ao

Special Cases
If and are the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0, (a 0) , then + =
b
c
and =
a
a
If and and are the roots of ax3+ bx2+cx +d = 0, (a 0) , then + + =

and + + =
b
,
a
c
d
and =
.
a
a
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Illustrative Examples:
x3 + px2 + qx + r = 0 are in arithmetic progression,
1. If the roots of the equation

show that 2p3 9 pq + 27r = 0.
Solution:
Let the roots of the given equation be a d, a, a + d.

Then S1 = a d + a + a + d = 3a = -p a =
p
3
Since a is a root, it satisfies the given polynomial

p + p. p + q. p + r = 0
3
3
3
On simplification, we obtain
2p3 9pq + 27r = 0.
2. Solve 27x3 + 42x2 28x 8 = 0, given that its roots are in geometric progression.
Solution:
Let the roots be
a
, a, ar
r
a
8
2
.a.ar = a 3 =
a=
r
27
3
Then ,
Since a =
2
2
is a root, x is a factor. On division, the other factor of the

3
3
polynomial is 27x2 + 60x + 12.

Its roots are
60 60 2 4 27 12 2
=
2 27
9
or 2
Hence the roots of the given polynomial eqution are

3. Solve the equation
2
2
, 2, .
9
3
15x3 23x2 + 9x 1 = 0 whose roots are in harmonic
progression.

Solution:
[Recall that if a, b, c are in harmonic progression, then 1/a, 1/b, 1/c are in arithmetic
progression and hence b =
2ac
]
a+c
Let , , be the roots of the given polynomial.

Then
+ + =
9
15
.. (1)
1
15
. (2)
Since , , are in harmonic progression, =
2
+
+ = 2
.9
9
3 =
15
15
Substitute in (1), 2 + =
=
3
.
15
Substitute in (2), we obtain

=
3
1
=
15
15
1
is a root of the given polynomial.
3
Proceeding as in the above problem, we find that the roots are
1
1
, 1, .
3
5
4. Show that the roots of the equation ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 are in geometric
progression, then c3a = b3d.
Solution:
Suppose the roots are
Then
k
, k , kr
r
k
d
.k .kr =
r
a
i.e., k 3 =
d
a
Since k is a root, it satisfies the polynomial equation,

ak3 + bk2 + ck + d = 0
d
2
a
+ bk + ck + d = 0
a
10

bk 2 + ck = 0
bk 2 = ck
(bk 2 ) 3 = (ck ) 3 i.e., b 3 k 6 = c 3 k 3
d2
d
= c 3
2
a
a
b3
b3d
= c 3 b3d = c 3a .
a
5. Solve the equation x3 - 9x2 + 14x + 24 = 0, given that two of whose roots are in
the ratio 3: 2.
Solution:
Let the roots be 3 , 2 ,
Then,
3 + 2 + = 5 + = 9
. (1)
3 .2 + 2 . + 3 . = 14
i.e., 6 2 + 5 = 14 (2)
3 . 2 . = 6 2 = 24
and
2 = 4
(3)
From (1), = 9 5 . Substituting this in (2), we obtain

6 2 + 5 (9 5 ) = 14
i.e., 19 2 45 + 14 = 0 . On solving we get

When =
= 2 or
7
.
19
7
136
, from (1), we get =
. But these values do not satisfy (3).
19
19
So, = 2 , then from (1), we get = 1

Therefore, the roots are 4, 6, -1.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.3.
Symmetric Functions of the Roots

Consider the expressions like 2 + 2 + 2 , ( ) 2 + ( ) 2 + ( ) 2 ,
( + ) ( + ) ( ) . Each of these expressions is a function of , , with the
property that if any two of , , are interchanged, the function remains

unchanged.
Such functions are called symmetric functions.
11

Generally, a function f ( 1 , 2 ,....., n ) is said to be a symmetric function of
1 , 2 ,....., n if it remains unchanged by interchanging any two of 1 , 2 ,....., n .

Remark:
The expressions S1, S2, .., Sn where Sr is the sum of the products of
1 , 2 ,....., n taken r at a time, are symmetric functions. These are called elementary
symmetric functions.
Now we discuss some results about the sums of powers of the roots of a given
polynomial equation.
1.3.1. Theorem
The sum of the rth powers of the roots of the equation f(x) = 0 is the
coefficient of xr in the expansion of
xf ( x)
in descending powers of x.
f ( x)
Proof:
Let f(x) = 0 be the given nth degree equation and let its roots be
1 , 2 ,....., n then, f(x) = a 0 ( x 1 )( x 2 )....( x n ) where a0 is some constant.

Taking logarithm, we obtain
log f ( x) = log a 0 + log( x 1 ) + .... + log( x n )
Differentiating w.r.t. x, we have:
f 1 (x )
1
1
=
+ ....... +
f ( x ) x 1
x n
Multiplying by x,
x f 1 (x )
x
x
=
+ ....... +
f (x )
x 1
x n
1
1

1 + .... + 1 n
x
x
1 1 2
n n2
1 +
1 +
+
+
....
+
........
+
+
+
....
2
2
x
x
x
x
1
2
= n + ( i )x + i x + ...... + ......
Therefore
r
i
is the coefficient of
descending powers of x.
12
xr in the expansion of
xf ( x)
in
f ( x)

1.3.2. Theorem (Newtons Theorem on the Sum of the Powers of the Roots)
If 1 , 2 ,....., n are the roots of the equation x n + P1 x n1 + P2 x n 2 + .... + Pn = 0 ,
and S r = 1r + .... + nr . Then, S r + S r 1 P1 + ..... + S1 Pr 1 + rPr = 0,
if r n.
and S r + S r 1 P1 + S r 2 P2 + ... + S r n Pn = 0 if r > n .

Proof:
We have x n + P1 x n1 + P2 x n 2 + .... + Pn = ( x 1 )( x 2 ).....( x n )
Put x =
1
y
P
P
1
1
1
1
+ n11 + n22 + .... + Pn = ( 1 )( 2 ).....( n ) ,
n
y
y
y
y
y
y
and then multiplying by yn, we obtain:

1 + P1 y + P2 y 2 + .... + Pn y n = (1 1 y )(1 2 y ).....(1 n y )
Taking logarithm and differentiating w.r.t y, we get

P1 + 2P2 y +3P3 y 2 + ...... + nPn y n 1
1
2
n
=
+
+ .... +
2
n
1 1 y 1 2 y
1 n y
1 + P1 y + P2 y + ...... + Pn y
=
1 (1 1 y) 1 2 (1 2 y) 1 ...... n (1 n y) 1
=
1 (1 + 1 y + 2 y 2 + ....) 2 (1 + 2 y + 22 y 2 + ....)
...... n (1 + n y + 2n y 2 + ....)
= S1 S 2 y S 3 y 2 ..... S r +1 y r ...
Cross multiplying, we get
P1 + 2P2 y + 3P3 y 2 + ...... + nPn y n 1 = (1 + P1 y + P2 y 2 + .... + Pn y n)
[S1 + S 2 y + ..... + S r +1 y r + .....]
Equating coefficients of like powers of y, we see that
P1 = S1
S1 + 1.P1 = 0
2P2 = S 2 S1P1
S 2 + S1 P1 + 2P2 = 0
3p 3 = S 3 S 2 P1 S1P2
S 3 + S 2 P1 + S1 P2 + 3P3 = 0 , and so on .
If r < n, equating coefficients of yr1 on both sides,
rPr = S r S r 1 P1 S r 2 P2 ...... S1 Pr 1
13

S r + S r 1 P1 + S r 2 P2 + ...... + S1 Pr 1 + rPr = 0
If r > n, then r1 > n1.

Equating coefficients of yr1 on both sides,
0 = S r S r 1 P1 S r 2 P2 ...... S r n Pn
i.e.,
S r + S r 1 P1 + S r 2 P2 + ...... + S r n Pn = 0
Remark:
To find the sum of the negative powers of the roots of f(x) = 0, put x =
1
y
and find the sums of the corresponding positive powers of the roots of the new
equation.
Illustrative Examples
1. If , , are the roots of the equation x3 + px2 + qx + r = 0, find the value of the
following in terms of the coefficients.
(i)
1
1
(ii) (iii ) 2
Solution:
Here + + = p, + + = q, = r
1
+ +
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
2 = 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2
=
=
+
1
+ +
=
=
p
p
=
r
r
q
q
=
r
r
= ( + + )( + + ) 3 = (q . p) 3 (- r ) = 3r pq .
2. If is an imaginary root of the equation x 7 1 = 0 form the equation whose

roots are + 6 , 2 + 5 , 3 + 4 .
Solution:
Let a = + 6
b = 2 + 5 c = 3 + 4
14

The required equation is (x a) (x b) (x c) = 0
x3 ( a+b+c )x2 + ( ab+bc+ac )x abc = 0 (1)
i.e.,
a + b + c = + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 =
( 6 1) 7 1
=
=
= 1
1
1
1
( Since is a root of x7 1 = 0, we have 7 =1 )

Similarly we can find that ab + bc + ac = 2, abc = 1.
Thus from (1), the required equation is
x3 + x2 2x 1 = 0
2
3. If , , are the roots of x3 + 3x2 + 2x + 1 = 0, find 3 and .

Solution:
Here + + = - 3, + + = 2, = 1
Using the identity a3+b3+c3 3abc = (a+b+c) ( a2+ b2 + c2 ab bc ac ), we find that
= ( + + ) 2 + 2 + 2 ( + + ) + 3
= ( + + ) [( + + ) 2 2 ( + + )] ( + + ) + 3
= 3[(9 4) 2] 3
= 9 3 = 12
Also,
2 2 + 2 2 + 2 2
=
2 2 2
( + + ) 2 2 2
2 2 2
.. (1)
We have:
2 = ( + + ) = 3 .1 = 3
2
(1) =
4 2 .3
= 2
1
4. Find the sum of the 4th powers of the roots of the equation x4 5x3 + x 1 = 0.
Solution:
Let
f(x) = x4 5x3 + x 1 = 0
Then f1 (x) = 4x3 15x2 + 1

15

Now,
xf 1 ( x)
can be evaluated as follows :
f ( x)
4 + 5 + 25 + 122 + 609 +.....

1 5 + 0 + 1 1 4 15 + 0 + 1 + 0
4 20 + 0 + 4 4
5 +0 3 + 4
5 25 + 0 + 5 5
25 3 1 + 5
25 125 + 0 + 25 25
122 1 20 + 25
122 610 + 0 + 122 122
609 20 97 + 122
609 3045 + 0 + 609 609
............................
Therefore,
xf | ( x )
5 25 122 609
= 4 + + 2 + 3 + 4 + ......
f (x )
x x
x
x
Sum of the fourth powers of the roots = coefficient of x4.
= 609.
5. If + + = 1, 2 + 2 + 2 = 2, 3 + 3 + 3 = 3. Find 4 + 4 + 4 .
Solution:
Let x3 + P1x2 + P2x + P3 = 0 be the equation whose roots are , , , then
+ + = P1 P1 = 1
By Newtons theorem,
S2 + S1P1 + 2P2 = 0
i.e.,
2 + 1. ( 1) + 2 P2 = 0 P2 =
1/2
Again, by Newtons theorem

S3 + S2P1 + S1P2 + 3P3 = 0
i.e., 3 + 2. 1 + 1.1/2 + 3.P3 = 0
P3 = 1/6
Also
S4 + S3P1 + S2P2 + S1P3 = 0 (By Newtons theorem for the case r < n)
Substituting and simplifying, we obtain S4 =

Thus 4 + 4 + 4 =
25/6
25
6
6. Calculate the sum of the cubes of the roots of x4 + 2x + 3 = 0

16

Solution:
Let the given equation be
x4 + P1x3 + P2x2 + P3x + P4 = 0
Here
P1 = P2 = 0, P3 = 2 and P4 = 3
By Newtons theorem, S3 + S2P1 + S1P2 + 3P3 = 0

i.e.,
S3 + 0 + 0 + 3 . 2 = 0
S3 = 6
i.e., sum of the cubes of the roots of x4 + 2x + 3 = 0, is 6.
1.4. Transformations of Equations

Let f(x) = 0 be a polynomial equation. Without explicitly knowing the roots of
f(x) = 0, we can often transform the given equation into another equation whose
roots are related to the roots of the first equation in some way. Now we discuss some
important such transformations.
1. To form an equation whose roots are k-times the roots of a given equation.
Let f ( x ) = a o x n + a 1 x n 1 + .... + a n
----------- (1)
Suppose that 1 , 2 ,......, n are the roots of f(x) = 0

Then f ( x ) = a o ( x 1 )( x 2 )........( x n ) .. (2)
Put y = kx in (2), we obtain:
y
y
y
y
f = a o 1 2 ...... n
k
k
k
k
Thus the roots of
f ( y / k ) = 0, are k 1 ,......, k n
Therefore the required equation is

n
y
y
y
f = a o + a1
k
k
k
i.e.,
n 1
+ ...... + a n = 0
a o y n + ka 1 y n 1 + k 2 a 2 y n 2 + ...... + k n a n = 0
Thus; to obtain the equation whose roots are k times the roots of a given equation,
we have to multiply the coefficients of x n , x n 1 ,......, x and the constant term by 1, k,
k2,kn-1 and kn respectively.
17

Remark:
To form an equation whose roots are the negatives of the roots of a given
equation of degree n, multiply the coefficients of xn, xn-1, . . . . by 1, -1, 1, -1,
respectively.
2. To form an equation whose roots are the reciprocals of the roots of a given
equation.
Consider, f ( x ) = a o x n + a 1 x n 1 + ...... + a n = 0
.. (1)
Let 1 , 1 , ......., n be the roots of the equation. Then,

f ( x ) = a o ( x 1 ) ( x 2 )......( x n )
In (1), put y =
.. (2)
1
1
i.e., x =
x
y
1
1
1
Then f = a o 1 2 ........ n
y
y
y
The roots of this equation are

n
But from (1) ,

i.e.,
1
1
1
f = a o + a 1
y
y
y
1 2
,......
n 1
+ ...... + a n = 0
a o + a 1 y + a o y 2 + ...... + a n y n = 0
Therefore, the required equation is a n y n + a n 1 y n 1 + ...... + a 1 y + a o = 0

3. To form an equation whose roots are less by h then the roots of a given
equation. ( i.e., Diminishing the roots by h )
Let f ( x ) = a o x n + a 1 x n 1 + ...... + a n = 0
Suppose that
. (1)
1 , 2 ,......, n are the roots of f(x) = 0
Therefore, f ( x ) = a o (x 1 )(x 2 ).......(x n ) . (2)

Put y = x h so that x = y + h
From (2),
f ( y + h ) = a o (y + h 1 )(y + h 2 ).......(y + h n )
= a o (y (1 h ) )(y ( 2 h ) )......(y ( n h ) )
The roots of f (y + h) = 0 are 1 h,....., n h .
By (1), we obtain,
a o (y + h ) + a 1 ( y + h ) n 1 + ...... + a n = 0
n
18

Expanding using binomial theorem and combining like terms, we get an equation of
the form
b o y n + b1 y n 1 + ...... + b n = 0
. (3)
Replacing y = x h, we get
b o (x h ) + b1 (x h )
n
n 1
+ ........ + b n = 0
. (4)
Now, equation (1) and (4) represents the same equation.

Dividing equation (4) continuously by (x h), we obtain the remainders as
b n , b n 1 ,......, b o
Substituting these in (3), we obtain the required equation.

Remark:
Increasing the roots by h is equivalent to decreasing the roots by h.
4. To form an equation in which certain specified terms of the given equation are
absent.
Consider the equation
a o x n + a 1 x n 1 + ...... + a n = 0
(1)
Suppose it is required to remove the second term of the equation (1). Diminish the
roots of the given equation by h.
For this, put y = x h i.e., x = y + h in (1), we obtain the new equation as
a o (y + h ) + a 1 (y + h )
n
n 1
+ ...... + a n = 0
ie a o y n + (na o h + a 1 )y n 1 + ...... + a n = 0
Now to remove the second term of the equation (1), we must have na o h + a 1 = 0
i.e., we must have
h=
a1
na o
Thus to remove the second term of the equation (1), we have to diminish its roots by
h=
a1
na o
Remarks:
If
1 , 2 , ........., n are the roots of the polynomial equation
f(x) = 0.
Formation of an equation whose roots are ( 1 ), ( 2 ), ........, ( n ) is known as a

general transformation of the given equation.
In this case, the relation between a root x of f(x) = 0 and a root y of the
transformed equation is that y = ( x ) . Also, to obtain this new equation we have to
eliminate x between f(x) = 0 and y = ( x ) .
19

Solved Problems
1. Form an equation whose roots are three times those of the equation
x3 x2 + x +1 = 0 .
Solution:
To obtain the required equation, we have to multiply the coefficients of x3, x2,
x, and 1 by 1, 3, 32, and 33 respectively.
Thus x 3 3x 2 + 9 x + 27 = 0 is the desired equation.
2. Form an equation whose roots are the negatives of the roots of the equation
Solution:
By multiplying the coefficients successively by 1, -1, 1, -1 we obtain the required
equation as x 3 + 6 x 2 + 8x + 9 = 0 .
3. Form an equation whose roots are the reciprocals of the roots of
x 4 5x 3 + 7 x 2 4 x + 5 = 0 .
Solution:
We obtain the required equation, by replacing the coefficients in the reverse
order, as 5x 4 4 x 3 + 7 x 2 5x + 1 = 0
4. Find the equation whose roots are less by 2, than the roots of the equation
x 5 3x 4 2 x 3 + 15x 2 + 20 x + 15 = 0 .
Solution:
To find the desired equation, divide the given equation successively by x 2.
2
-3
-2
+15 +20 +15
-2
-8
+14 68
-1
-4
+7
+34 83
+2
-4
+6
+1 -2
+3
+40
+2 +6
+8
+3 +4
+11
2
1
+10
+5 +14
+2
+7
1
20

Thus the required equation is
x 5 + 7 x 4 + 14 x 3 + 11x 2 + 40 x + 83 = 0
5. Solve the equation x 4 8x 3 x 2 + 68x + 60 = 0 by removing its second term.

Solution:
To remove the second term, we have to diminish the roots of the given
equation by
h=
a1
8
=
= 2.
na o 4.1
Dividing the given equation successively by x 2, we obtain the new equation as

x 4 25x 2 + 144 = 0
On solving, we get x = - 4 , 4, - 3 , 3.
Thus the roots of the original equation are 2, 6, -1 and 5.
6. If , , are the roots of the equation x 3 + ax 2 + bx + c = 0. Form the equation
whose roots are , , .
Solution:
Note that =
Put
y=
c
x
x=
c
y
Hence the given equation becomes

3
c
c
c
+ a
+ b
+ c = 0
y
y
y
i.e., y 3 by 2 + acy c 2 = 0 , which is the required equation.
7. If , , are the roots of x 3 x + 1 = 0 , show that
1+ 1+ 1+
+
+
=1
1 1 1
Solution:
We have to form the equation whose roots are
For this, put y =
1+ x
1 x
i.e., x =
1+ 1+ 1+
,
,
.
1 1 1
y 1
y +1
3
y 1 y 1

+ 1 = 0
Therefore the required equation is
y +1 y +1
On simplifying, we obtain y 3 y 2 + 7 y + 1 = 0
21

The sum of the roots of this equation is 1. i.e.,
1+ 1+ 1+
+
+
=1
1 1 1
1.5. Reciprocal Equations

Let f(x) = 0 be an equation with roots 1, 2 , ......, n .
If
1 1
1
,
,......,
are also roots of the same equation, then such equations are
1 2
n
called reciprocal equations.

Suppose that a o x n + a 1 x n 1 + ..... + a n = 0
... (1) is a reciprocal equation with
roots 1, 2 , ......, n .
Then
1 1
1
,
,......,
are also roots of the same equation. The equation with roots
1 2
n
1 1
1
,
, ......,
is :
1 2
n
a n x n + a n 1 x n 1 + ...... + a o = 0
(2)
Since (1) and (2) represents the same equation, we must have
ao
a
a
= 1 = n =k
a n a n 1 a o
Taking the first and last terms in the above equality, we obtain k2 = 1 i.e., k = + 1
when k = 1, we have ao = an, a1 = an-1 . . . .
Such equations are called reciprocal equations of first type.
When k = 1, we have ao = an, a1 = an-1, These type of equations are called
reciprocal equations of second type.
A reciprocal equation of first type and even degree is called a standard
reciprocal equation.
Note:
1. If f(x) = 0 is a reciprocal equation of first type and odd degree, the x = 1 is
always a root. If we remove the factor x + 1 corresponding to this root, we
obtain a standard reciprocal equation.
2. If f(x) = 0 is a reciprocal equation of second type and odd degree, then x = 1 is
always a roots. If we remove the factor x 1 corresponding to this root, we
obtain a standard reciprocal equation.
22

3. If f(x) = 0 is a reciprocal equation of second type and even degree, then x = 1
and x = 1 are roots. If we remove the factor x2 1 corresponding to these
roots, we obtain a standard reciprocal equation.
Solved Problems
1. Solve the equation 60 x 4 736 x 3 + a 433x 2 736 x + 60 = 0
Solution:
The given equation is a standard reciprocal equation. Dividing throughout by x2,
we obtain,
60 x 2 736 x + 1433
736 60
+ 2 =0
x
x
1
60 x 2 + 2 736x+ + 1433 = 0
x
Putting y = x + 1
and simplifying, we obtain
60 y 2 736 y + 1313 = 0
On solving, we get y =
When y =
101 13
or
10
6
101
1 101
,x + =
10 x 2 101x + 10 = 0
10
x 10
i.e., x = 10,
1
10
Similarly when y =
13
3
, we get x = , 2
6
2 3
Thus the roots of the given equation are 10,
1 3 2
, ,
10 2 3
2. Solve :
x 2 5x 2 + 9 x3 9 x 2 + 5x 1 = 0
Solution:
This is a second type reciprocal equation of odd degree. So x = 1 is a root.
On division by the corresponding factor x 1, we obtain the other factor as
x 4 4 x 3 + 5x 2 4 x + 1 = 0 , which is a standard reciprocal equation.
Proceeding exactly as in the above problem, we may find that

x=
1 i 3
3 5
or x =
2
2
23

Hence the roots of the given equation are 1,
1 i 3 3 5
,
2
2
3. Show that on diminishing the roots of the equation

6 x 4 43x 3 + 76 x 2 + 25x 100 = 0
by 2, it becomes a reciprocal equation and hence solve it.

Solution:
To diminish the roots of the given equation by 2, divide it successively by (x
2), we obtain:
2 6
-43
+76
+25
-100
+12
-62
+28
+106
-31
+14
+53
+6
+12
-38
-48
-19
-24
+5
+12
-14
-7
-38
+12
6
+5
6
6 x 4 + 5x 3 38x 2 + 5x + 6 = 0 is the required equation, which is a standard
reciprocal equation.
It can be written as
6 x 2 + 2 + 5 x + 1 38 = 0
x
x
Putting x +
1
10 5
= y and solving for y, we get y =
or
x
3
2
1
5
1
When y = 5 , we have x +
= . On solving we get: x = 2,
2
x
2
2
When y =
10
, we have 3x 2 + 10 x + 3 = 0 or x = 3 or 1
3
3
Thus the roots of the original equation are 4, 5 , 1, 5 ( by adding 2 to each of the
2
3
above roots)
24
1.6 Cardans Method of Solving a Standard Cubic Equation

Knowledge of the quadratic formula is older than the Pythagorean
Theorem. Solving a cubic equation, on the other hand, was done by Renaissance
mathematicians in Italy. In this section we describe some methods to find one root
of the cubic equation
ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d = 0.
---------- (1)
so that other two roots (real or complex) can then be found by polynomial division
and the quadratic formula. The solution proceeds in two steps. First, the cubic
equation is depressed; then one solves the depressed cubic.
1.6.1 Depressing the cubic equation

This trick, which transforms the general cubic equation into a new cubic
equation with missing x2-term is due to Italian mathematician Nicolo Fontana
Tartaglia (1500-1557). To remove the second term of Eq. (1), we diminish the roots of
(1) by h =
a1
with n = 3 (i.e., the degree of the polynomial equation), a0 = a, a1 = b;
na0
so that h =
b
b
. Set x h = y or x = y + h = y .
3a
3a
We apply the substitution x = y

3
b
to the cubic equation (1), and obtain
3a
b
b
b
a y + b y + c y + d = 0.
3
a
3
a
3
a
Multiplying out and simplifying, we obtain
b2
2b3 bc
ay 3 + c y + d +
= 0,
3a
27 a 2 3a
a cubic equation in which y2-term is absent.

1.6.2 Solving the Depressed Cubic
Method to solve a depressed cubic equation of the form
y 3 + Ay = B
(2)
had been discovered earlier by Italian mathematician Scipione dal Ferro (1465-1526).
The procedure is as follows:
First find s and t so that
and
3st = A
s3 t 3 = B
....... (3)
........(4)
25

Then y = s t will be a solution of the depressed cubic. This can be verified as
follows: Substituting for A, B and y, equation (2) gives
( s t )3 + 3st ( s t ) = s 3 t 3 .
This is true since we can simplify the left side using the binomial formula to obtain
s3 t 3 .
Now to find s and t satisfying (3) and (4), we proceed as follows: From Eq.(3), we
have s =
A
and substituting this into Eq.(4), we obtain,
3t
A
3
3t t = B

Simplifying, this turns into the tri-quadratic equation, t 6 + Bt 3
A3
= 0,
27
which using the substitution u = t 3 becomes the quadratic equation, u 2 + Bu
A3
= 0.
27
From this, we can find a value for u by the quadratic formula, then obtain t,
afterwards s. Hence the root s t can be obtained.
Illustrative Examples:
1. Using the discussion above, find a root of the cubic equation
2 x3 30 x 2 + 162 x 350 = 0.
Solution:
Comparing with
ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d = 0, ........(5)
we have a = 2, b = 30, c = 162, and d = 350.

Hence substituting
x= y
b
= y + 5 in (5), expanding and simplifying, we obtain
3a
the depressed cubic equation
y 3 + 6 y 20 = 0.
Now to find the solution of depressed equation y 3 + 6 y = 20, we proceed as follows:

We need s and t to satisfy 3st = 6
and
s 3 t 3 = 20.
(6)
(7)
Solving for s in (6) and substituting the result into (7) yields:
8 3
t = 20,
t3
which multiplied by t3 becomes, t 6 + 20t 3 8 = 0.

Using the substitution u = t 3 the above becomes the quadratic equation
u 2 + 20u 8 = 0.
26

Using the quadratic formula, we obtain that u = 10 108.
We take the cube root of the positive value of u and obtain t = 3 10 + 108.
s 3 = 20 + t 3 = 20 + 10 + 108 = 10 + 108
By Equation (7),
s = 3 10 + 108.
and hence
Hence a root y for the depressed cubic equation is

y = s t = 3 10 + 108 3 10 + 108 .
Hence a root of the original cubic equation

2 x3 30 x 2 + 162 x 350 = 0
is given by
2.
x = y + 5 = 3 10 + 108 3 10 + 108 + 5.
Find one real root of the cubic equation x3 2 x 5 = 0.
Solution.
Since the term x 2 is absent, the given equation is in the depressed form.
Here x3 2 x = 5, and hence 3st = 2 and s 3 t 3 = 5.
3
Now substituting s =
2
2
in s 3 t 3 = 5, we obtain t 3 = 5
3t
3t
or
8
t 3 = 5 or
3
27t
t 6 + 5t 3 +
8
= 0.
27
Take u = t 3 . Then the above becomes the quadratic equation u 2 + 5u +
u=
5 25
2
8
= 0 with
27
48
27 = 5 4.88 = 4.94 or 0.06.
2
We take the cube of root of the value with largest absolute value, and obtain
t = u1/ 3 = 1.7031 .
Putting this value in s =
2
, we obtain s = 0.3914 .
3t
Hence one of the roots of the given equation is s t = 2.0945.

1.6.3 Cardans Solution of the Standard cubic
Italian Renaissance mathematician Girolamo Cardano (1501 1576) published the
solution to a cubic equation in his Algebra book Ars Magna.
27

Usually we take the cubic equation as a0 x 3 + a1 x 2 + a2 x + a3 = 0 .
But it has been found it is more advantageous to take the general cubic as
ax 3 + 3bx 2 + 3cx + d = 0
(8)
This method of writing is referred to as the cubic with binomial coefficients.

Taking the form (8) and putting y = ax + b or x = ( y b) / a and multiplying throughout
by a 2 , we obtain :
( y b)3 + 3b( y b) 2 + 3ac( y b) + a 2 d = 0 .
y 3 + 3(ac b 2 ) y + (a 2 d 3abc + 2b3 ) = 0
i.e.,
y 3 + 3Hy + G = 0 ,
i.e.,
(9)
where H = ac b 2 and G = a 2 d 3abc + 2b3 . The equation (9), where the term in y 2
absent, is the standard form of the cubic.
Now to solve (9) using Cardanos method, assume that the roots are of the form
p1/ 3 + q1/ 3 ; where p and q are to be determined.
Putting y = p1/ 3 + q1/ 3 , we get y 3 = p + q + 3 p1/ 3 q1/ 3 ( p1/ 3 + q1/ 3 )

= p + q + 3 p1/ 3 q1/ 3 y .
y 3 3 p1/ 3 q1/ 3 y ( p + q ) = 0. (10)
Hence,
Comparing the coefficients in (9) and (10), we have p + q = G , and

p1/ 3 q1/ 3 = H . i.e.,
p + q = G
pq = H 3 .
and
p q = [( p + q )2 4 pq ]1/ 2
Now,
i.e.,
(11)
p q = G 2 + 4H 3
(12)
Using (11) and (12), solving for p and q, we get

p=
G + G 2 + 4 H 3
,
2
q=
G G 2 + 4 H 3
2
Then the solution is given by y = p1/ 3 q1/ 3 .

Remark
We notice that p1/ 3 has three values, viz., m, m and m 2 where m is a cube root of
p (i.e., m = 3
G + G 2 + 4 H 3
) and is one of the imaginary cube roots of unity. But
2
we cannot take the three values of q1/ 3

28
independently, for we have the

relation p1/ 3 q1/ 3 = H . Thus if n, n , n 2 are the three values of q1/ 3 where n is a cube
root of q and is one of the imaginary cube roots of unity, we have to choose those
pairs of cube roots of p and q such that the product of each pair is rational. Hence the
three admissible roots of equation (9) are
m + n, m + n 2 , m 2 + n
1. Solve the cubic x3 9 x + 28 = 0 by Cardans method.
Solution.
Let
x = p1/ 3 + q1/ 3 be a solution. Then

x3 = p + q + 3 p1/ 3 q1/ 3 ( p1/ 3 + q1/ 3 )
Hence
x 2 3 p1/ 3 q1/ 3 x ( p + q) = 0
Comparing this with the given cubic equation, we get

p + q = 28
(13)
p1/ 3 q1/ 3 = 3
Hence pq = 27 . Now ,
Hence
p q = 26
( p q) 2 = ( p + q) 2 4 pq = 784 108 = 676
(14)
From (13) and (14), we get p = 1 and q = 27 .

Hence p1/ 3 = 1, , 2
and q1/ 3 = 3, 3 , 3 2 ; where is one of the imaginary
cube roots of unity.

Hence the roots of the given cubic are 1 3, 3 2 and 2 3 .
i.e.,
4, 3 2 , 2 3 .
Another Method
Since 4 is a root of the given cubic, x + 4 is a factor of the polynomial in the given
cubic equation. Removing the factor x + 4 , the cubic equation yields the quadratic
equation
x2 4 x + 7 = 0
Hence
x=
4 12
= 2i 3
2
Hence the roots of the given cubic are 4, 2 + i 3, 2 i 3

2.
Solve x3 6 x 2 + 3x 2 = 0
29

Solution.
To reduce to standard form [noting that h = b / 3a = 6 / 3 = 2] , put x 2 = y . i.e,
x = y + 2 and obtain ( y + 2)3 6( y + 2)2 + 3( y + 2) 2 = 0
i.e.,
y 3 9 y 2 = 0 , which is the standard form of the cubic.
Putting y = p1/ 3 + q1/ 3 , taking the cube and a rearrangement yields

y 3 3 p1/ 3 q1/ 3 y ( p + q) = 0 .
Comparing this with the standard form of the cubic, we obtain

p + q = 12
Hence pq = 27
(15) and
and
p1/ 3 q1/ 3 = 3
p q = ( p + q )2 4 pq = 6
(16)
From (15) and (16), p = 9 and q = 3 .

Hence
y = 31/ 3 + 91/ 3 or 31/ 3 + 91/ 3 2 or 31/ 3 2 + 91/ 3
Hence the roots of the given equation are

2 + 31/ 3 + 91/ 3 , 2 + 31/ 3 + 91/ 3 2 , 2 + 31/ 3 2 + 91/ 3 .
1.6.4 Nature of the roots of a cubic

Let , , be the roots of the cubic
y 3 + 3Hy + G = 0
(17)
Then the equation whose roots are ( ) 2 , ( )2 and ( ) 2 is

z 2 + 18Hz 2 + 81H 2 z + 27(G 2 + 4 H 3 ) = 0.
Hence
( ) 2 ( )2 ( )2 = 27(G 2 + 4 H 3 ). (18)
Then nature of the roots , , of Eq. (17) can be obtained by a consideration of the
product in Eq. (18). Since imaginary roots occur in pairs, equation (17) will have
either all real roots, or one real and two imaginary roots. The following cases can
occur.
Case 1: The roots , , are all real and different. In this case
( ) 2 ( )2 ( )2 is positive. Therefore by Eq. (18), G 2 + 4 H 3 is negative.
Case 2: One root, say , is real and the other two imaginary. Let and be m in .
Then
( ) 2 ( )2 ( )2 = (2in)2 (m in ) 2 (m + in ) 2
= 4n 2 {(m ) 2 + n 2 }2 ,
30

which is negative, whatever , m, n may be. Therefore by Eq.(18), G 2 + 4 H 3 is
positive in this case.
Case 3: Two of the roots, say , are equal. Then ( ) 2 ( )2 ( )2 , and
therefore G 2 + 4 H 3 , is zero.
Case 4: , , are all equal. In this case all the three roots of equation (17) are zero.
This will be so if H = G = 0 .
Conversely, it is easy to see that
(i)
when G 2 + 4 H 3 < 0 , the roots of the cubic in Eq. (17) are all real;
(ii)
when G 2 + 4 H 3 > 0 , the cubic in Eq. (17) has two imaginary roots;
(iii) when G 2 + 4 H 3 = 0 , the cubic in Eq. (17) has two equal roots; and
(iv) when G = H = 0 , all the roots of the cubic in Eq. (17) are equal.
Remark
On substituting the values of G and H, it can be seen that
G 2 + 4 H 3 a 2 {a 2 d 2 6abcd + 4ac3 + 4b3 d 3b 2 c 2 } .
The expression in brackets is called the discriminant of the general cubic in Eq. (7),
and is denoted by .
1.7. Quartic (or Biquadratic) Equation

A quartic function is a polynomial of degree four and is of the form
f ( x) = ax 4 + bx 3 + cx 2 + dx + e, where a is nonzero.
Such a function is sometimes called a biquadratic function, but the latter term can
occasionally also refer to a quadratic function of a square, having the form
ax 4 + bx 2 + c,
or a product of two quadratic factors, having the
form (ax 2 + bx + c)(dy 2 + ey + f ).

Setting f ( x) = 0 results in a quartic equation (or biquadratic equation) of the form
ax 4 + bx 3 + cx 2 + dx + e = 0 where a 0.
Quartic equation is some times called biquadratic equation.

Solution of Quartic Equations (Ferraris method)
Shortly after the discovery of a method to solve the cubic equation, Lodovico
Ferrari (1522-1565), a student of Cardano, found a similar method to solve the
31

quartic equation. In this method the solution of the quartic depends on the solution
of a cubic. We now describe the Ferraris method.
Writing the quartic equation
We assume that
u = ax 4 + 4bx 3 + 6cx 2 + 4dx + e = 0
(19)
au = (ax 2 + 2bx + s )2 (2mx + n) 2 .
Equating coefficients of like powers of x and then eliminating m and n we will

obtain a cubic equation in s.
Then corresponding values of m and n will be
obtained. Using these, roots of the quartic equation will be obtained.

The method is illustrated in the following problems.
1. Solve x 4 2 x3 12 x 2 + 10 x + 3 = 0.
Solution:
Let u = x 4 2 x 3 12 x 2 + 10 x + 3 = 0.
and
u = ( x 2 + px + s )2 (mx + n) 2
(20)
Then, x 4 2 x3 12 x 2 + 10 x + 3 = ( x 2 + px + s) 2 (mx + n)2

Equating coefficients of like powers of x, we obtain
2 = 2 p, 12 = 2 s + p 2 m2 ,
Hence,
10 = 2 ps 2mn, 3 = s 2 n 2 .
p = 1, 12 = 2 s + 1 m 2 , 10 = 2 s 2mn, 3 = s 2 n 2 .
Thus p = 1, m2 = 2 s + 13, mn = s 5, n 2 = s 2 3.
To eliminate m and n , we note that (mn) 2 = m2 n 2
which gives ( s 5)2 = (2s + 13)( s 2 3) or s 2 + 10 s + 25 = 2 s 3 6 s + 13s 2 39
which is the cubic equation 2 s 3 16 s + 12 s 2 64 = 0
or s 3 + 6 s 2 8s 32 = 0.
(21)
( Remarks :
Equation (21), which is a cubic in s , is known as the reducing cubic.
The reducing cubic gives three values of s . These do not however lead
to three different sets of roots for the quartic equation. They only give
three different methods of factorizing the left hand side of the quartic.
Hence it is enough to find any one root of the reducing cubic. )
By inspection, s = 2 is a root of the cubic equation (21).

32

m 2 = 2s + 13 = 2(2) + 13 = 9
Hence,
n 2 = s 2 3 = (2) 2 3 = 1.
mn = s 5 = 2 5 = 3.
We take m = 3. Then, as mn = 3 and n 2 = 1, we take n = 1.

We take (Referring Remark above), s = 2, m = 3, n = 1.
Noting [by Eq.(20)] that u = {x 2 + ( p + m) x + s + n}{x 2 + ( p m) x + s n}
we have
u = {x 2 + (1 + 3) x 2 1}{x 2 + (1 3) x 2 + 1}
u = {x 2 + 2 x 3}{x 2 4 x 1} , or
or
u = ( x 1)( x + 3){x 2 4 x 3}
(22)
As the quadratic equation x 2 4 x 3 has roots 1 + 5 and 1 5 , by (22), we have the

roots of the given quartic equation are x = 1, 3, 1 + 5, 1 5 .
2. Solve x 4 3 x 2 6 x 2 = 0
Solution.
Let u = x 4 3 x 2 6 x 2 = 0. and u = ( x 2 + px + s )2 (mx + n) 2
(23)
Then, x 4 3 x 2 6 x 2 = ( x 2 + px + s )2 (mx + n) 2
p = 0, m2 = 2 s + 3, mn = 3, n 2 = s 2 + 2.
To eliminate m and n , we note that (mn) 2 = m 2 n 2 which gives 9 = (2s + 3)( s 2 + 2)

i.e., we obtain the cubic equation,
2 s 3 + 3s 2 + 4 s 3 = 0. (24)
In order to find a root of (24) we proceed as follows: If , , are the roots of (24),
then the equation with roots 2 , 2 , 2 is given by
3
y
y
y
2 + 3 + 4 3 = 0
2
2

2
Or
y 3 + 3 y 2 + 8 y 12 = 0
(25)
y = 1 is evidently a root of equation (25). If we let 2 = 1 then =
i.e., s =
1
is a solution of the reducing cubic (24).
2
2
m2 = 2
1
9
1
+ 3 = 4, n 2 = + 2 = .
2
4
2
33
Hence
1
is a root of (24).
2

9
4
3
2
Take m = 2. Hence, as mn = 3, and n 2 = , we have to take n = .

1
2
3
2
Putting p = 0, s = , m = 2, n = , in
u = {x 2 + ( p + m) x + s + n}{x 2 + ( p m) x + s n} , we get u = {x 2 + 2 x + 2}{x 2 2 x 1} .
As the quadratic equation x 2 + 2 x + 2 have roots 1 + i, 1 i and x 2 2 x 1 have roots

1 + 2, 1 2 ; hence the roots of the given quartic equation are
1 + 2, 1 2, 1 + i, 1 i .
3. Solve x 4 + 3 x3 + x 2 2 = 0.
Solution.
Let
u = x 4 + 3 x 3 + x 2 2 = 0. and u = ( x 2 + px + s )2 (mx + n) 2 (26)
Then, x 4 + 3 x3 + x 2 2 = ( x 2 + px + s ) 2 (mx + n)2

3
5
p = , m2 = 2s + ,
2
4
3
mn = s, n 2 = s 2 + 2. To eliminate m and n , we note that (mn) 2 = m 2 n 2 , which gives
2
2
5 2
3
2 s = 2s + 4 ( s + 2 ) and is the cubic equation

4 s 3 2s 2 + 8s + 5 = 0.
(27)
In order to find a root of (27) we proceed as follows: If , , are the roots of (24),
then the equation with roots 4 , 4 , 4 is given by
3
y
y
y
4 2 + 8 + 5 = 0.
4
4
4
Or
y 3 2 y 2 + 32 y + 80 = 0.
(28)
y = 2 is evidently a root of equation (28).
If we let 4 = 2 then =
reducing cubic (27).
m2 = 2s +
1
is a root of (27).
2
Hence
5
5 1
= 1 + =
4
4 4
n2 = s2 + 2 =
1
9
+2= .
4
4
34
i.e.,
s=
1
is a solution of the
2

1
2
3
2
3
4
9
4
3
2
We take m = . Since mn = s = , and since n 2 = , we are forced to take n = ,

Hence u = {x 2 + ( p + m) x + s + n}{x 2 + ( p m) x + s n} gives u = {x 2 + 2 x 2}{x 2 + x + 1}
Hence the roots of the given quartic equation are x = 1 + 3, 1 + 3, , 2 ,
where is an imaginary cube root of 1.
1.6. Insolvability of the Quintic.

A quintic function is a polynomial function of the form
where a, b, c, d, e and f are rational numbers, real numbers or complex numbers,

and a is nonzero. In other words, a quintic function is defined by a
polynomial of degree five.
If a is zero but one of the coefficients b, c, d, or e is non-zero, the function is
classified as either a quartic function, cubic function, quadratic function or linear
function.
As we noted above, solving linear, quadratic, cubic and quartic equations by
factorization into radicals is fairly straightforward, no matter whether the roots
are rational or irrational, real or complex; there are also formulae that yield the
required solutions. However, there is no formula for general quintic equations
over the rationals in terms of radicals; this is known as the AbelRuffini
theorem, first published in 1824, which was one of the first applications of group
theory in algebra. This result also holds for equations of higher degrees.
This means that unlike quadratic, cubic, and quartic polynomials,
the general quintic or all polynomials of degree greater than 5 cannot be solved
algebraically
in
terms
of
finite
number
of additions, subtractions,
multiplications, divisions, and root extractions.

An example quintic whose roots cannot be expressed by radicals
is
Some fifth-degree equations can be solved by factorizing
into radicals; for example,

as
has
, which can be written

, or, as another example,
as solution.
35
, which

variste Galois developed techniques for determining whether a given
equation could be solved by radicals which gave rise to Galois theory.
1.7. Descartes Rule of Signs and Sturms Theorem

Nature of Roots - Descartes Rule of Signs
To determine the nature of some of the roots of a polynomial equation it is not
always necessary to solve it; for instance, the truth of the following statements will
be readily admitted.
1.
If the coefficients of a polynomial equation are all positive, the equation has
no positive root; for example, the equation
x 4 + 3x 2 + 3 = 0
cannot have a positive root.

2. If the coefficients of the even powers of
are all of one sign, and the
coefficients of the odd powers are all of the opposite sign, the equation has no
negative root; thus for example, the equation
x8 + x 7 + x 5 2 x 4 + x 3 3 x 2 + 7 x 3 = 0
cannot have a negative root.
3. If the equation contains only even powers of x and the coefficients are all of
the same sign, the equation has no real root; thus for example, the equation
x8 2 x 4 3 x 2 3 = 0
cannot have a real root.

4. If the equation contains only odd powers of x, and the coefficients are all of
the same sign, the equation has no real root except x = 0; thus the equation
x 7 + x5 + 3x 3 + 8 x = 0
has no real root except x = 0.
Suppose that the signs of the terms in a polynomial are + + + + + ; here
the number of changes of sign is 7.
We shall show that if this polynomial is
multiplied by a binomial (corresponding to a positive root) whose signs are + ,

there will be at least one more change of sign in the product than in the original
polynomial.
36

Writing down only the signs of the terms in the multiplication, we have the
following:
+++++
+
__________________
+++++
+++++++
__________________
+++++
Here in the last line the ambiguous sign is placed wherever there are two different
signs to be added.
Here we see that in the product
(i) an ambiguity replaces each continuation of sign in the original polynomial;
(ii) the signs before and after an ambiguity or set of ambiguities are unlike;
(iii) a change of sign is introduced at the end.
Let us take the most unfavourable case (i.e., the case where the number of
changes of sign is less) and suppose that all the ambiguities are replaced by
continuations; then the sign of the terms become
+ + + + + +,
and the number of changes of sign is 8.
We conclude that if a polynomial is multiplied by a binomial (corresponding to a
positive root) whose signs are + , there will be at least one more change of sign in
the product than in the original polynomial.
If then we suppose the factors corresponding to the negative and imaginary
roots to be already multiplied together, each factor x a corresponding to a positive
root introduces at least one change of sign; therefore no equation can have more
positive roots than it has changes of sign.
Again, the roots of the equation
f ( x ) = 0 are equal to those of f ( x ) = 0 but
opposite to them in sign; therefore the negative roots of f ( x ) = 0 are the positive
roots of f ( x ) = 0; but the number of these positive roots cannot exceed the number
of changes of sign in f ( x); that is, the number of negative roots of f ( x ) = 0 cannot
exceed the number of changes in sign in f ( x ).
37

All the above observations are included in the following result, known as Descartes
Rule of Signs.
In any polynomial equation f(x) = 0, the number of real positive roots cannot
exceed the number of changes in the signs of the coefficients of the terms in f(x), and
the number of real negative roots cannot exceed the number of changes in the signs of
the coefficients of f(x).
Example:
Consider the equation f(x) = x4 + 3x 1 = 0
This a polynomial equations of degree 4, and hence must have four roots.
The signs of the coefficients of f(x) are + +
Therefore, the number of changes in signs = 1
By Descartes rule of signs, number of real positive roots < 1.
Now f(-x) = x4 - 3x 1 = 0
The signs of the coefficients of f(x) are +
Therefore, the number of changes in signs = 1.
Hence the number of real negative roots of f(x) = 0 is < 1.
Therefore, the maximum number of real roots is 2.
If the equation has two real roots, then the other two roots must be complex roots.
Since complex roots occur in conjugate pairs, the possibility of one real root and
three complex roots is not admissible.
Also f (0) < 0, and f (1) > 0 , so f(x) = 0 has a real roots between 0 and 1.
Therefore, the given equation must have two real roots and two complex roots.
Problem.
Discuss the nature of roots of the equation x 9 + 5 x 8 x 3 + 7 x + 2 = 0.
Solution.
With f ( x ) = x 9 + 5 x 8 x 3 + 7 x + 2, there are two changes of sign in f ( x ) = 0 , and
therefore there are at most two positive roots.
Again f ( x) = x 9 + 5 x8 + x3 7 x + 2, and there are three changes of sign, therefore
the given equation has at most three negative roots.
Obviously 0 is not a root of the given equation.
Hence the given equation has at most 2 + 3 + 0 = 5 real roots. Thus the given
equation has at least four imaginary roots.
38
1.8. Exercises
1. Solve the equation x 4 + x 3 x 2 2 x 2 = 0 given that one root is
2.
2. Form a rational quartic whose roots are 1, 1, 2 + 3

3. Solve x 5 x 3 + 4 x 2 3x + 2 = 0 given that it has multiple roots.
4. Solve the equation x 4 2 x 3 21x 2 + 2 2 x + 40 = 0 whose roots are in A.P.
5. Solve the equation x 4 2 x 3 + 4 x 2 + 6 x 21 = 0 given that two of its roots are
equal in magnitude and opposite in sign.
6. Find the condition that the roots of the equation x 3 + px 2 + qx + r = 0 may be
in geometric progression.
7. Find the condition that the roots of the equation x 3 lx 2 + mx n = 0 may be
in arithmetic progression.
8. If , , are the roots of x 3 + px + 1 = 0 , prove that
9. If
, ,
are the roots of
1
1
5 = 3 2 .
5
6
x 3 + qx + r = 0 , then find the values of
1
2
and ( ) .
+
10. Prove that the sum of the ninth powers of the roots of x 3 + 3x + 9 = 0 is zero.
11. If , , are the roots of x 3 7 x + 7 = 0 , find the value of 4 + 4 + 4 .
12. Find the equation whose roots are the roots of the equation
3x 4 + 7 x 3 15x 2 + x 2 = 0 , each increased by 7.
13. Remove the second term of the equation x 3 6 x 2 + 4 x 7 = 0 .

14. Solve the equation x 4 8x 3 + 19 x 2 12 x + 2 = 0 by removing its second term.
15. If , , are the roots of x 3 + px + q = 0 , form the equation whose roots are
2 + , 2 + , 2 + .
16. If , , are the roots of the equation x 3 + px + q = 0 , find the equation whose
roots are

+ , + , + .

17. Solve 6 x 6 25x 5 + 31x 4 31x 2 + 25x 6 = 0 .

18. Solve x 5 5x 3 + 5x 2 1 = 0.
19. Solve x3 9 x 12 = 0 using Cardans method.
39

20. Solve 2 x3 + 3 x 2 + 3 x + 1 = 0 using Cardans method.
21. Solve
x 4 + 2 x 3 7 x 2 8 x + 12 = 0 using Ferraris method.
22. Solve x 4 + 6 x3 + 4 x 2 32 = 0 using Ferraris method.
23. Find the greatest possible number of real roots of the equation
x 5 6x 2 4x + 5 = 0
24. Find the number of real roots of x7 x5 x 4 6 x 2 + 7 = 0 .

5
2
25. Show that x 2 x + 7 = 0 has at least two imaginary roots.
4
2
26. Determine the nature of the roots of the equation x + 3x + 2 x 7 = 0.
Prescribed Text Book (As per Syllabus)

Barnard and Child, Higher Algebra, Macmillan.
40
Module-II
FUZZY SETS
Prepared by:
Santhosh P.K.
Asst. Professor
Dept. of Mathematics
Govt. Brennen College, Thalassery.
1
From Crisp Sets to Fuzzy Sets: A
Grand Paradigm Shift
Since its inception in 1965, the theory of fuzzy sets has advanced in a variety of ways and in many disciplines. Applications of this theory can be
found, for example, in artificial intelligence, computer science, medicine, control engineering, decision theory, expert systems, logic, management science,
operations research, pattern recognition, and robotics. Mathematical developments have advanced to a very high standard and are still forthcoming to
day. In this course material, the basic mathematical framework of fuzzy set
theory is described. Applications of fuzzy set theory to real problems are
abound.
1.1 Crisp Sets: An Over View

The concept of Sets cannot be introduced without remembering the great
mathematician George Cantor, the founder of Set Theory. An ordinary set
or a crisp set is a well defined collection of distinct objects. This means
1. From Crisp Sets to Fuzzy Sets: A Grand Paradigm Shift
that elements are non repeated and given an element, it must be possible to
determine whether it belongs or does not belongs the given collection.
The following are some examples of crisp sets.
1. Collection of boys in a class. That is, {x : x is a boy in the class}.
2. Collection of positive integers between 1 and 10. That is, {1, 2, 3, 4, 5
,6, 7, 8, 9, 10}.
The following are some non example of sets as they cannot be uniquely
represented.
1. Collection of beautiful girls in a class.
2. The collection of real numbers much greater than 8.
To indicate an individual object x is a member or element of a set A, we
write x A, else x
/ A. A set can be represented using three ways, naming
its elements, called List Method; defined by a property of its elements, called
Rule Method and the last by, using a function, called Characteristic Function.
A set A X is defined by its characteristic function A as follows,
1 ; f or x A
A (x) =
0 ; f or x
/A
That is, a characteristic function maps elements of X to its elements of the
set {0, 1}, which is formally denoted by A : X {0, 1}.
General Principle of Duality in Set Theory:
For each valid equation in set theory that is based on the union and
intersection operation, there corresponds a dual equation , also valid, that is
obtained by replacing , , by X, and in order.
Definition 1.1.1. Convex Sets

A set A Rn is said to be convex if for every pair of points r =< ri : i
I > and s =< si : i I > in A (where I is an n-tuple)and every real number
[0, 1], the point t =< ri + (1 )si : i I > is also in A.
1.2 Fuzzy sets: Basic Types

How to represent the collection of non sets described in section 1.1? This
have to solved as such problems always occur in the reals world. Especially in
Economics, linguistics, Information Theories, Biology, Psychology, Sociology
etc have the problems which cannot be modeled using set theory. So to
solve the real world problems, the present theory is not enough. It has to
be improved. In 1965, Prof. L.A. Zadeh of the University of California,
Berkeley proposed a new theory , called the Theory of Fuzzy Sets, to settle
the problems of above kind.
As defined in the previous section, the characteristic function of a crisp
set assigns a value of either 1 or 0 to each individual in the universal set,
there by discriminating between members and non members of the crisp set
under consideration. This function can be generalized such that the values
assigned to the elements of the individual set falls with in a specified range
and indicate the membership grade of these elements in the set in question.
Larger values denote higher degrees of set membership. Such a function is
called a membership function and the set defined by it a fuzzy set or a fuzzy
sub set.
The most commonly used range of values of membership functions is the
unit interval [0, 1]. Thus a membership function of a fuzzy A is denoted
either by A : X [0, 1] or by A : X [0, 1]. Thus every crisp A is a fuzzy
set, where membership function A : A {0, 1}.
The membership value 0 indicates that the element lies entirely outside
the set, where as 1 indicates that the element lies entirely inside the given
set A. Any value between 0 and 1 indicates a degree of partial membership
to the set. In Fuzzy logic every thing is a matter of degree. In this logic, an
element can have different degree of membership in different sets.
The following figures represents the fuzzy set set of real numbers close
to 2 corresponds to different membership functions.
Fig. 1.1:
Exercise: Explain the difference between randomness and fuzziness.

Exercise: Explain why we need fuzzy set theory.
Definition 1.2.1. Fuzzy Variable
Several fuzzy sets representing linguistic concepts such as low, medium,
high and so on are often employed to define states of a variable. Such a
variable is usually called a fuzzy variable.
The significance of fuzzy variables is that they facilitate gradual transitions between states and consequently possess a natural capability to express
and deal with observation and measurement uncertainties. The traditional
variables which we refer to as crisp variables, do not have this capability.

Although the definition of states by crisp sets is mathematically correct, it is
unrealistic in the face of unavoidable measurement errors. Since fuzzy variables capture measurement uncertainties as part of experimental data, they
are more reliable than crisp variables.
The following figure compares the variable Temperature as fuzzy variables
and as a crisp variable.
1.3 Fuzzy Sets: Basic Concepts

Different forms of fuzzy sets are
1. Ordinary Fuzzy Sets.
a. level 2 fuzzy sets, level 3 fuzzy sets, Etc can be continued.
2. Interval Valued Fuzzy Sets.
a. Type 2 fuzzy sets, Type 3 fuzzy sets, Etc can be continued.
3. L-fuzzy sets.
Exercise: By describing each of the fuzzy sets mentioned above, discuss the
merits and demerits of each such. Provide examples to each.
Remark 1.3.1. F(X) denotes the fuzzy power set of X( the set of all ordinary fuzzy sets of X).
Next we introduce some basic concepts and terminology of fuzzy sets.
Definition 1.3.1. cuts and strong cuts
Let A be a fuzzy set defined on X and [0, 1]. Then cut of A, denoted
by A is defined as the crisp set
A = {x : A(x) }
and the strong cut is defined as the crisp set

+
A = {x : A(x) > }.
The 1-cut of A, 1 A is called the core of A.

Definition 1.3.2. Level Set
The set of all [0, 1] that represent distinct -cut of a given fuzzy set
A defined on X is called a level set of A and is denoted by (A). That is,
^
(A) = { : A(x) = , for some x X}.
For example, consider the a fuzzy sets Young, Middle and Old corresponds
to the membership functions A1 , A2 and A3 in order as below.
1
when x 20
35 x
A1 (x) =
when 20 < x < 35
15
0
when x 35
0
when either x 20 or 60
x 20
A2 (x) =
when 20 < x < 35
15
1
when 35 x 45
0
when x 45
x 45x
A3 (x) =
when 45 < x < 60
15
1
when x 60
A complete list of cut and strong cuts for the fuzzy sets A1 , A2 and
A3 are given below.
The level sets are (A1 ) = (A2 ) = (A3 ) = [0, 1].
Remark 1.3.2. It is immediate form the definition that, for any fuzzy set A
and pair 1 , 2 [0, 1], of distinct values such that 1 < 2 , we have
1
A 2 A
1 +
and
A 2 + A.
This property can also be expressed by the equations

1
A 2 A = 2 A,
A 2 A = 1 A
and
1 +
A 2 + A = 2 + A,
1 +
A 2 + A = 1 + A.
Thus all cuts and all strong cuts of any fuzzy set form two distinct
families of nested crisp sets.
Definition 1.3.3. Support of a Fuzzy Set
The support of a fuzzy set A defined on X is the crisp set that contain
all elements of X that have non zero membership grades in A. Obviously
support of A is exactly the same as the strong cut of A for = 0. Support
of A is generally denoted either by S(A) or by Supp(A) or by
0+
A.
Definition 1.3.4. Height of a fuzzy set

The height h(A), of a fuzzy set A defined on X is the largest membership
grade obtained by any element in that set. Formally,
h(A) = sup A(x).
xX
The height of A may also be viewed as the supremum of for which A 6= .

A fuzzy set A is called normal if h(A) = 1 and is called subnormal if
h(A) < 1.
10
Definition 1.3.5. Convex Fuzzy Set

A fuzzy set A defined on X is said to be convex if all cuts of A are
convex for all (0, 1] in the crisp sense.
Remark 1.3.3. Here 0-cut is excluded since it is always equal to Rn in this
case and thus includes to +.
Next theorem provides an alternate formulation of convex fuzzy sets in

R.
11
Theorem 1.3.1. A fuzzy set A on R is convex if and only if A(x1 + (1

)x2 ) min[(A(x1 ), A(x2 )] for all x1 , x2 R and for all [0, 1], where
min denotes the minimum operator.
Proof. Assume that A is convex and let = A(x1 ) A(x2 ). Then x1 , x2
A and moreover, x1 + (1 )x2 A for any [0, 1] by the convexity
of A. Consequently,
A(x1 + (1 )x2 ) = A(x1 ) = min[A(x1 ), A(x2 )].
Conversely, assume A satisfies the given equation. We need to prove that
for any (0, 1], A is convex. Now for any x1 , x2 A, and for any
[0, 1], by given equation,
A(x1 + (1 )x2 ) min[A(x1 ), A(x2 )] min(, ) = ;
That is, x1 + (1 )x2 A. There fore, A is convex for any (0, 1].
Hence A is convex.
Definition 1.3.6. Cutworthy Property, Strong Cut cutworthy Property
Any property generalized from classical set theory into the domain of fuzzy
set theory that is preserved in all (0, 1] in the classical sense is called
cutworthy property. If it is preserved in all strong cuts for all (0, 1], it
is called strong cut worthy property.
Convexity of fuzzy sets defined above is an example of cut worthy property.
Question: Prove that convexity in fuzzy sets is a strong cut worthy property.
1.4
12
Basic Fuzzy Set Operations
Basic fuzzy set operations includes fuzzy complement, fuzzy union and fuzzy
intersection.
Definition 1.4.1. Fuzzy Complementation
Let A be fuzzy set defined over the universal set X. Then for any x X,
A = 1 A(x).
Elements of X for which A(x) = A(x) is called equilibrium points.
For example, complements of the fuzzy sets defined perviously by the
membership functions A1 ,A3 are given below. Draw the complement of the
fuzzy set with membership function A2 .

Definition 1.4.2. Fuzzy Union and Fuzzy inersection
Let A and B be two fuzzy sets defined over X. Then for any x X,
union and intersection are defined by
(A B)(x) = min[A(x), B(x)],
(A B)(x) = max[A(x), B(x)]
where min and max denote the minimum and maximum operator in order.
13
As an illustration, for the fuzzy sets A1 , A2 and A3 defined earlier, the

fuzzy sets A1 A3 , B = A1 A2 , C = A2 A3 , B C and B C are given
below.
Remark 1.4.1. The law of contradiction, ie, AA = is not valid for fuzzy
14
sets. To show this it is enough to show that the equation

min[A(x), 1 A(x)] = 0
is not true for at least one x X. It can be noted that this equation is valid
for only for A(x) {0, 1}. Hence the law of contradiction is satisfied for
crisp set only.
Question: Prove the law of absorption in fuzzy sets. That is, A(AB) =
A.
Answer : It is enough to show that for any x X, max[A(x), min[A(x), B(x)]] =
A(x).
Case 1: A(x) B(x).
In this case, we have max[A(x), min[A(x), B(x)]] = max[A(x), A(x)] =
A(x).
Case 2: A(x) B(x).
In this case, we have max[A(x), min[A(x), B(x)]] = max[A(x), B(x)] =
A(x).
Hence the proof.
Exercise: Verify other De-morgans Laws.
Exercise: Prove the following.
1. (AB)C = A(BC), where is the symmetric difference between the sets
2. ABC = (A B C) (A B C) (A B C) (A B C)
Remark 1.4.2. Let A and B be two fuzzy sets defined on X. Then A B
if and only if A(x) B(x) for every x X.
Definition 1.4.3. Scalar Cardinality
15
Let A ne a fuzzy set defined on X. Then scalar cardinality of A, denoted

by |A|, is defined by
|A| =
A(x).
xX
This is otherwise known as Sigma Count of A.

Definition 1.4.4. Degree of subsethood
Degree of subsethood of the two fuzzy sets A and B defined on X is defined
as
S(A, B) =
X
1
(|A|
max[0, A(x) B(x)])
|A|
xX
It can be simplified as
S(A, B) =
|A B|
|A|
We may note that 0 S(A, B) 1.

Exercise: Prove that |A| + |B| = |A B| + |A B|.
Exercise: Prove that law of excluded middle( ie A A = X) is not true in
fuzzy set theory. Write the significance.
1.5 Additional Properties of cuts

The various properties of cuts covered in this section are expressed in terms
of four theorems.
Theorem 1.5.1. Let A, B F(X). Then the following properties hold for
all , [0, 1].
i.
A A;
ii. implies A A and
A + A;
iii. (A B) = A B and (A B) = A B.
iv.
(A B) = + A + B and
16
(A B) = + A + B.
v. (A) = (1)+ A.
For a detailed proof, students are requested to refer your text.
Remark 1.5.1. Result v stated above shows that fuzzy complement is neither
cutworhty nor strong cutworhty. That is,
(A) 6= A and
(A) 6= + A.
It is illustrated as below.
Remark 1.5.2. In spite of its negative connotation, (i.e, an idea that is implied or suggested), property v describes an interesting feature of the standard
fuzzy complement: The cut of the complement of A is always the same as
the complement of the strong (1 ) cut of A.
17
Theorem 1.5.2. Let Ai F(X) for all i I. Then

T
S
Ai =
Ai
Ai ( Ai ) and
1.
iI
2.
S +
iI
Ai = +
iI
iI
iI

Ai
and
iI
T +
Ai +
iI

Ai
iI
Proof. We will prove the second part of the above result. First part is left to
the reader. First we prove the equality of the set union.
x
S +
Ai i0 I such that x + Ai0
iI
supAi (x) >

iI
S
( A) (x) >
iI

x + Ai
iI
Hence the equality. For the second part,

x

Ai
iI
Ai )(x) >
iI
inf Ai (x) >

iI
T
x + Ai
iI
Hence the result.

Remark 1.5.3. The theorem above states that intersection on infinite sets is
cutworthy (but not strong cutworthy), while the fuzzy union on infinite sets
is strong cutworthy, but not cut worthy.
Theorem 1.5.3. Let A, B F(X). Then for all [0, 1],
1. A B if and only if A B.
2. A B if and only if
A + B.
18
3. A = B if and only if A = B.
4. A = B if and only if
A = + B.
Proof. We will prove the first two results. Students are requested to do the
next two.
1. Let A B. Assume that A * B. Then there exists x0 X and
0 [0, 1] such that x0
A and x0
/
B. Then A(x0 ) 0 and
B(x0 0 . Hence B(x0 ) < A(x0 ), a contradiction.

Conversely, if possible let A * b. Then there exists a x0 X such that
A(x0 ) > B(x0 ). Let = A(x0 ). Then x0 A and x0
/ B, which is
a contradiction as
A + B.
2. First part is similar to the previous proof. Conversely assume that

+
B. If A * B, then there exists x0 X such that A(x0 )
B(x0 ). Let be such that A(x0 ) < < B(x0 ). Then x0
A and
x0
/ + B. Hence + A * + B, which is a contradiction to the fact that
+
A + B for all [0, 1].
1.6 Representation of Fuzzy Sets

In this section we prove that any fuzzy set can be uniquely represented by
either the family of all cuts or the family of all strong cuts.
Definition 1.6.1. The fuzzy set A defined on X is defined as, for x X,
A(x)
= . A(x).
Theorem 1.6.1. First Decomposition Theorem
For every A F(X), A =
A,
[0,1]
where
19
denotes the standard fuzzy
union.
Proof. For x X, let a = A(x). Then
!
S
(x) =
sup A(x)
[0,1]
[0,1]
= max[ sup A(x), sup A(x)]

[0,a]
(a,1]
For each (a, 1], we have A(x) = a < and , therefore A(x) = 0.
On the other hand, for each [0, a], we have A(x) = a , therefore,
A(x)
= . Hence
(x) = sup = a = A(x)

[0,1]
[0,1]
Since x is arbitrary, theorem follows.
Exercise: Illustrate the above theorem for the fuzzy set A by taking
membership function as below
A(x) =
x1
when x [1, 2]
3 x x [2, 3]
0
otherwise
Theorem 1.6.2. Second Decomposition Theorem

S
+ A, where + A denotes the special fuzzy
[0,1]
set defined by
+ A(x)
= x.+A(x) and denotes he standard fuzzy union.
20
Proof. For x X, let a = A(x). Then

!
S
+ A
(x) =
[0,1]
sup + A(x)
[0,1]
+ A(x), sup + A(x)]
[a,1]
[0,a)
= max[ sup
=
sup = a = A(x)
[0,a)
Since x is arbitrary, theorem follows.

Proof of the following theorem is analogues to the first one. Students are
requested to proof the same.
Theorem 1.6.3. Third Decomposition Theorem
S
A, where A is called level set of A.
(A)
The Theorem is illustrated as below.
2
Operations on Fuzzy sets
Let A, B be two fuzzy subsets of X. Then for any x X, the standard fuzzy
operations include
1. Complementation : A = 1 A(x)
2. Union : (A B)(x) = M ax[A(x), B(x)]
3. Intersection :(A B)(x) = M in[A(x), B(x)]
2.1 Fuzzy Complements

Let A be a fuzzy set defined on X. Then A(x) is interpreted as the degree
to which x belongs to A. Let cA denote the fuzzy complement of A of type
c. Then cA(x) may be interpreted as the degree to which x belongs to cA.
It can also be interpreted as the degree to which x does not belongs to A.
Notationally, fuzzy compliment is a function c : [0, 1] [0, 1] defined by
c(A(x)) = cA(x).
To produce meaningful fuzzy complements, function c must satisfy at
least the following four requirements.
2. Operations on Fuzzy sets
22
Axiom c1. c(0)=1 and c(1)=0. (Boundary Conditions)

Axiom c2. For a, b [0, 1], if a b, then c(a) c(b). (monotonicity)
Axiom c3. c is a continuous function
Axiom c4. c is involutive. That is, c(c(a)) = a for each a [0, 1].
The four axioms listed above are not independent to each other. It can
be seen from the following theorem.
Theorem 2.1.1. Let a function c : [0, 1] [0, 1] satisfy axioms c2 and c4.
Then c also satisfies c1 and c3. Moreover c must be a bijective function.
Proof. Let c satisfies c2 and c4.
1. Since the range of value of c is [0, 1], clearly c(0) 1 and c(1) 0. By
Axiom c2, c(c(0)) c(1) and by Axiom c4, 0 = c(c(0)) c(1). Hence
c(1) = 0. By axiom c4, we have c(0) = c(c(1)) = 1. That is, c satisfies
Axiom c1.
2. To prove that c is bijective, note that for all a [0, 1], there exists
b = c(a) [0, 1] such that c(b) = c(c(a)) = a. Hence c is onto. For
one to one, let c(a) = c(b). Then by Axiom c4, we have a = c(c(a)) =
c(c(b)) = b. Hence c is one to one and thus c is bijective.
3. By given conditions c is bijective and satisfies the Axiom c2. Let it has
a discontinuity at a0 , as illustrated below.
Then b0 = lim c(a) > c(a0 ). Then clearly there exists b1 [0, 1] such
aa0
that b0 > b1 > c(a0 ) for which no a1 [0, 1] xists such that c(a1 ) = b1 .
This contradicts the fact that c is bijective.
23
From this theorem, it can be noted that class of all classical fuzzy complements is contained in class of all involutive fuzzy complements(axionms
c1-c4), which is contained in class of continuous fuzzy complements(Axioms
c1 - c3), which is contained in class of all fuzzy complements(Axioms c1 and
c2).
The axioms c1 and c2 are called axiomatic skeleton. Examples of fuzzy
complements that satisfies only axiomatic skelton are the threshold type
complements defined by
1
c(a) =
0
f or a t
f or a > t
where a [0, 1] and t [0, 1); t is called threshold of c.

Sugano class of fuzzy complements (involutive fuzzy complements) is defined by
c (a) =
1a
,
1 + a
where (1, ). For each value of we get an particular involutive fuzzy

complement.
24
Another class of involutive fuzzy complements is defined by

cw (a) = (1 aw )1/w ,
where w (0, ).
These complements are called Yager class of fuzzy
complements. When w=1, c becomes classical fuzzy complement. That

is c(a) = 1 a.
Definition 2.1.1. Equilibrium of a fuzzy complement
Equilibrium of a fuzzy complement c is defined as any value a for which
c(a) = a. In other words, the equilibrium of a complement c is that degree
of membership in a fuzzy set A which equals the degree of membership in the
complement cA.
Theorem 2.1.2. Every fuzzy complement has at most one equilibrium.
Proof. Let c be a fuzzy complement. Then it is a solution of the equation
c(a) a = 0 where a [0, 1]. Let it has two solutions, say a1 and a2 with
a1 < a2 . Then we have
c(a1 ) a1 = c(a2 ) a2
(2.1)
Since c is monotonically non increasing, we have c(a1 ) c(a2 ). Since a1 < a2 ,

we have c(a1 ) a1 > c(a2 ) a2 , whuch is a contradiction to the equation 2.1.
Hence the theorem.
Exercise: Let the fuzzy complement c has the equilibrium ec . Then Prove
that
1. a c(a) if and only if a ec .
2. a c(a) if and only if a ec .
25
Theorem 2.1.3. If c is a continuous fuzzy complement, then c has a unique

equilibrium.
Proof. The equilibrium ec of the fuzzy complement is a solution of the equation c(a) a = b, with b [1, 1]. We have c(0) 0 = 1 and c(1) 1 = 1.
Since c is continuous function, by Intermediate Value Theorem for continuous functions that for each b [1, 1], there exists at least one a such that
c(a) a = b. Thus the existence of a equilibrium is guaranteed. Uniqueness
follows from the Theorem 2.1.2
Exercise: Obtain the equilibrium for each fuzzy complimentc of the
Sugeno Class given by
ec
(a + ) 2 1 when 6= 0
1
when = 0
2
Draw the corresponding graph.

Definition 2.1.2. Dual point
Given a fuzzy complement c and a membership grade whose value is given
by a [0, 1], then any membership grade represented by the real number
d
a [0, 1] defined by
c(d a) d a = a c(a)
(2.2)
is called a dual point of a with respect to c.

Theorem 2.1.4. If a complement c has an equilibrium ec , then d ec = ec .
Proof. If a = ec , then a c(a) = 0. Also if d a = ec , then c(d a) d a = 0. Thus
c(d a) d a = a c(a). If a = d a = ec , then it satisfies the equation (2.2).
26
Theorem 2.1.5. For each a [0, 1], d a = c(a) if and only if c(c(a)) = a,
that is, when complement is involutive.
Proof. Let d a = c(a). Then from equation 2.2, we have
c(c(a)) c(a) = a c(a).
There fore , c(c(a)) = a. For the reverse implication, let c(c(a)) = a. Then
from equation 2.2, we have
c(d a) d a = c(c(a)) c(a)
for d a whose solution is d a = c(a).
Theorem 2.1.6. First Characterization Theorem of Fuzzy Complements
Let c be a function from [0, 1] to [0, 1]. Then c is a fuzzy complement
(involutive) iff there exists a continuous function g from [0, 1] to R such that
g(0) = 0, g is strictly increasing and
c(a) = g 1 (g(1) g(a))
(2.3)
for all a [0, 1].

Remark 2.1.1. The function g defined in theorem 2.1.6 is usually called
increasing generators. By equation 2.3, each increasing generator determines
a fuzzy complement.
For standard fuzzy compliment, g(a) = a.
For Sugano Class of fuzzy complements, increasing generators are
g (a) =
1
ln(1 + a) f or > 1
27
For Yager Class, increasing operators are gw (a) = a .

Fuzzy complements can also be produced by decreasing generators.
Theorem 2.1.7. Second Characterization Theorem of Fuzzy Complements
Let c be a function from [0, 1] to [0, 1]. then c is fuzzy complement iff
there exists a continuous function f : [0, 1] R such that f (1) = 0, f is
strictly decreasing and c(a) = f 1 (f (0) f (a)) for all a [0, 1].
2.2 Fuzzy intersections: t-Norms

Fuzzy intersection(t-Norms) i is a binary operation on [0, 1] satisfies the
following axioms for all a,b,c,d in [0, 1].
1. i(a,1)=a (Boundary Condition)
2. b d implies i(a, b) i(a, d) (Monotonicity)
3. i(a, b) = i(b, a) (Commutativity)
4. i(a,i(b,d))=i(i(a,b),d) (Associativity)
These axioms are called axiomatic skeleton for t-norms. It is desirable that
t-norms also satisfies the following axioms.
5. i is a continuous function (Continuity)
6. i(a, a) < a (Sub idempotency)
7. a1 < a2 and b1 < b2 implies i(a1 , b1 ) < i(a2 , b2 ) (Strict Monotonicity)
A t-norm i is said to idempotent if i(a, a) = a. A continuous t-norm that
satisfies sub idempotency is called an Archimedean t-norm. If it also satisfies
strict monotonicity, it is called Strict Archimedean t-norm.
28
Theorem 2.2.1. The standard fuzzy intersection is the only idempotent tnorm.
Proof. Clearly min(a, a) = a for all a [0, 1]. Assume that there exists a a
t-norm such that i(a, a) = a for all a [0, 1]. Then for any a, b [0, 1] with
a b, we have
a = i(a, a) i(a, b) i(a, 1) = a.
Hence i(a, b) = a = min(a, b). Similarly for a b, we have
b = i(b, b) i(1, b) = b
Consequently i(a, b) = b = min(a, b). Hence i(a, b) = min(a, b) for all a, b
[0, 1].
The following are some standard t-norms used as fuzzy intersections(each
defined for all a, b [0, 1]).
1. Standard intersection: i(a, b) = min(a, b).
2. Algebraic Product: i(a, b) = ab.
3. Bounded Product: i(a,b)=max(0, a+b-1).
a when b = 1
4. Drastic intersection: i(a, b) =

b when a = 1
0 otherwise.
Exercise: Draw graph of these four fuzzy intersections.
Theorem 2.2.2. For all a, b [0, 1], imin (a, b) i(a, b) min(a, b) where
imin denotes the drastic intersection.
29
Proof. By boundary conditions and monotonicity, i(a, b) i(a, 1) = a and

by commutativity, i(a, b) = i(b, a) i(b, 1) = b. Hence i(a, b) a and
i(a, b) b. Thus i(a, b) min(a, b).
For getting lower bound, from boundary conditions we have i(a, b) = a
when b = 1 and i(a, b) = b when a = 1. Since i(a, b) min(a, b) and
i(a, b) [0, 1], clearly i(a, 0) = i(0, b) = 0. By monotonicity, we have i(a, b)
i(a, 0) = i(0, b) = 0. Hence by drastic intersection, imin (a, b) is the lower
bound of i(a, b) for any a, b [0, 1].
Definition 2.2.1. Pseudo-inverse
Pseudo-inverse of a decreasing operator, denoted by f 1 , is a function
from R to [0, 1] defined by
f 1 (a) =
when a (, 0)
f 1 (a) when a [0, f (0)]
0
when a (f (0), )
where f 1 is the ordinary inverse of f .

Pseudo-inverse of a decreasing operator, denoted by f 1 , is a function
from R to [0, 1] defined by
f 1 (a) =
when a (, 0)
f 1 (a) when a [0, f (1)]
0
when a (f (1), )
Exercise: Illustrate the above concepts using suitable examples. Draw

the corresponding graphs.
From the following two lemmas, it follows that decreasing operators and
increasing operators can be converted to each other. For a detailed proof,
refer your text.
30
Lemma 2.2.1. Let f be a decreasing operator. Then a function g defined

by g(a) = f (0) f (a) for any a [0, 1] is an increasing generator with
g(1) = f (0), and its pseudo-inverse g 1 is given by g 1 (a) = f 1 (f (0) a)
for any a R.
Lemma 2.2.2. Let g be an increasing generator. Then the function f defined
by f (a) = g(1) g(a) for any a [0, 1] is a decreasing generator with f (0) =
g(1) and its pseudo-inverse f 1 is given by f 1 (a) = g 1 (g(1) a) for any
a R.
For the following theorem, proof is omitted from your syllabus.
Theorem 2.2.3. Characterization Theorem of t-norms
Let i be a binary operation on the unit interval. Then i as an Arachemedian t-norm if and only if there exists a decreasing generator f such that
i(a, b) = f 1 (f (a) + f (b)) for all a, b [0, 1].
Exercise: Compute the t-norm for the class of decreasing generators described below.
1. Schweizer and Sklar class of decreasing generators for the parameter p
defined by fp (a) = 1 ap , p 6= 0.
2. Yager class of decreasing generators, given by f (a) = (1a) , ( 0).
3. Frank class of decreasing generators, given by fs (a) = In
sa 1
, (s >
s1
0, s 6= 1).
Remark 2.2.1. The t-norms for Yager class of decreasing operators is given
by i (a, b) = 1 min(1, [(1 a) + (1 b) ]1/ ), > 0.
Exercise: Prove that imin (a, b) i (a, b) min(a, b) for all a, b [0, 1].
31
2.3 Fuzzy Unions: t-conorms

A fuzzy union or t-conorm u is a binary operation on the unit interval that
satisfies at least the following axioms for all a, b, c, d [0, 1].
1. u(a,0)=a (Boundary Condition)
2. b d implies u(a, b) u(a, d) (monotonicity)
3. u(a, b) = u(b, a) (Commuatativity)
4. u(a, u(b, d)) = u(u(a, b), d) (Associativity)
The above set of conditions/axioms are called axiomatic skeleton for fuzzy
unions/t-conorms.
The desirable set of axioms to be satisfied by a t-conorm are
5. u is a continuous function (continuity)
6. u(a,a)a (Super idiompotency)
7. a1 a2 and b1 b2 implies u(a1 , b1 ) u(a2 , b2 ) (Strict monotonicity)
Any continuous and super idempotent t-conorm is Archimedian; if it is also
strictly monotonic, it is called strictly Archimedian.
The proof of the following theorem is analogues to the corresponding case
of t-norm.
Theorem 2.3.1. The standard fuzzy union is the only idempotent t-conorm.
Some standard t-conorms are given by
1. Standard union: u(a, b) = max(a, b).
2. Algebraic Sum: u(a, b) = a + b ab.
32
3. Bounded Sum: u(a, b) = min(1 a + b).
a when b = 0
4. Drastic Union: u(a, b) =

b when a = 0
1 otherwise.
Exercise: Draw the graph of these fuzzy unions and conclude that for all
a, b [0, 1],
max(a, b) a + b ab min(1, a + b) umax (a, b).
Proof of the following theorem is similar to that in the corresponding case
of t-norm.
Theorem 2.3.2. For all a, b [0, 1], max(a, b) u(a, b) umax(a,b) .
Proof of the following fundamental theorem of t-conorm is omitted from
your syllabus.
Theorem 2.3.3. Characterization Theorem of t-conorm
Let u be a binary operation on the unit interval. Then u is an Archimedian
t-conorm if and only if there exists an increasing generator such that u(a, b) =
g 1 (g(a) + g(b)) for all a, b [0, 1].
Exercise: Compute the t-conorm for the class of increasing generators
described below.
1. Schweizer and Sklar class of increasing generators for the parameter p
defined by fp (a) = 1 (1 a)p , p 6= 0.
2. Yager class of increasing generators, given by f (a) = a , ( 0).
3. Frank class of increasing generators, given by fs (a) = In
s1a 1
,
s1
(s > 0, s 6= 1).
33
Remark 2.3.1. The t-conorms for Yager class of increasing operators is

given by u (a, b) = min(1, (a + b )1/ ), > 0.
Exercise: Prove that max(a, b) u (a, b) umax (a, b) for all a, b [0, 1].
2.4 Combinations of Operations

Analogues to the classical De Morgans Laws, we can define De Morgans
Laws in the fuzzy context also.
Definition 2.4.1. De Morgans Law A t-norm i and a t-conorm u are dual
with respect to a fuzzy complement c if and only if
c(i(a, b)) = u(c(a), c(b))
(2.4)
c(u(a, b)) = i(c(a), c(b))
(2.5)
and
Let the triple < i, u, c > denote that i and u are dual with respect to c,
and let any such triple be called a dual triple.
Exercise: Prove that the following are dual t-norms and t-conorms with
respect to the standard complement cs . (ie, dual triples)
1. < min(a, b), max(a, b), cs >.
2. < ab, a + b ab, cs >.
3. < imin (a, b), umax (a, b), cs >.
Theorem 2.4.1. The triple < min, max, c > and < imin , umax , c > are dual
with respect to any fuzzy complement c.
34
Proof. Let a b. Then c(a) c(b) for any fuzzy complement c. Hence
max(c(a), c(b)) = c(a) = c(min(a, b)),
min(c(a), c(b)) = c(b) = c(max(a, b)).
The reader is asked to prove the rest.
Theorem 2.4.2. Given a t-norm i and an involutive fuzzy complement c,
the binary operation u on [0, 1] defined by
u(a, b) = c(i(c(a), c(b)))
(2.6)
for all a, b [0, 1] is a t-conorm such that < i, u, c > is a dual triple.
Proof. It is a routine procedure to verify that u is a t-conorm.
Next we have to prove that < i, u, c > is a dual triple. Since c is involutive,
c(c(a)) = a for all a [0, 1]. Using the equation 2.6, we can prove that u
satisfies De Morgans Laws as below.
c(u(a, b)) = c(c(i(c(a), c(b))) = i(c(a), c(b)),
u(c(a), c(b)) = c(i(c(c(a), c(b))) = c(i(a, b)).
Hence i and u are dual with respect to c.
Exercise: Using the above theorem, obtain a t-conorm for the t-norm i(a, b) =
ab using the Sugeno class of fuzzy complements c (a) =
1a
1+a
for 1.
Proof of the following theorem is analogues to the previous one. Students

are requested to verify the same.
35
Theorem 2.4.3. Given a t-conorm u and an involutive fuzzy complement

c, the binary operation i on [0, 1] defined by i(a, b) = c(u(c(a), c(b))) for all
a, b [0, 1] is a -norm such that < i, u, c > is a dual triple.
Theorem 2.4.4. Given an involutive fuzzy complement c and an increasing
generator g of c, the t-norm and t-conorm generated by g are dual with respect
to c.
Proof. For a, b [0, 1] we have
c(a) = g 1 (g(1) g(a))
(2.7)
i(a, b) = g 1 (g(a) + g(b) g(1))
(2.8)
u(a, b) = g 1 (g(a) + g(b)
(2.9)
Using these equations we have,

i(c(a), c(b)) = g 1 (g(g 1 (g(1 g(a))) + g)g 1 (g(1) g(b))) g(1))
= g 1 (g(1) g(a) + g(1) g(b) g(1))
= g 1 (g(1) g(a) g(b))
Similarly we can prove that
c(u(a, b)) = g 1 (g(1) g(a) g(b)).
From above two expressions our result follows.
Theorem 2.4.5. Let < i, u, c > be a dual triple generated by the Theorem
2.4.3. Then the fuzzy operations i, u, c satisfy the law of excluded middle and
the law of contradiction.
36
Proof. For a, b [0, 1] we have

c(a) = g 1 (g(1) g(a))
i(a, b) = g 1 (g(a) + g(b) g(1))
u(a, b) = g 1 (g(a) + g(b)
Then for all a [0, 1],
u(a, c(a)) = g 1 (g(a) + g(c(a)))
= g 1 (g(a) + g(g 1 (g(1) g(a))))
= g 1 (g(a) + g(1) g(a))
= g 1 (g(1))
= 1
That is law of excluded middle is satisfied.
A similar computation shows that for all a [0, 1],
i(a, c(a)) = g 1 (g(a) + g(c(a)) g(1)) = g 1 (0) = 0.
Hence the law of contradiction is also satisfied.
Theorem 2.4.6. Let < i, c, u > be a dual triple that satisfies the law of
excluded middle and the law of contradiction. Then < i, c, u > does not
satisfy the distributive laws.
Proof. Assume that the distributive law i(a, u(b, d)) = u(i(a, b), i(a, d)) is
satisfied for all a, b, c, d [0, 1]. Let e be the equilibrium of c. Clearly
e 6= 0, 1 since c(0) = 1 and c(1) = 0. By the law of excluded middle and the
law of contradiction, we have
37
u(e, e) = u(e, c(e)) = 1,

i(e, e)
= i(e, c(e))
= 0.
Applying e to the above distributive law,we have

i(e, u(e, e)) = u(i(e, e), i(e, e));
Substituting for u(e, e) and i(e, e), we obtain
i(e, 1) = u(0, 0).
This implies that e = 0. This is a contradiction. Hence our assumption is
wrong. In a similar way, we can prove that dual distributive law does not
hold either.
REFERENCES
[1.] George J. Klir and Bo Yuan- Fuzzy Sets and Fuzzy Logic: Theory and
Applications,PHI,2000. (Text Book as per Syllabus)
[2.] Klir, G.J., and T. Folger, Fuzzy Sets, Uncertainity and Information, PHI
1988.
[3.] Dubois D and H. Prade, Fuzzy Sets and Systems: Theory and Applications, Academic Press, 1988.
[4.] Abhram Kandel, Fuzzy Mathematical Techniques with Applications,
Addison.

Additional Course in Lie of Project - Theory of Equations & Fuzzy Set

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Additional Course in Lie of Project - Theory of Equations & Fuzzy Set

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THEORY OF EQUATIONS &

ADDITIONAL COURSE IN LIEU OF PROJECT

THEORY OF EQUATIONS & FUZZY SETS

T. M. Government College, Tirur

1.1. Polynomial Functions

integer and ai (i = 0, 1.,n) are fixed complex numbers is called a polynomial of

are called the coefficients of f.

If is a complex number such that f()= 0, then is called zero of the

Theorem ( Fundamental Theorem of Algebra)

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of degree n - n = 0, i.e., Qn (x) is a constant.

f ( x) = a o x n + a1 x n 1 + ... + a n ; a o 0 be an nth degree polynomial in x.

is called a polynomial equation in x of degree n.

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Given that + i is a root of f(x) = 0.

Equating real and imaginary parts, we see that A + B = 0 and A = 0

The remainder Ax + B is zero. i.e., [( x ( + i )) ( x ( i ))] is a factor of f(x)

Divide f(x) by ( x ( + ))( x ( )) = ( x ) 2 .

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, a fraction in its lowest terms (so that p, q are

integers prime to each other, q 0) is a root of the equation a o x n + a1 x n1 ... + a n = 0

is a root the given polynomial equation, we have

must be an integer. Since p and q have no common factor, p must be a divisor of

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Now, by applying product rule of differentiation, we obtain:

is an (r 1) multiple root of f1 (x) = 0.

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The roots of x 2 + 4 x + 5 = 0 are given by

Hence the roots of the given polynomial are 2 + i 3 , 2 i 3 , 2 + i and 2 i .

3. Find a polynomial equation of the lowest degree with rational coefficients

3 and 1 2i as two of its roots.

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(in its lowest terms) must satisfy the

condition that, p is divisor of 1 and q is positive divisor of 4.

Hence the roots of f(x) = 0, are , , -1, i.

3x3 3x2 24x + 36 x

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Differentiating, we obtain: f1(x) = 3x2 + q ------------------ (2)

Squaring and simplifying, we obtain:

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1.2. Relation between the Roots and Coefficients of a Polynomial Equation

Equating the two expressions for f(x), we obtain:

Dividing both sides by a 0 ,

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If and and are the roots of ax3+ bx2+cx +d = 0, (a 0) , then + + =

1. If the roots of the equation

Let the roots of the given equation be a d, a, a + d.

Since a is a root, it satisfies the given polynomial

2p3 9pq + 27r = 0.

is a root, x is a factor. On division, the other factor of the

polynomial is 27x2 + 60x + 12.

Hence the roots of the given polynomial eqution are

15x3 23x2 + 9x 1 = 0 whose roots are in harmonic

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Let , , be the roots of the given polynomial.

Since , , are in harmonic progression, =

Substitute in (2), we obtain

Proceeding as in the above problem, we find that the roots are

Since k is a root, it satisfies the polynomial equation,

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(bk 2 ) 3 = (ck ) 3 i.e., b 3 k 6 = c 3 k 3

From (1), = 9 5 . Substituting this in (2), we obtain

i.e., 19 2 45 + 14 = 0 . On solving we get

So, = 2 , then from (1), we get = 1