The grammar-translation method

The Grammar Translation Method is an old method which was originally used to teach dead
languages which explains why it focuses mainly on the written form at the expense of the oral form. It
was designed according to the faculty psychology approach which was very popular during the 18th
and 19th century. It contended that mental discipline was essential for strengthening the powers of
the mind. The way to do this was through learning classical literature of the Greeks and Romans.
Method

Use of mother tongue.

Vocabulary items are taught in the form of word lists.

Elaborate explanations of grammar.

Focus on the morphology and syntax.

Reading of difficult texts early in the course.

Practice focuses on exercises translating sentences or texts from mother tongue to the target
language and vice versa.
It is surprising to see that the Grammar Translation Method was still in use in some classrooms during
the late decades of the 20th century. May be, its because it bears some advantages.
Advantages

Translation is the easiest and shortest way of explaining meaning of words and phrases.

Learners have no difficulties to understand the lesson as it is carried out in the mother tongue.

It is a labor-saving method as the teacher carries out everything in the mother tongue.

Criticism

What the method is good at is teaching about the language , not teaching the language.

Speaking or any kind of spontaneous creative output was missing from the curriculum.

Students lacked an active role in the classroom.

Very little attention is paid to communication.

Very little attention is paid to content.

Translation is sometimes misleading.

The Direct Method

The Direct Method, also called Natural Method, was established in Germany and France around
1900. It appeared as an answer to the shortcomings of the Grammar Translation Method. It is a
method for teaching foreign languages that uses the target language, discarding any use of mother
tongue in the classroom. As teachers became frustrated with the students inability to communicate
orally, they began to experiment with new techniques. The idea was that foreign language teaching
must be carried out in the same way people learn their mother tongue!
The method
Translation is completely banished from any classroom activity. Classroom activities are carried out
ONLY in the target language.
Oral teaching comes before any other kind of reading and writing activities.
Use of chain activities accompanied by verbal comments like: I go to the door. I open the door. I close
the door. I return to my place. I sit down. (called the Gouin series)
Grammar is taught inductively. (i.e. having learners find out rules through the presentation of
adequate linguistic forms in the target language.)
Use of realia to teach concrete vocabulary. Abstract vocabulary is taught through association if ideas.
Emphasis is put on correct pronunciation and grammar.
Teaching through modeling and practice.
The teaching techniques rely mostly on

reading aloud,

question answer exercise,

self correction,

conversation practice,

fill-in-the-blank exercise,

dictation

and paragraph writing.

Advantages
Clearly the Direct Method is a shift away from the Grammar Translation Method. One of its positive
points is that it promises to teach the language and Not about the language. More advantages can be
listed as follows:

It is a natural method which teaches language the same way the mother tongue is acquired.
Only the target language is used and the learning is contextulized.

Its emphasis on speech made it more attractive for those who have needs of real
communication in the target language.

It was one of the first methods to introduce the teaching of vocabulary through realia

Criticism
In spite of its achievements, the direct method fell short from fulfilling the needs of educational
systems. One of its major shortcomings is that it was hard for public schools to integrate it. As Brown
(1994:56) points out, the Direct Method

The Audio-Lingual method

The Audio-Lingual method of teaching had its origins during World War II when it became known as
the Army Method. It is also called the Aural oral approach. It is based on the structural view of
language and the behaviorist theory of language learning.

The Audiolingual Approach to language teaching has a lot of similarities with the Direct Method. Both
were considered as a reaction against the shortcomings of the Grammar Translation method, both
reject the use of the mother tongue and both stress that speaking and listening competences
preceded reading and writing competences. But there are also some differences. The direct method
highlighted the teaching of vocabulary while the audiolingual approach focus on grammar drills
Structuralism
The structural view to language is the view behind the audio-lingual method. This approach focused
on examining how the elements of language related to each other in the present, that is,
synchronically rather than diachronically. It was also argued that linguistic signs were composed of
two parts, a signifier (the sound pattern of a word) and a signified (the concept or meaning of the
word). The study of language aims at describing the performance ,theparole as it is the only
observable part of language.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things which organisms
do including acting, thinking and feelingcan and should be regarded as behaviors. It contends
that leaning occurs through associations, habit formation and reinforcement. When the learner
produces the desired behavior and is reinforced positively, it is likely that behavior be emitted again.
The Audiolingual method
The objective of the audiolingual method is accurate pronunciation and grammar, the ability to
respond quickly and accurately in speech situations and knowledge of sufficient vocabulary to use
with grammar patterns. Particular emphasis was laid on mastering the building blocks of language
and learning the rules for combining them. It was believed that learning structure, or grammar was the
starting point for the student. Here are some characteristics of the method:

language learning is habit-formation,

mistakes are bad and should be avoided, as they are considered bad habits,

language skills are learned more effectively if they are presented orally first, then in written
form,

analogy is a better foundation for language learning than analysis,

the meanings of words can be learned only in a linguistic and cultural context.

The main activities include reading aloud dialogues, repetitions of model sentences, and drilling. Key
structures from the dialogue serve as the basis for pattern drills of different kinds. Lessons in the
classroom focus on the correct imitation of the teacher by the students. Not only are the students
expected to produce the correct output, but attention is also paid to correct pronunciation. Although
correct grammar is expected in usage, no explicit grammatical instruction is given. It is taught
inductively. Furthermore, the target language is the only language to be used in the classroom.
Advantages

It aims at developing listening and speaking skills which is a step away from the Grammar
translation method

The use of visual aids has proven its effectiveness in vocabulary teaching.Disadvantages

Disadvantages

The method is based on false assumptions about language. The study of language doesnt
amount to studying the parole, the observable data. Mastering a language relies on acquiring
the rules underlying language performance. That is, the linguistic, sociolinguistic, and
discourse competences.

The behaviorist approach to learning is now discredited. Many scholars have proven its
weakness. Noam Chomsky ( Chomsky, Noam (1959). A Review of B. F. Skinners Verbal
behavior) has written a strong criticism of the principles of the theory.

THE SILENT WAY

originated in the early 1970s and was the brainchild of the late Caleb Gattegno. The last line of
Benjamin Franklins famous quote about teaching and learning can be said to lie at the heart of Silent
Way. The three basic tenets of the approach are that learning is facilitated if the learner discovers
rather than remembers or repeats, that learning is aided by physical objects, and that problem-solving
is central to learning. The use of the word "silent" is also significant, as Silent Way is based on the
premise that the teacher should be as silent as possible in the classroom in order to encourage the
learner to produce as much language as possible.As far as the presentation of language is
concerned, Silent Way adopts a highly structural approach, with language taught through sentences
in a sequence based on grammatical complexity, described by some as a "building-block" approach.
The structural patterns of the target language are presented by the teacher and the grammar "rules" of the
language are learnt inductively by the learners. Cuisenaire rods (small coloured blocks of varying sizes
originally intended for the teaching of mathematics) are often used to illustrate meaning (the physical objects
mentioned above). New items are added sparingly by the teacher and learners take these as far as they can in
their communication until the need for the next new item becomes apparent. The teacher then provides this
new item by modelling it very clearly just once. The learners are then left to use the new item and to
incorporate it into their existing stock of language, again taking it as far as they can until the next item is
needed and so on.

This is perhaps best illustrated by an example. Let us say that the teacher has introduced the idea of pronouns
as in "Give me a green rod". The class will then use this structure until it is clearly assimilated, using, in
addition, all the other colours. One member of the class would now like to ask another to pass a rod to a third
student but she does not know the word "her", only that it cannot be "me". At this point the teacher would
intervene and supply the new item: "Give her the green rod" and the learners will continue until the next new
item is needed (probably "him"). This minimalist role of the teacher has led some critics to describe Silent Way
teachers as "aloof" and, indeed, this apparently excessive degree of self-restraint can be seen as such.The
prominent writer on language teaching, Earl W. Stevick, has described the role of the teacher in Silent Way as
"Teach, test, get out of the way". The apparent lack of real communication in the approach has also been
criticized, with some arguing that it is difficult to take the approach beyond the very basics of the language, with
only highly motivated learners being able to generate real communication from the rigid structures illustrated by
the rods. The fact that, for logistical reasons, it is limited to relatively small groups of learners is also seen as a
weakness.

De-suggestopedia
Desuggest is the opposite of suggest . To overcome some learning problem this method puts
importance on desuggesting limitations on learning.
The originator of the Desuggestopedia is a Bulgarian psychiatrist and educator. Georgi Lozanov.
The meaning of desuggestopedia: suggest => desuggest = This method puts importance on
desuggesting limitations on learning. We do not use the full mental powers we have; to use our
reserved capacity, if we have some limitations we have need to be desuggested.
The goal of the teachers:
To help students eliminate and overcome the barriers to learning
Increase the communicative ability of the students
Classroom set-up: Armchair Everything is bright and colorful
The teacher speaks confidently;
Various activities involving the dialog: question-and-answer, repetition, translation..;
Integrate indirect and direst positive suggestions
gives the students the impression that learning is easy and enjoyable.
Peripheral learning
This technique is based upon the idea that we perceive much more in our environment than that to
which we consciously attend.
Fine arts (music paintings)
One of the ways the students mental reserves are stimulated
Choosing a new identity
It gives to the students the feeling of security and allows them to learn easily.
Active concert
The teacher introduces a story related to the dialog and calls the students attention to some
particular grammatical points that
The teacher reads the dialog in the target language with music.
The teacher begins a slow, dramatic reading, synchronized, after she/he the teachers voice
rises and falls with the music.
Passive concert
The students just listen as the teacher reads the dialog with musical accompaniment and a
normal speed
Primary activation
The students playfully reread the target language dialog out loud, as individuals or in groups.
Students are asked to read the dialog in particular manner: sadly, angrily, and cheerfully.
Creative adaptation

The students engage in various activities designed to help them learn the new material and
use it spontaneously. Activities particularly recommended for this phase include singing,
dancing, dramatizations, and games.
To accelerate the process of learning a foreign language for everyday communication
To desuggest learners psychological barriers
To activate learners paraconscious part of the mind
The role of the teacher
The teacher is the authority in classroom
The students must trust and respect her/him
The role of students?
The students must follow the teachers instruction
enjoying in the new identity freely
Characteristics of the teaching/learning process
Classroom atmosphere decoration&posters
A new name and occupation anxiety
Handout for advanced students
No test, no assignment
Conversation with translation
Games,songs,role play
Interaction: student-teacher/ student
The teacher must initiates interactions to a group of students and to a group of students
The students can respond with nonverbal actions or with a few
How the language is viewed and how the culture is viewed
Language is the first of two planes in the two-plane process of communication.
The linguistic message is influenced by nonverbal factors
The use of the fine arts is also important in Desuggestopedia classes.
Areas and skill of language that are emphasized
Vocabulary
Grammar is dealt but not much
Speaking communicatively
The role of the students native language.
To use the native language to make the dialog clear.
Little by little the teacher uses the native language less and less.
Evaluation is accomplished usually is conducted on students normal in-class performance,
not through tests.
The errors of the students are corrected gently, with the teacher using a soft voice.
Advantage
Learning Environment
Can arouse students interests and

Potential to memorize
The emphasis of interaction
The treatments to students mistakes
Disadvantage
Lack of flexibility
Lack trust to teachers
Over-emphasized of language use
Absence of tests
Differences characteristics between students

TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE.

Where is it from?

How can I use it in class?

When should I use it?

Why should I use it in the classroom?

A few useful variations

Are there any disadvantages with using TPR?

Where is it from?
TPR stands for Total Physical Response and was created by Dr. James J Asher. It is based upon the
way that children learn their mother tongue. Parents have 'language-body conversations' with their
children, the parent instructs and the child physically responds to this. The parent says, "Look at
mummy" or "Give me the ball" and the child does so. These conversations continue for many months
before the child actually starts to speak itself. Even though it can't speak during this time, the child is
taking in all of the language; the sounds and the patterns. Eventually when it has decoded enough,
the child reproduces the language quite spontaneously. TPR attempts to mirror this effect in the
language classroom.
How can I use it in class?
In the classroom the teacher plays the role of parent. She starts by saying a word ('jump') or a phrase
('look at the board') and demonstrating an action. The teacher then says the command and the
students all do the action. After repeating a few times it is possible to extend this by asking the
students to repeat the word as they do the action. When they feel confident with the word or phrase
you can then ask the students to direct each other or the whole class.
It is more effective if the students are standing in a circle around the teacher and you can even
encourage them to walk around as they do the action.
When should I use it?
TPR can be used to teach and practise many things.

Vocabulary connected with actions (smile, chop, headache, wriggle)

Tenses past/present/future and continuous aspects (Every morning I clean my teeth, I make
my bed, I eat breakfast)

Classroom language (Open your books)

Imperatives/Instructions (Stand up, close your eyes)

Storytelling

It can be adapted for all kinds of teaching situations, you just need to use your imagination!

Why should I use it in the classroom?

It is a lot of fun, students enjoy it and it can be a real stirrer in the class. It lifts the pace and the
mood.

It is very memorable. It really helps students to remember phrases or words.

It is good for kinaesthetic learners who need to be active in the class.

It can be used in large or small classes. It doesn't really matter how many students you have
as long as you are prepared to take the lead, the students will follow.

It works well with mixed-ability classes. The physical actions get across the meaning effectively
so that all the students are able to understand and use the target language.

It doesn't require a lot of preparation or materials. As long as you are clear what you want to
practise (a rehearsal beforehand can help), it won't take a lot of time to get ready.

It is very effective with teenagers and young learners.

It involves both left- and right-brained learning.

A few useful variations

When I use TPR, first I get the students to do the actions and then I do them and drill the students
(chorally and individually) to give them an opportunity to practise making the sounds. They are then
ready to give commands to each other.
A game I like to play is to organize the students into a circle around me, I say the word and the last
person to do the action is out. This person then stands behind me and watches for the student who
does the action last. Eventually there is only one student, she is the winner.
You can extend this by playing Simon Says. This time when you give a command, students should
only do it if you say "Simon says..." at the start. I might say, "Simon says, 'slice some bread'" or
"Simon says, 'chop an onion'" and the students must do the action. However if I say, "Whisk an egg"
the students shouldn't do this. If anyone does the action that Simon doesn't say then they are out and
have to watch for the mistakes of the other students.
Are there any disadvantages with using TPR?

Students who are not used to such things might find it embarrassing. This can be the case
initially but I have found that if the teacher is prepared to perform the actions, the students feel
happier about copying. Also the students are in groups and don't have to perform for the whole
class. This pleasure is reserved for the teacher.

It is only really suitable for beginner levels.

Whilst it is clear that it is far more useful at lower levels because the target language lends
itself to such activities I have also used it successfully with Intermediate and Advanced levels.
You need to adapt the language accordingly.
For example, it helped me to teach 'ways of walking' (stumble, stagger, tiptoe) to an advanced
class and cooking verbs to intermediate students (whisk, stir, grate).

You can't teach everything with it and if used a lot it would become repetitive. I completely
agree with this but it can be a successful and fun way of changing the dynamics and pace of a
lesson used in conjunction with other methods and techniques.

COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING

As the language theories underlying the Audiolingual method and the Sitiuational Language Teaching
method were questioned by prominent linguists like Chomsky (1957) during the 1960s, a new trend of
language teaching paved its way into classrooms. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Which is
an approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages, emphasizes interaction as both the
means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. It is also referred to as Communicative
Approach. Historically, CLT has been seen as a response to the Audio-Lingual Method (ALM), and as
an extension or development of the Notional-Functional Syllabus. Task-based language learning, a
more recent refinement of CLT, has gained considerably in popularity.
Shortcomings of structuralism and behaviorism
The theories underlying the audiolingual method and the situational language teaching were widely
criticized during the 1960s. Noam Chomsky, for instance, rejected the structuralist view of language
and demonstrated that there is a distinction between performance and competence. The goal of the
linguist is to study the linguistic competence native speakers are endowed with. He also showed,
rightly, that structuralism and behaviorism were unable to account for one fundamental aspect of
language, namely the creativity and uniqueness of individual sentences. A child is able to produce an
infinite number of sentences that s/he has never encountered. This makes the factors of imitation,
repetition and habit formation weak arguments to account for any language learning theory.
A shift towards communicative proficiency
The increasing interdependency between the European countries necessitated a need for a greater
effort to teach adults the principal languages of the continent. New goals were set in language
teaching profession:

The paramount importance of communication aspects of language.

The increasing interest in meaningful learning.

The growing centrality of the learner in teaching processes.

The subordinate importance of structural teaching of language.

Notional / functional dimension of language

Applied linguists and philosophers addressed another fundamental dimension of language: the
functional and communicative potential of language. The speech act theory showed that we do
something when we speak a language. We use language ( cf Halliday 1975)
to get things,
to control behavior,
to create interaction with others,
to express personal feelings,
to learn,
to create a world of imagination,

 to communicate information.
Besides applied linguists emphasized a teaching of language based on communicative proficiency
rather than mastery of structures. instead of describing the core of language through traditional
concepts of grammar and vocabulary, they (Van Ek & Alexander, 1975; Wilkins, 1976) attempted to
show the systems of meaning underlying the communicative use of language. They described two
kinds of meanings.
Notional categories: concepts such as time, sequence; quantity, location, frequency.
Functional categories: requests offers, complaints, invitation
In other words, a notion is a particular context in which people communicate. A function is a
specific purpose for a speaker in a given context. For example, the notion, of shopping requires
numerous language functions, such as asking about prices or features of a product and bargaining.

One language competence or numerous competences?

For Chomsky the focus of linguistics was to describe the linguistic competence that enables speakers
to produce grammatically correct sentences. Dell Hymes held, however, that such a view of linguistic
theory was sterile and that it failed to picture all the aspects of language. He advocated the need of a
theory that incorporate communication competence. It must be a definition of what a speaker needs
to know in order to be communicatively competent in a speech community.

Later Canale and Swaine (1980) described four dimensions of communicative competence.
Grammatical competence: refers to what Chomsky calls linguistic competence.
Sociolinguistic competence: refers to an understanding of the social context in which communication
takes place (role relationships, shared beliefs and information between participants )
Discourse competence: refers to the interpretation of individual messsage elements in terms of their
interconnectedness and how meaning is represented in relationship to the entire discourse or text.
Strategic competence: refers to the coping strategies that participants use to initiate terminate,
maintain, repair and redirect communication
Learning theory
According to the the communicative approach, in order for learning to take place, emphasis must be
put on the importance of these variables:
Communication: activities that involve real communication promote learning.
Tasks: activities in which language is used to carry out meaningful tasks supports the learning
process.
Meaning: language that is meaningful and authentic to the learner boosts learning.
Acquiring or learning?

Stephen Krashen later advocated in his language learning theory that there should be a distinction
between learning and acquiring. He sees acquisition as the basic process involved in developing
language proficiency and distinguishes this process from learning. Acquisition is an unconscious
process that involves the naturalistic development of language proficiency while learning is the
conscious internalisation of the rules of language. It results in explicit knowledge about the forms of
language and the ability to verbalize this knowledge. Learning according to Krashen can not lead to
acquisition.
Syllabus
Communicative language teaching syllabus organizes the teaching according to the notional and
functional categories of language rather than according to its structures.It concentrates on the
following:
Interactions: using language to communicate,
Tasks: using language to perform meaningful tasks
Learner: puting the learners interesets, needs in the forefront.
Merits of CLT
There are many advantages in teaching according to the communicative approach:
CLT is a holistic appraoch. It doesnt focus only on the traditional structural syllabus. It takes into
consideration communicative dimension of language.
CLT provides vitality and motivation within the classroom.
CLT is a learner centered approach. It capitalizes on the interests and needs of the learner.
In a world where communication of information and information technology have broken new
considerable ground, CLT can play an important role in education.
Criticism
Notional syllabus was criticized as merely replacing one kind of list, namely a list of grammatical
structures, with another list of notions and functions.
The various categories of language functions are overlapping and not systematically graded like the
structures of the language.
The communicative approach focuses on the use of language in everyday situations, or the functional
aspects of language, and less on the formal structures. There must be a certain balance between the
two.It gives priority to meanings and rules of use rather than to grammar and rules of structure. Such
concentration on language behavior may result in negative consequences in the sense that important
structures and rules would be left out.
The approach relies extensively on the functional-notational syllabus which places heavy demands on
the learners.
A major principle underlying this approach is its emphasis on learners needs and interests. This
implies that every teacher should modify the syllabus to fit the needs of the learners.

Presentation-Practice-Production
Presentation, Practice and Production, commonly referred to as PPP, is a kind of instructional
sequence, i.e. a model of lesson planning.
Presentation stage: The teacher begins the lesson by setting up a situation, either eliciting or
modeling some language that the situation calls for. Presentation may consist of model sentences,
short dialogues illustrating target items, either read from the textbook, heard on the tape or acted out
by the teacher.
Practice stage: Students practise the new language in a controlled way. They drill sentences or
dialogues by repeating after the teacher or the tape, in chorus and individually, until they can say
them correctly. Other practice activities are matching parts of sentences, completing sentences or
dialogues and asking and answering questions using the target language.
Production stage: Students are encouraged to use the new language in a freer way either for their
own purposes and meanings or in a similar context introduced by the teacher. It can be a role play, a
simulation activity or a communication task.
PPP critique
Within this model the language is presented by small, discrete items that are gradually combined over
the length of course. The language is tightly controlled and the emphasis is on accuracy. After a
definite time period (at the end of a unit) students are tested on the items presented within the unit.
Though the PPP model looks quite sensible for language teaching and at least it looks ideal for lower
levels, it has been recently criticized1) for being too teacher-centred
2) for keeping students passive
3) for its linear sequencing of language items
The theory of learning underlying this sequence is rooted in behaviorist psychology: practice makes
perfect and rote learning and repetition help to automate responses (see the Audio-Lingual Method).
However, the findings of recent SLA research prove that language learning does not happen in an
additive fashion with bits of language being learnt separately. Rather, the process of second language
acquisition is multi-directed and the students mind is working on constructing several knowledge
systems at a time. A human mind is capable of attending to several language points at a time without
paying conscious attention to each of them. When taught to use some specific language point which
is in focus in the PPP lesson the student is deprived of the opportunity to develop her interlanguage
system from the point where she is at the moment and in the direction she needs to go. A PPP lesson
does not provide enough space for language development (there is no space for Krashens roughlytuned input or Vygotskys zone of proximal development). It doesnt secure proper language
exposure.

Furthermore, automatic performance does not always originate from intentional learning and
mechanical practice. Language learning does need practice but practice which would rather call for
the learners involvement and her effort to process the language input. The student may be not aware
of attending to a language item, yet it eventually becomes automated. In addition, the students
involvement in the learning process is a safer guarantee that the new knowledge will be taken in and
retained.
As J. Willis (Longman, 1996, p.134-135) concludes in her book A Framework for Task-Based
Learning the PPP model has further major drawbacks:
Sometimes learners manage to do the task or role play at the production stage without using the
target form at all. This may be because their interlanguage system is not yet ready to cope with its
use, or because they dont need the new pattern to express the meanings they want. The goal of the
final P free production is not achieved.
When focused on a specific language item, learners tend to overuse it, apply it to wrong situations
and make very stilted and unnatural conversation, e.g. Maybe Im going to go to the cinema on
Sunday. By doing so they want to display control of the new form rather than express their own
meanings.
PPP gives an illusion of mastery because learners are able to produce the required form confidently
in the classroom, but once they are outside the classroom and the drill, learners seem to forget it
completely. Therefore, since learners are required to produce forms which have been specified in
advance, the last stage of a PPP lesson is nowadays referred to as a freer or less controlled practice
of the target structure

Engage-Study-Activate
Engage-Study and Activate are elements which are present in a language classroom to help students
to learn effectively.
Engage. This is the point in a teaching sequence where teachers try to arouse the students interest,
thus involving their emotions.
Most people can remember lessons at school which were uninvolving and where they switched off
from what was being taught them. Frequently, this was because they were bored, because they were
not emotionally engaged with was going on. Such lessons can be contrasted with lessons where they
were amused, moved, stimulated or challenged. It seems quite clear that those lessons involved not
only more fun, but also better learning.
Study. Study activities are those where the students are asked to focus in on language (or
information) and how it is constructed. They range from the study and practice of a single sound to an
investigation of how a writer achieves a particular effect in a long text.
Students can study in a variety of different styles: the teacher can explain grammar, they can study
language evidence to discover grammar for themselves, they can work in groups studying a reading
text or vocabulary. But whatever the style, study means any stage at which the construction of
language is the main focus.
Activate. This element describes exercises and activities which are designed to get the students
using language as freely and communicatively as they can. The objective for the students is not to
focus on language construction and/or practice specific bits of language(grammar patterns, particular
vocabulary items or functions) but for them to use all and any language which may be appropriate for
a given situation or topic.

Content-based, Task-based, and Participatory Approaches

Content based instruction, as its name offers, focuses on learning target language through
thesubject matter. Thats, while students learn about a specific field, they also learn targetlanguage
together with the particular subject. This content may be academic. The methodsuggests that the
content is more important than language skills. But language skills are nor completely ignored. The
subject should be paralel to target language. Because of the fact thatstudents study on diffucult
subjects in addition to target language, target language should beclear during the course. If not, they
will possibly have troubles with both target language andthe subject. The teacher who uses this
method plays a mediator role. Students are dealt withacademic subjects and vocabulary in high level.
So the instructor helps the class. This reflectsthe humanistic side of the teacher. The teacher doesnt
neglect the previous experiences of thestudents. She/he asks about their early acquintances related
to the subject. Doing sotheteacher activates their schemata which encourages the students and
arouses their interests.Themethod asserts that the vocabulary items and grammer should be taught
in a contex rather than given isolated. Also the teacher should inform the students about what they
will learn inthe course beforehand.Content-based instruction arouses from the communicative needs.
Think that a group of people work on a specific area such as medicine and they are expected not to
use their nativelanguage, they need to use the target language for their specific purpose. This
instructionmethod is based on implementing specific purposes through target language. The Contentbased instruction has three models; Immersion Adjunct Model and Sheltered- Language Immersion
is a method of teaching a second language in which the targetlanguage is used as a tool for teaching
the subject. The main purpose of teacher is to teach thegiven subject.
The adjunct model
represents learning the specific subjects through the help of target language. In this method, there
are two teachers and two seperate classes one of whichis academic class and the other is language
class. Language teacher helps the students tounderstand the missing points represented by the
subject teacher. There is a cooperation between the classes. On the other hand,
sheltered-language instruction
offers an advantage of learning the target language and the academic couses jointly. In this method,
there is oneteacher who masters both the academic course and the target language.

Learning,Learning Strategy Training, Multiple Intelligences

Learning strategies are the tecniques or devices which a learner may use to acquire knowledge.
In 1970s,the students were responsible for their own learning.In 1975 Rubin researched that good
language learners had to help themselves in their own learning.And from this investigation, she
identified some techniques and devices which the students can use in acquiring knowledge.
Students of foreign language are being encouraged to learn and use a lot of language learning
strategies that can be used throughout the learning process. This approach is based on the belief that
learning will be made easier by making students aware of lots of strategies from which they can
choose during language learning and use.
What are the goals of strategy training?
Self-diagnose their strengths and weaknesses in language learning
Become aware of what helps them to learn the target language most efficiently
Develop a broad range of problem-solving skills
Experiment with familiar and unfamiliar learning strategies
Make decisions about how to approach a language task
Monitor and self-evaluate their performance
Transfer successful strategies to new learning contexts
Metacognitive strategies (Chamot&OMalley)
According to Chamot and OMalley, metacognitive strategies are strategies used to plan,monitor and
evaluate a learning task.They identified metacognitive strategies in two categories: cognitive and
social/affective strategies
Cognitive strategies: Learners interact and manipulate what is to be learned.
(repetition,summarizing,using keywords)
Social/affective strategies: cooperation: working with fellow-students on language. (group working)
COOPERATIVE LEARNING

Cooperative learning is a successful teaching strategy in which small teams, each with students of
different levels of ability, use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a
subject. In cooperative learning, each member of a team is responsible not only for learning what is
taught but also for helping teammates learn. This situation creates an atmosphere of achievement.
Students work through the assignment until all group members successfully understand and complete
it. The students work for a mutual benefit so they take care of each others efforts.(Your success
benefits me and my success benefits you.). The students recognize that all group members share a
common fate. (We all sink or swim together here.) The students know that one's performance is
mutually caused by oneself and one's team members. (We can not do it without you.) The students
feel proud and commonly celebrate when a group member is recognized for achievement. (We all
congratulate you on your accomplishment!).
ELEMENTS OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING
I)Positive Interdependence (sink or swim together): Each group member's efforts are required and
obligatory for group success. Each group member has a unique contribution to common effort
because of his or her resources and task responsibilities.
II) Face-to-Face Interaction (promote each other's success): This element of cooperative learning
includes orally explaining how to solve problems , teaching one's knowledge to other , checking for
understanding, discussing concepts being learned,connecting present with past learning .
III) Individual & Group Accountability (no hitchhiking! no social loafing): This includes keeping the
group small as possible, giving an individual test to each student, examining students orally,
observing each group and recording the frequency with which each member-contributes to the
group's work. It includes also assigning one student in each group the role of checker.(The checker
asks other group members to explain group answers)and having students teach what they learned to
someone else.
IV) Interpersonal &Small-Group Skills :Social skills must be taught: Leadership ,decision-making
,trust-building ,communication, conflict-management skills.
V) Group Processing: Group members discuss how well they are achieving their goals and
maintaining effective working relationships.They describe what member actions are helpful and not
helpful, and make decisions about what behaviors to continue or change.
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE
TYPES OF INTELLIGENCES ACCORDNG TO GARDNER;
Verbal/Linguistic intelligence ("word smart")
Logical-mathematical intelligence ("number/reasoning smart")
Visual/Spatial intelligence ("picture smart")
Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence ("body smart")

Interpersonal intelligence ("people smart")

Intrapersonal intelligence ("self smart")
Musical/Rhytmic intelligence ("music smart")
Implications of MI theory in foreign language education;
1-Each person possesses all seven intelligences. In each person the seven intelligences function
together in unique ways. Some people have high levels of functioning in all or most of the seven
intelligences; a few people lack most of the basic aspects of intelligence. Most people are somewhere
in the middle, with a few intelligences highly developed, most modestly developed, and one or two
underdeveloped.
2- Intelligences can be developed. Gardner suggests that everyone has the capacity to develop all
eight intelligences to a reasonably high level of performance with appropriate encouragement,
enrichment, and instruction.
3- Intelligences work together in complex ways. No intelligence really exists by itself in life.
Intelligences are always interacting with each other. For example, to cook a meal, one must read a
recipe (linguistic), perhaps double it (logical-mathematical), and prepare a menu that satisfies others
you may cook for (interpersonal) and yourself (intrapersonal).
How can applying MI theory help students learn better?
Students begin to understand how they are intelligent. In Gardner's view, learning is both a social and
psychological process. When students understand the balance of their own multiple intelligences they
begin to manage their own learning and value their individual strengths .
Teachers understand how students are intelligent as well as how intelligent they are.Knowing which
students have the potential for strong interpersonal intelligence, for example, will help you create
opportunities where the strength can be fostered in others. However, multiple intelligence theory is
not intended to provide teachers with new IQ-like labels for their students.
Students approach understanding from different angles. The problem, "What is sand?" has scientific,
poetic, artistic, musical, and geographic points of entry.
Students that exhibit comprehension through rubrics, portfolios, or demonstrations come to have an
authentic understanding of achievement

Lexical Approach
In creating the pedagogical materials for Franais interactif, the developers decided to move away from the
traditional grammatical syllabus and adopt features of the Lexical Approach instead.

Types of Lexical Units

Lewis also suggests that Native speakers have a large inventory of lexical chunks that are vital for fluent
production. Chunks include collocations and fixed and semi-fixed expressions and idioms. Fluency does not
depend on a set of generative grammar rules and a separate store of isolated words, but on the ability to rapidly
access this inventory of chunks. These chunks occupy a crucial role in facilitating language production and are
the key to fluency. Two points to remember about lexical chunks: learners are able to-

comprehend lexical phrases as unanalyzed wholes or chunks.

use whole phrases without understanding their constituent part

Lexical Item

Examples

words

book, pen

polywords

by the way, upside down

collocations

prices fell, rancid butter

institutionalized utterances

I'll get it; That'll do

sentence frames and heads

That is not as [adjective] as you think;

The danger was...

text frames

In this paper we will explore...; Firstly...

Lexis in Language Teaching and Learning

The language activities consistent with the lexical approach must be directed toward naturally occurring
language and toward raising learners' awareness of the lexical nature of language. Activites of this nature
include the following:

intensive and extensive listening and reading in the target language

first and second language comparisons and translation

repetition and recycling of activities to keep words and expressions that have been learned active

guessing the meaning of vocabulary items from context

noticing and recording language patterns and collocations

working with dictionaries and other reference tools

working with language corpuses to research word partnerships, preposition usage, style, and so on

Socratic Teaching
The oldest, and still the most powerful, teaching tactic for fostering critical thinking is Socratic
teaching. In Socratic teaching we focus on giving students questions, not answers. We model an
inquiring, probing mind by continually probing into the subject with questions. Fortunately, the abilities
we gain by focusing on the elements of reasoning in a disciplined and self-assessing way, and the
logical relationships that result from such disciplined thought, prepare us for Socratic questioning.
Thankfully, there is a predictable set of relationships that hold for all subjects and disciplines. This is
given in the general logic of reasoning, since every subject has been developed by those who had:

shared goals and objectives (which defined the subject focus)

shared questions and problems (whose solution they pursued)

shared information and data (which they used as an empirical basis)

shared modes of interpreting or judging that information

shared specialized concepts and ideas (which they used to help them organize their data)

shared key assumptions (that gave them a basis from which to collectively begin)

a shared point of view (which enabled them to pursue common goals from a common framework)
Each of the elements represents a dimension into which one can delve in questioning a person. We
can question goals and purposes. We can probe into the nature of the question, problem, or issue
that is on the floor. We can inquire into whether or not we have relevant data and information. We can
consider alternative interpretations of the data and information. We can analyze key concepts and
ideas. We can question assumptions being made. We can ask students to trace out the implications
and consequences of what they are saying. We can consider alternative points of view. All of these,
and more, are the proper focus of the Socratic questioner.
As a tactic and approach, Socratic questioning is a highly disciplined process. The Socratic
questioner acts as the logical equivalent of the inner critical voice which the mind develops when it
develops critical thinking abilities. The contributions from the members of the class are like so many
thoughts in the mind. All of the thoughts must be dealt with and they must be dealt with carefully and
fairly. By following up all answers with further questions, and by selecting questions which advance
the discussion, the Socratic questioner forces the class to think in a disciplined, intellectually
responsible manner, while yet continually aiding the students by posing facilitating questions.

Socratic questioner should:

keep the discussion focused

keep the discussion intellectually responsible

stimulate the discussion with probing questions