HIGHER ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS eee © © RAMANA7 INA Tata McGraw-Hill Published by Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008. Sixth reprint 2008 RBZLCDRXXDDYDL_ Copyright © 2007, by Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval system without the prior writen permission of the publishers. The program listings (if any) may be entered, stored and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication. This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited. ISBN-13; 978-0-07-063419-0 ISBN-10: 6-07-063419-X Head—Higher Education: S. 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If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. ‘Typeset at Script Makers,19, Al-B, DDA Market, Paschim Vihar, New Delhi 110 063, and printed at Ram Book Binding, C-114, Okhla Industrial Area, Phase 1, New Delhi 110020 Cover Printer: SDR PrintersContents Oa Acknowledgements xvii PARTI PRELIMINARIES 5 ot a 1, Vector Algebra, Theory of Equations, and ‘Complex Numbers LL LI Vector Algebra 1.7 12 Theory of Equations 1.13 3 Cordana’s Method Lf 14__Ferrari’s Method 1.17 15 ComplexNumbers 1.19 1.6 Roots of Complex Numbers 1.22 33 Variable Treated as Constant 3.9 34 Total Derivative 3.11 35__ Partial Differentiation of Composite Functions: Change of Variables 3.13 36 _ Differentiation of an Implicit Binction = 2.16 47 Filer’: Theomm 218 38 Jacobian 2.22 39 Functional Dependence 3.27 310__Errorsand Approximations 3.29 411 Differentiation Under Integral Sign: sibnitz’sRule 3.3 imnand Mini 1 41__ Taylor's Theorem for Fi Variables 41 PART—I1 2 Maxima and Minima of Functions of T aN rye a4 43. Lagrange’s Method of Undetermined 2 in" Derivative Multipliers 4.70 Elementary Functions 2.7 5._ Curve Tracing Eat 22. Leibnitz’s Theorem (Rule or ‘SA_ Curve Tracing: Curves in Cartesian mula) 2.7 Eom +. 23 Angle Between the Radius Vector and $2 Curve Tracing: Standard Curves in the Tangent 2.70 ‘Cartesian Form 5.8 ¢ 24 Rolle's Theorem 214 z Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem Curve Tracing: PolarCurves 5.15 Curve Tracing: Standard Polar Cauchy's 28 Taylor's Series and Maclaurin’s Series ves 5.20 $5 __ Curve Traving: Parametric Curves 5.24 ‘Expansions 2.26 29 eferminats Forms: 2.33 242 Evolute 2.6. 213 Envelopes 2.65 3. Partial Ditte ‘ Continuity 3.7 32__Partial Differentiation 25. 56 Curve Tracing: Standard Parametric Curves 5.26 6. Integral Calculus 61 62 AreaofaPlane Region: Quadrature 6,2 63 Length of Plane Curve: Rectification 6.20 64 Volume of Solid of Revolution 6.26 65 Area of the Surface of a Solid of Revolution 6.38 66 Improper integrals 6.457, Multiple Integrals 71 Double Integral 7.1 72. Application of Double Integral 7.4 73. Change of Order of Integration: Double Integral 7.12 74 General Change of Variables in Double Integral 7.14 75 Tripleintegrals 7.21 76 General Change of Variables in a Triple Integral 7.24 7:7__Dirichtet’s Imegral 7.31 PART—ID1 ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL \ATIONS 8. Ordinary Differential Equations: First Order and First Degree 81 8.1 _Introdnction to Mathematical Modeling _3./ a2. BnkcDetiione 42 83__ First Order First Degree Differential Equations 3.4 84__ Variables Sepuruble or Separable uation kt 85 __Hiomogeneous Equation-Reduction to Separable Form _ 8.6 86 __Non-homogeneous Equations Reducible teHomogencous Form 8.8 87 Exact Differential Equations 8/0 49. Reduction of Nos-exact Differentia ‘Equations: Using Integrating Factors _&12 89 _ Linear Differential Equation: First Order_8.19 810 BemoulliEquation 8.22 RIL Eirst Onder Ni Differenti Equations 8.25 8.12 Clairaut’s Equation 8.29 813 Lagrange's Equation 8.42 8.14 Formation of Ordinary Differential ‘Equations by Elimination of Arbitrary constants 8.3, 815 Geometrical Applications 8.36 816 Orthogonal. Trajectories of Curves 8.39 217 Law of Nanial Growth _& Contents vii 818 Law ofNawralDecay 845 819 Newton's Law of Cooling &46 820 Velocity of Escape from Earth 8.48 821 Simple Electric Circuits 8.5 9._Linear Differential Equations of Second Order and Higher Order 9.1 9.1 Linear Independence and Dependence 9.1 92 Linear Differential Equations of Second Onder with V: efficients 9.7 Second Order Ditferential Equations with arsdpeobani 9. 94 Higher Ord Ditferential Equations 9.5 95___Non-homogeneous Equations 9.9 96 _ Differential Equations with Variable Coefficients: Reducible to Equations vith Constant Coefficie 25 912__Method of Variation ofParameiar: 0.28 98 The Method of Undetermine: cefficients 9.32 System of Simultaneous Linear D.E. . fil 38 910 Method of Reduction of Order 9.41 941_Higher Order Linear Equations with Variable Coofficients 2.43 912. Simple Harmonic Motion _ 9.48 9.13 Mass-spring Mechanical System 9.50 914 RLCCireuit 9.59 915 Simple Pendulum 9.63 04s th 10. Series Solutions 10.1 10.1 Classification of Singularities 10.1 102 PowerSeries Solution 10.2 103. Frobenius Method 10.7 104 Onhogonality of Functions 10.17 105 Sturm-Liouville Problems 10.21 106 Gram-Schmidt Onhogonalization Process 10.28 Legendre ‘WL Gamma Function 72.7 12 Beta Function 14.2 1L3_Bessel’s Functions a 1L4 Differential Equations Reducibleto Bessel’s Equation 11.19iii_Co 115. Legendre Functions 11.21 13.10 Crout Reduction for ‘Tridiagonal Linear 116 Fourier-Legendre and Fourier Bessel Systems 13.25 Series 11.30 ee " 14. Ei Yah d Ei clors A41 1L7_Chebyshey Polynomials _11.35 ttn oe a 12, Laplace Transform 12.) 121 Laplace Transform 72.1 122 Applications, Advantages and Sufficient Conditions for Existence of Laplace Transfoom 123 123 General Properties of Laplace ‘Transform 12.3 124. Laplace Transform of Periodic Function 12.18 125 Inverse Laplace Transform 12.20 126 General Properties of Inverse Laplace Transform 12.21 127 Use of Partial Fractions to Find Inverse LT. 12.30 128 Convolution 12.33 129 Application of Laplace Transformto Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients 12.35 1210 Application of Laplace Transform to System of Simultaneous Differential Equations 12.38 1211 Table of General Properties of Laplace Transform 12.4] 1212 Table of Some Laplace Transforms 12.41 146 147 148 149 15.7 16.1 33 NomalFom {3.8 134 _ System of Linear Non-homogencous ¥ Equations 73.10 135 System of Homogeneous 163 Equations /3./5 13.6 Gaussian Elimination Method 13.17 137 LU-decompositions 13.20 + 138 LU-decomposition from Gaussian Elimination 20 139 Solution to Tridiagonal Systems 13.25 Vector Integration: Integration of a Ve Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors 14.1 Hamilton Theorem 14.9 145 Diagonalization Powers of a Matcix_14.13 Real Matrices: Symmetric, Skew- symmetric, Orthogonal Quadratic Form 14.18 Canonical Form: Or Sum of the Squares Form 14.21 Transformation (Reduction) of Quadratic FormtoCanonical Form 14.23 ‘Complex Matrices: Hermitian, Skew- Hermitian, Unitary Matrices 14.27 14.10 Sylvester's Lawof Inertia 14.32 15. Vector Diffk 3 Divergence and Curl of Sums 15.14 Operator 15.16 Curvilinear Coordinates: Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates 15.20 16. Vector Integral Calculus 16.2 Function of « Scalar Argument _/6.1 Line Integrals: Work Done, Potent Surface Integrals: Surface Area and Flux 16.11 164 Volume integrals 16.16 Transformation Between Line Integral and Double Integral Area in Cartesian and Polar Coordinates 16166 Stokes’Theorem 16,24 167_GaussDivergence Theorem 16.20 PART—V FOURIER ANALYSIS AND PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 12, Fourier Series 17.1 17.1_Buler's (Fourier-Buler) Formulae 17.2 172_ Fourier Series for Even and Odd Functions 17.7 173 Fourier Series for Functions Having Period 2.17.10 174 Half Range Expansions: Fourier Cosine and Sine Series 17.14 175 Practical Harmonic Analysis _17.20 181 Partial Differential Equations 18.1 182 Partial Differential Equations of First Order 18.7 18. Partial Differential Equations 18.1 183 Linear Partial Differential Equations of First Order 87 184 of First Order J8.1 185 Charpit's Method 18.16 186 Equations with Constant Coefficients 18.18 Non-homogeneous Linear Partial Differential Equations with Constant Coefficients 18.22 Cauchy Type Differential Equation 18.29 187 188 189 of Second Order: Monge’s: Method 18.31 18.10 Solution of Second Order PD.E.; Miscellaneous 18.36 19. Applications of Partial Differential Equations 19.1 Method of Separation of Variables 19.1 3 Ciasaif cation of Eucla Ditterendia Equations of Second Order _19.2 193 Derivation of One-dimensional Heat Equation 19.3 Non-linear Partial Differential Equations Homogeneous Linear Partial Differential Non-linear Partial Differential Equations 19.1 194 195 196 197 198 Contents ix Solution of One-dimensional Heat Equation 19.3 Derivation of One-dimensional Wave Equation 19.12 Solution of One-dimensional Wave Equation by Separation of Variables 19.13 Laplace’ Equation or Potential Equation or Two-dimensional Steady-state Heat Flow 19.17 Laplace Equation in Polar Coordinates 19.25 199 Derivation and Solution of Two- dimensional Heat Equation 19.30 19.10 Derivation and Solution of Two- dimensional Wave Equation 19.37 19.11 Vibrations of Circular Membrane 19.42 19.12 Transmission Line Equations 19.45 20. Fourier Integral, Fourier Transforms and Integral Transforms 20.1 20.2 20.1 Fourier Integral Theorem 20.1 Fourier Transform 20.3 203 Convolution 20.4 Transforms 20.12 20.5 _Purseval’s Identity for Fourier ‘Transforms 20.17 21. Linear Difference Equations and Z-Transforms 2u1 212 213 21 Linear Difference Equations 2/./ Z-transforms 21.42 Standard Z-transforms 21.20 22. Complex Function Theory 22.1 22.1 ComplexFunction 22.1 222 23 224 2s 226 22.7 Continuity 22.2 Differentiability 22.2 Analyticity 22.3 Cauchy-Riemann (C-R) Equations: In Cartesian Coordinates 22.3 Harmonic and Conjugate Harmonic Functions 22.4 Cauchy-Riemann Equations: In Polarx Contents 28 Elementary Functions 22.14 23._Complex Integration 23.1 23.1 Line Integral in Complex Plane 23.7 232 Cauchy's Integral Theorem 23.6 233 Cauchy's Integral Formula 23.12 234 Derivative of Analytic Functions 23.14 2BS Complex Sequence, Series and Power Seties 23.16 Taylor's Series (Theorem) 23.17 Laurent Series 23.21 Zeros and Poles 23,27 26 741 Residue 2 242 Residue Theorem 24.2 243 Evaluation of Real Integrals 24.7 Argument Principle 24.17 Rouche’s Theorem 24.19 24.6 Fundamental Theorem of Algebra 24.2] 247 Liouville Theorem 24.21 2S,_Conformal Mapping 25.1 Mapping (or Transformation or Operator) 25.1 252 Conformal Mapping 25. 253 Conformal Mapping by Elementary Functions 25.2 254 Transformation: w=2" 25.5 255 Mzpping 25.6 256 Transformation w=e* 25.9 25.7 Transformation w= sin z 25.11 258 Joukvowski's (Zhukovsky’s) ‘Transformation 25.15 280 Rilinear Transformation 25.15 25.10 Schwarz-Christoffel Transformation 25.20 25.1 —V1) 26. Probability 26.1 Review ofSetTheory 26.1 262. Review ofCounting 26.4 263. Introduction to Probability 26.6 264. Theorem of Total Probability (or the Rule of Elimination) 26.18 Bayes’ Theorem (or Bayes’ Rule) 26.1 265 26.20 27, Probability Distributions 271 Probability Distributions 27.1 272 Chebyshev’s Theorem 27.3 273 Discrete Uniform Distribution 27.9 274 Binomial Distribution 27.17 275 Hypergeometric Distribution 27.15 276 Poisson Distribution 27.19 217 Poisson Process 27.24 278 Continuous Uniform Distribution 27.26 219 Normal Distribution 27.28 27.10 Normal Approximation to Binomial Distribution 27.39 271 Error Function 27.41 27.12 The Exponential Distribution 27.44 2213 The Gamma Distribution 27.48 2714 The Weibull Distribution 27.50 28. Sampling Distribution 281 Population andSample 28.1 282 Sampling Distribution 282 283 Sampling Distribution of Means: (oKnown) 28.3 Sampling Distribution of Proportions 28.9 Sampling Distribution of Differences and Sums 28.9 Sampling Distribution of Mean (6 Unknown): t-distribution 28.12 Chi-squared Distribution 28.15 Sampling Distribution of Variance s* 28.16 F-Distribution 2816 29. Estimation and Test of Hypothesis 29.1 29.1 Point Estimation 29.1 292. Interval Estimation 29.3 293 Bayesian Estimation 29.5 294. Test of Hypothesis 29.7 295. Test of Hypothesis Conceming Single Population Mean p: (With Known Variance 6”: Large Sample) 29.9 Test of Hypothesis Conceming Two Means 29.13 Test for One Mean (Small Sample: T-distribution) 29.16 Small-sample Test Concerning Difference between Two Means Paired-sample t-test 29.21 27.1 28.1 284 5 286 287 288 289 296 297 298 29.18 29929.10 Test of Hypothesis: One Proportion: ‘Small Samples 29.23 23.11 Test of Hypothesis: One Proportion: Large Sample 29.24 29.12 Test of Hypothesis: Proportions 29.26 29.13 Test of Hypothesis for Several Proportions 29.29 29.14 Analysis of rx c Tables (Contingency Tables) 29.31 29.15 Goodness of Fit Test 29.34 28.16 Estimation of Proportions 29.37 30._Curve Fitting, Regression and Correlation ‘Analysis 30.1 301_Curve Fitting 30.7 302_Regression Analysis 30.4 303 Inferences Based on the Least Squares Estimation 30.5 304 Curvilinear (or Nonlinear) Regression 30.8 305 Curve Fitting by a Sum of Exponentials 30,17 306 Linear Weighted Least Squares ‘Approximation 30.16 307_Non- sar Weighted Least Squares Approximation 30.19 308 Multiple Regression 30.22 309 Correlation Analysis 30.25 30.10 Rank Correlation or Spearman's Comelation 20.22 30.11 Correlation for Bivariate Frequency Distribution 30.34 31._Joint Probability Distribution and Markov Chains 31.1 Joint Probability Distribution 31.7 312_Markoy Chains 31.7 wo PART—VINI NUMERICAL ANALYSIS 32, Numerical Analysis 321 Roots of Transcendental Equations 32.7 322 _Finite Differences 32.7 323 Interpolation 32.12 324 33. Contents xi 324 Newton-Gregory Forward Interpolation Formula _ 32.12 326 Stirling and Bessel’s Interpolation Fonnulac 32.19 328 Inverse Interpolation Using Lagrange’s Interpolation Formula 32.23 329 DividedDifferences 32.26 32.10 Newton's Divided Differences Formula = 32.27 32.11 Errors in Polynomial Interpolation 32,29 32.12 Symbolic Relations and Separation of Symbols 32.32 32.13 Numerical Differentiation 32.36 32.14 Numerical Integration 32.39 3215 Spline Interpolation 32.47 32.16 Numerical Methods in Linear Algebra: Gauss-Seidel Method 32.53 32.17 Largest Eigen Value and the Corresponding Eigen Vector: By Power Method 32.55 Numerical Solutions of ODE and PDE 33.1 Numerical Solutions of First Order Ordinary Differential Equations 33.) Picard’s Method of Successive Approximation 33.7 Adams-Bashforth-Moulton Method (ABM Method) 33.9 ‘Numerical Solutions to Partial Differential Equations 33.11 Numerical Solution to One Dimensional Heat Equation 33.12 Numerical Solution to One Dimensional Wave Equation 33.15 ‘Numerical Solution to Two Dimensional Laplace Equation 33.17 33.1 332 333 334, 335 336 33.7 Appendix A: Statistical Tables A.1-A.28 Appendix B: Basic Results B.1-B.S Bibliography C.1-C.2 Index_L1-L18Foreword Mm George Boole, an English mathematician, in 1854 has written a monumental work entitled “An inves- tigation of the Laws of Thought”, In 1938, Claude E, Shannon (MIT, USA), in his classical paper entitled" A symbolic analysis of relay and switching circuits" in the Truncations of AIEE, has devel- oped the algebra of switching functions and showed how its structure is related to the ideas established by Boole. This is a classical example of how an abstract mathematics in the 19th century became an applied mathematical discipline in the 20th century. Such is the power of mathematics , the queen of sciences. In my view the aim of Engineering Mathematics is to make the student think mathematically and develop “mathematical maturity”. The need for a good text book on “Engineering Mathematics” for students of engineering and technology in India can be easily understood. Although several books are available, almost none of them have the right combination , simplicity , rig our, pedagogy and syllabus compatibility , dealing with all aspects of the course. I am confident that this present book will be able fill this void. It gives me great pleasure to introduce “HIGHER ENEINGEERING MATHEAMTICS" by B.V.RAMANA the publication of which heralds the completion of book that eaters completely and effectively from a modern point view of the students of Engineering mathematics and physics and computer science. This book has been organized and executed with lot of care, dedication and passion for lucidity. ‘The author has been an outstanding teacher and has vast and varied experience in India and abroad in the ficld of mathematics. A conscious attempt has been made to simplify the concepts to facilitate better understanding of the subject. This book is self -contained, presentation is detailed, examples are simple, notations are modern and standard and finally the chapters are largely independent. The contents of the book are exhaustive containing Differential & integral calculus, Ordinary differential equations, Linear algebra, vector calculus, Fourier analysis, partial differential equations, complex function theory, probability & statis- tics, Numerical analysis and finally special topics Linear programming and calculus of variations. Dr. Ramana, a senior most professor of Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad deserves our praise and thanks for accomplishing this trying task, Tata Mcgraw-Hill, a prestigious publishing house, also deserves a pat for doing an excellent job. I wish Dr. Ramana all success in his future endeavors. Dr. K. RAJAGoraLPreface ee Mathematics is a necessary avenue to scientific knowledge which opens new vistas of mental activity. A sound knowledge of Engineering Mathematics is a ‘sine qua non’ for the modern engineer to attain new heights in all aspects of engineering practice. This book is a self-contained, comprehensive volume covering the entire gamut of the course of Engineering Mathematics for 4 years’ B.Tech program of LL.Ts, N.L-Ts, and all other universities in India. The contents of this book are divided into 8 parts as follows: Part I: Preliminaries: Ch. I: Vector Algebra, Theory of Equations, and Complex Numbers, Matrices and Determinants, Sequences and Series, Analytical Solid Geometry, Calculus of Variations, Linear Programming, on website. Part Il: Differential and Integral Calculus Ch, 2: Differential Calculus Ch. 3: Partial Differentiation Ch. 4: Maxima and Minima Ch. 5: Curve Tracing Ch. 6: Integral Calculus Ch.7: Multiple Integrals Part III: Ordinary Differential Equations Ch. 8: Ordinary Differential Equations: First Order and First Degree Ch. 9: Linear Differential Equations of Second Order and Higher Order Ch. 10: Series Solutions Ch. 11: Special Functions—Gamma, Beta, Bessel and Legendre Ch. 12: Laplace Transform Part IV: Linear Algebra and Vector Calculus Ch. 13: Matrices Ch. 14: Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors Ch. 15: Vector Differential Calculus: Gradient, Divergence and Curl Ch. 16: Vector Integral Calculusxiv Preface Part V: Fourier Analysis and Partial Differential Equations Ch. 17: Fourier Series Ch. 18: Partial Differential Equations Ch. 19: Applications of Partial Differential Equations Ch. 20: Fourier Integral, Fourier Transforms and Integral Transforms Ch. 21: Linear Difference Equations and Z-Transforms Part VI: Complex Analysis Ch. 22: Complex Function Theory Ch. 23: Complex Integration Ch. 24: Theory of Residues Ch. 25: Conformal Mapping. Part VII: Probability and Statistics Ch. 26: Probability Ch. 27: Probability Distributions Ch. 28: Sampling Distribution Ch. 29: Estimation and Tests of Hypothesis Ch. 30: Curve Fitting, Regression and Correlation Analysis Ch. 31: Joint Probability Distribution and Markov Chains Part VIII: Numerical Analysis Ch, 32: Numerical Analysis Ch. 33. Numerical Solutions of ODE and PDE ‘Web Supplement Besides the above, the following additional chapters are available at hutp:/fwww.mhhe.com/ramanahem Matrices and Determinants ‘Sequence and Series Analytical Solid Geometry Calculus of Variations ee es Linear Programming The site also contains chapter-wise summary of all the chapters in the book This book is written in a lucid, easy to understand language. Each topic has been thoroughly cov- ered in scope, content and also from the examination point of view. For each topic, several worked out examples, carefully selected to cover all aspects of the topic, are presented. This is followed by practice exercise with answers to all the problems and hints to the difficult ones. There are more than 1500 worked examples and 3500 exercise problems. This textbook is the outcome of my more than 30 years of teaching experience of engineering mathematics at Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay (1970-74), National Institute of Technology,Preface xv Warangal (1975-81), J.N. Technological University, Hyderabad (since 1981), Federal University of Technology, Nigeria (1983-85), Eritrea Institute of Technology, Eritrea (since 2005). am hopeful that this ‘new’ exhaustive book will be useful to both students as well as teachers. If you have any queries, please feel free to write to me at: ramanabv48 @rediffimail.com. In spite of our best efforts, some errors might have crept in to the book. Report of any such error and all suggestions for improving the future editions of the book are welcome and will be gratefully acknowledged. BV RamanaAcknowledgements ve ‘Thanks giving is a sacred Indian culture. Although I owe a lot to many, due to space constraint, I am explicitly expressing my thanks to only few. T express my thanks to . Professor K. Rajagopal, Vice-Chancellor, J.N. Technological University, Hyderabad . Professor B.C. Jinaga, Rector, JNTU Professor K. Lalkishore, Registrar, JNTU Professor K. Satya Prasad, Principal, JNTU College of Engineering, Kakinada . Professor M.P. Ranga Rao, IIT Bombay Professor Gebrebrhan Ogbazgh, Vice-president (academic), Eritrea Institute of Technology DrC. Siva Ram, Ph.D. AT&T, USA . Professor S. Satya Sri, Rangaraya Medical College, Kakinada . Ms. Vibha Mahajan, Ms. Shukti Mukherjee, Ms. Mini Narayanan, and Mr. Sohan Gaur of Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi. My wife Smt B, Mahalakshmi deserves special thanks for her continued patience, care, support and encouragement all through this project. Finally my sincere thanks to my senior brother Sri Bandaru Ramachandra Rao of Mandapeta for his moral support. Per Avayn= BV Ramana Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Ltd would like to join the author in acknowledging the useful comments and suggestions of the following reviewers during the preparation of the book: 1. Prof. K.P. Patil, Head, Department of Mathematics, Veermata Jijabai Technology Institute (VJTI), Mumbai. 2. Dr. Mcena Sankaranarayanan, Senior Research Fellow, Institute for Infocomm Research, Singapore. 3. Dr. V.K. Singh, Professor, Department of Mathematics, Indraprastha Engineering College, Ghaziabad. 4. Prof. A. Vincent Antony Kumar, Department of Mathematics, PSNA College of Engineering and Technology, Dindigul, Tamil Nadu 5. Dr. PS. Wain, Head, Department of Applied Sciences, Sinhgad Institute of Technology, Lonavala, Pune.xvili_ Acknowledgements 6. Dr. M.N. Mehta, Department of Mathematics, SVNIT, Surat. 7. Dr. RC. Agarwal, Head, Department of Mathematics, ISS Academy of Technical Education, Noida, UP. 8 Dr. S.P, Mchamty, Professor and Head, Department of Mathematics, College of Engineering and ‘Technology, Biju Patnaik University of Technology, Bhubaneshwar. 9. Dr. D.V. Singh, Professor & Chairman, Department of Mathematics, NIT, Kurukshetra. 10, Prof. G. Prema, Department of Mathematics, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Coimbatore. 11. Dr. B.B. Mishra, Associate Professor and Head, Department of Mathematics, KIIT (DU), Bhubaneshwar.HIGHER ENGINEERING | MATHEMATICS PART! PRELIMINARIES > oe 1 Vector Algebra, Theory of Equations, and Complex NumbersChapter 1 Preliminaries Vector Algebra, Theory of Equations, and Complex Numbers WRG INTRODUCTION The preliminary Chapter 1 contains an elementary treatment of Vector Algebra, Theory of Equations, and Complex Numbers. Vector Algebra and Ana- lytical Solid Geometry are prerequisites for Vector Differential Calculus of Chapter 15 and 16. The the- ory of equations deals with the analytical solutions of cubic and quartic equations while several numerical methods for solutions of algebraic and transcenden- tal equations are considered in the Chapter 32 on Numerical Analysis. Complex numbers is the intro- ductory part for the complex function theory dealt in Chapters 22, 23, 24 and 25. 1.1 VECTOR ALGEBRA ‘Vectors are very useful in engineering mathematics since many rules of vector calculation are as simple as that of real numbers and is a shorthand simplifying several calculations. Vector analysis was introduced by Gibbs.” Scalars are physical quantities which possess only magnitude and are completely defined by a single real number. Examples: Mass, temperature, volume, kinetic en- ergy, 8 length, voltage, time, work, electric charge. Vectors are physical quantities which possess both ‘magnitude and direction. Thus geometrically vectors are directed line segment (or an arrow) which are determined completely by their magnitude (length) and direction. Examples: Force, velocity, acceleration, momen- tum, displacement, weight. ‘Vectors are denoted by lower case bold face type letters a or by an arrow overhead the letter as @ or. “Tosiah Willard Gibbs (1830-1003), American mathematician wwoe A Fig. 11 A vector a depicted as an arrow (directed line seg- ment) has a tail A known as the initial point (or ori- gin) and a tip B known as the terminal point (or terminus). The magnitude (or absolute value) of a vector 7 (length of the directed line segment) is denoted by Ja] or a (non bold face). It is also known as norm (or Euclidean norm) of a. Unit vector is a vector of unit magnitude (i.e., of Jength 1). If @is any vector of non zero magnitude (a #0), then # is a unit vector in the direction of @ie., a unit vector is obtained by dividing it by its magnitude. Zero (or null) vector is a vector of zero magnitude and has no specified direction. Equality: Two vectors @ and b are said to be equal, denoted as a = b, if both @ and & have the same magnitude and same direction without regard to theit initial points (also known as free* vectors). Thus a vector can be moved parallel to itself without any change. Negative of a vector @, denoted by ~ having the same magnitude as Z but having opposite direction. Note: Length of —@is not negative. FAIA Y hes \ Baka aed o (b) () (@) Fig. 1.2 Scalar multiplication a is a vector of magnitude lala and having the same direction of @, if « > 0 and of opposite direction if a < 0. “In contrast, bound vectors are fixed vectors and are restricted to their inital points (such as application of force at a point) Here |ar| is the absolute value of the scalar a Unequal: @, B, are said to be unequal, written as @# b when magnitudes of @ and b are different or direction of @ and b or both magnitudes and direction of @ and B are different. In vector algebra, addition, subtraction and multi- plication of vectors are introduced. Addition To obtain the sum or resultant of two vectors @ and, move b so that initial point of b coincides with the ter- minal point of @. Then the sum of @ and b, written as @ +B, is defined by the vector (arrow) from theinitial point of @ to the terminal point b. Similarly placing the tail of 7 with the tip of B, the resultant b + 7 is obtained. Thus the vector addition follows the par- allelogram law of adcition, ic., the resultant of a parallelogram with] and & as adjacent sides is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram. Vector addi- tionis commutatived + 6 = b+ Gandis associative Difference a-b=a+(-b) Rectangular unit vectors: Fig. 14 Consider a right handed rectangular coordinate sys- tem Leti, j,k be unit vectors along the positive X, ¥ and Z axes, Let p(x, y,z) be any point and 0(0, 0,0) be the origin.Fig. 15 Positive vector F of a point P(x, y, z) is OP with origin O as the initial point and P as the terminal point. Now 7 can bination of the unit vee: tors 7, j, K. Here OA = xi, AB = yj and BP = zk since x, y, z are the lengths of 0.4, AB and BP re- spectively andi, j,k are unit vectors in the positive X,Y, Z axes, By vector addition Fig. 1.6 Generalizing this, if P(x1,y1.21) and Q(x2, 2.22) be any two points, then the vec- tor P Q can be represented as PO = - xi +(2- (2 -zvk| Here x2 — 11, 2 — y1,22 — 21 are known as compo- nents of PQ in the X,Y, Z directions. Now IPOI= Vee nF +02 - PF —aP which is the distance between the points P and Q (and thus the length or modulus of the vector PQ). With this the earlier definitions can be expressed in terms of the components. Suppose @ = ayi + a2 + ask and b= byi + bz] + b3k. Then B if a; = b for i = 1,2,3 ice., their corre- sponding (respective) components are equal 2@ =0 Oifa =a = 3. TAB = (ay + by)i + (az £b2)j + Gb dDK i.e., addition (subtraction) by adding (subtracting) the corresponding components. 4. at = aa + aay] + cask ice., scalar multipli- cation amounts to multiplication of each compo- nent. Multiplication (a) Inner product or scalar product or dot product of two vectors @ and &, is denoted by @- b, read as dot 5, is defined as [alibi cose a where @ is the angle between @ and 5 and lies in the interval 0 < @ < x. Note that dot product is a scalar ‘quantity. It is positive, zero or negative depending on whether @ is acute angle, right angle or obtuse angle. Thus for non-zero vectors. a implies that @ = § ie.,@ and B are perpendicular or orthogonal to each other. Now @-@ = [a|la|cos0 = lar or = Ve-G= fai tay tad For the unit vectors we have i-j=j-k=k-i=0| and ii=j-j=k-k=1} The dot product in the component form is @ (ai + aj + ask) (yi + baj + bak) 1b) + azba + asb3 ie., sum of the products of the corresponding com- ponents. Properties -b=5-a (Commutative) +G+0 = @-5)+ @- c) Distributive) - (ab + BO) =ad- b + Pa-T (Linearity) a20 0 iff =0 (Positive definiteness) Repe ara AI AI AL4, Angle The angle 0 between two vectors Zand Dis defined as Note: Direction cosines of a vector @ are the cosine of the angles which@ makes with x, y,z axes and are given bya: Ee respectively. i far fai" 2. Projection Since |b| cos 4 is the projection of b on A,a- b = ((@l)({b| cos 8) is the product of |a] and {b| cos@, ie. product of length of @ and projection of on 7. Similarly - b can be interpreted as the product of length of b with the projection of a on b. ie. dot product is length of either multiplied by projection Of the other upon it. Thus the scalar projection of @ in the direction of b is acosé = and vector projection of @ in the direction of Bis z x acos0)? = (a ( 5 ( [| cose Fig. 1.7 3. Work done by a force The work done by acon- stant force F in moving an object through adistance = (magnitude of force in the direction of motion) (distance moved) a = (F cos Md) = (b) Vector product (or cross product) Vector product of two. vectors a and b, denoted by 7 x b, read as @ cross b, is defined as axb=|aliblsinow|, O Sor for any transcendental equations. In these cases, one has to resort to numerical methods to find an approximate solution (or root). For an algebraic equation solution is x = tion ax? + bx +e FE) = agx" + aya"! fag"? $+ +a, =O (a) There are exactly 1 real or complex roots (where iis degree of the equation). Roots need not be distinct. (b) has at least one real root whose sign is opposite to that of the last term a, ifm is odd (c) f(a) is the remainder when f(x) is di (x -a) ied by (d) Complex roots occur in conjugate pairs, when the coefficients ap, a), - In are real. (©) The following relations hold good between the roots and coefficients of equation (i) [4 = sum of the roots i) sum of the product of the roots taken two a ata time Gii) = = sum of the product of the roots taken three at a time. (iv) (1) = product of the roots. (f) Atleast one root lies between a and 6 if f(a) and f(b) are of different (opposite) signs. 1.3. CARDANO’S’ METHOD Cardano’s method obtains algebraic solution of a cu- bic equation. Cardano published this result in 1545 in Ars Magna (also credited to Tartaglia and Ferraro and Vieta (1591)). Consider the general type of cubic equation aver +extd =0 wo Dividing by a”, we get the equation wtb text+d=0 Q) This equation can be reduced to a simpler form by removing the x? term by the substitution (3) so 3 5 wh Su + 3u (e-§ or where p = 3 To solve the standard cubic equation put wayte (6) * Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576), Italian mathematician.y +z =y +2) + 3yzly+2) sy tot 3yu 3 ow 3y — (3 +2)=0 fay comparing (4) and (7), we get p= —3yz and g=-O8 +2) or yz=—§ ie, y3e? or y= # ie = and y +723 =-g ‘Then y? and z? are the solutions (roots) of the quadratic equation Pp P+g-L=0 tat— Since sum of the roots of (8) is y? +: product of the roots of (8) is yz? = the quadratic equation (8), we get ~atVP+4e -a fe z a eyo +5 10) (8) 4 and , -§. Solving (ay Case (i) Suppose R > 0, then y* and z* are both real and the roots cubic equation (4) are y + z, wy + wz, 07 y +02. (12) Here w= =, 9? = !5¥ and wo? = @ = 1.(1,@, 0? are cube roots of unity such that 1+ +o? =0). Hence the required roots of the given cubic equa- tion (2) are (3) Case (ii) If R = 0, then equal roots y the roots of (4) are y +2, vw +), yw + @) or 2y,-y,-¥ a4) (since @ +” = —1 and y = 2) Hence roots of (2) are (as) Case Git R z2 oF zi < z> has no mean- ing since the field of complex numbers can not be ordered. Thus 2 +3i > 3 + 7i or—6— 2 |Re(2)1 > Re(z) Qlzl > Wm(z)| = Im Complex Algebra Addition Sum of two complex numbers a t22 = Gy tiv) + (x2 +i92) = = G1 +22)+ 101 +92) obtained by adding the corresponding real and imag- inary parts. Fig. 1.24 So sum of two complex numbers z; + z2 is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram with z; and z) as adjacent sides (Fig. 1.24). Difference Subtraction 21 — <2 is defined a~22= (1 —y)+iOi —y) So | l—zl = VOr- P+ Qi - 2 ‘Thus the modulus of the difference between two numbers z1 and 2 equals to the distance between 2) and zp fin the complex plane (see Fig. 1.25)]. Multiplication Za 22 = 1 + EG tie) = (4142 — Y1y2) + i@iy2 + x2y1) Since i? = -1, (i . Tete. and in general i a1, Me Ly, 2 oy, ie Si), In the polar form Suppose 21 = ry cis 8, <2 = r2cis6; then Zz2 = (rn cis A }(r2 cis A) = rirafcos@; +i sin @\][cos 8» + isin 82] = rira{(cos 6, cos 62 ~ sin @, sin s)+ +i(sin @ - cos @ + cos -sin62)) Thus z = re = 2122 Zita = riraleos(6 +2) + isin@®, + O2)] Thus the modulus of the product is the product of the moduli ie., r= |z] = rrp = [z1l|z21 and the argument of the product is the sum of the arguments, iue., 8 = 8) +02. or arg(ziz2) = anges + arg zz. Division 31 is defined as the inverse operation of multiplica- tion. Thus the quotient z= + is defined as z zh In practice © is obtained by multiplying the nu- ‘merator or denominator by Z, the conjugate of z2. Im(z) = Im (2) = 2 Note that z ‘Thus for any »Rezax=he+D Im y=he-9 z= Tthen z must be real na ita) = Uz =nth yeep6. (2) =i a) % In polar form el 2 7r2(cos A + ry(cos + ising) in @) = A feostes — 65) +i sin — | 2 ‘Thus the modulus of the quotient is quotient of the moduli ie., Ll and the argument of the quotient is the difference between the argu- mentsie.,@ = 6) — Qorarg (2) = argzy — argz2. Triangle inequality Book work: Prove that tals lal+lzl Proof Let zy = x1 + iy2, 22 = x2 + iy2. Then con- sider Jai +22] = lz] +1z21 Yeu ra? +0149) 5 feb toh fd td ‘Squaring on both sides Gr FY + Ont 2? SOT + PF OF HDT 4 2fxtt yt ide or or in general Result 2. |zy —z21 = [zi] —tzall Since [zi] = [21-22 +22] S ler — 22) +1z2l Similarly Result 3, Jz) + zal 2 Uzi] — [zal Result 4. Jz: — zal > [eul — [zal Result 5. |zy + zal? + za — zal? = 2(jzn? + |zal*) (known as parallelogram equality) (Hint: Use |z1 +22)? =r} +73 + 2rir.cos(@2 — 64), and [zy — zal? =r} + 73 — 2rir. cos) ~ 6) De Moivre’s Theorem: Power of complex numbers: Let zi = ri cis, 22 = racists +++ 29 = ry Cis 8,. Then by the product rule in polar form, we get Zp 206+ Zn = (ry Cis Oy Nr2 Cis O2)... (ty Cis Oy) (nro. -raMcis 0: Ncis A)... (cis Bn) = (ira. .ta) cis) +82 +++ +O) Thus Cis 8) «cis Oy ...cis 6, = cis Oi +O +--+ Hy) If we choose z) = 2" =r" cis n@ or for choice of n = 2 = cis 6 then 1, we get xy + x21 + Ye Squaring again on both sides <2yrit+y +y} @) +.2POr +m? s GPF yPGF+ yD or 2x yo Safye+ yi .€., (8192 — X2y,)? = O which is always true. Thus [21+ 221 = [zil+ lel Note: Geometrically the triangle inequality states that the sum of the two sides of a triangle [zi] + {za} is greater than the third side of the triangle l21 + 22]. The equality sign holds good i.e., 2) + zo] = [zi] + [zo] when the triangle degenerates into a straight line. Result 1: Generalization Iai tz2 4231 S zl +1221 + lest (cos@ +i sin @)" = cosné + i sinnd which is known as De Moivre’s theorem. In a similar way isd)! = +(cos 9 — i sind) 4 = A eeisoy-" = J (cos nd —isinné) PoP ™ (Sanaa (cos +i sin 8)" = cos nd — i sinn® De Moivre's theorem is valid for all rational values of n (including positive, negative integral values and zero). cis mn (cis moy"1.6 ROOTS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS Let z = w” where n is an integer t, 2, 3, .. .. This is a single-valued function which associates a unique value z for each c», Now consider the inverse function VE which is multivalued, namely 1 valued. For any given z # Oand the given integer n, there corresponds pre- cisely n distinct values of @ which are known as the nroots of z. Thus the ™ root of a complex number is another complex number whose nth power is equal to the radicand. To determine these 1 roots, let «@ = R(cos@ + i sing) and z = r(cos@ +i sind). Then a" = [Ros +i sin p))" Ricosng +i sinng) r(cos@ + i sin 6) by using De Moivre’s theorem. Since the moduli of equal complex numbers must be equal, while their amplitudes may circle with centre at origin and of radius r'/". They constitute the 1 vertices of a regular polygon of n sides inscribed in the circle, spaced at equal angular intervals of , beginning with the radius whose angle is ¢. Principal value of @ = 2'/" is obtained for k = 0. and by taking principal value of argument of z. In particular, the 1" roots of a real non-zero num- ber A also has n values since the real number A can be expressed in trigonometric form as A= |Al(cos@ +i sin@) = | Alcis 0 for A > 0. and A= |Al(cosx +isinx) = |Alcis x for A <0 Solution of Binomial Equation ‘The n roots of the binomial equation waa differ by a multiple of 21, we have RY =r andng = 6 4 ke or R = Yr where the root is real positive and 8+ 2kn ” g= where k is an integer. For k = 0, 1,2,:+(n — 1) we get n different roots since for these values of k, defines n distinct angles which identify n different complex numbers. But as k takes 7+ 1,-+- or ~1,~2,..., the same angles @ are repeated again and again, thus giving the root values that coincide with those (already) obtained. Thus the n™ root of a complex number has n distinct values given by a (2) r*| cos ” +isin(*42")] wy where k=0,1,2.....0-1 Geometrically, these 1 values are given by " 2kr 2k we I (cos 2 + isin =) 2 for k =0, 1,2,....n — | when A is a real positive number, In particular the 1" roots of unity (for A = 1) are given by Qka 2k 1" = (cos + isin), 4 = 0, Mees n similarly when A is a teal negative number, then on( 2) sme (=2] @) for k =0,1,2.....(n—1). In particular the nt roots of —1 (for A = —I) are given by ¢ 222) 4 iin (7422) fork =0,1,2,...0r— 0). When A is a complex number, these 1 values of x are obtained from (1). Now the general rational power of a.complex number is defined as (-D! = cos elt (ult)? = [rvvsiet tA)” q =rrlteis AG + 2m) fork =0,1,2,....¢-1Workep Out Examples Example 1: Express in the form a+ ib and find ‘its modulus. 3+i 1+ i2 +38 @) (Sees = Biss sis10 = = Se nos ©) Se = aehae = ASSH 1S 9419) _ 9 | DI 7 7 7°17 modules =|=%)9"| = (8) + (8) = VB Example 2: Express V3 +i in the modulus am- plitude form and find the principal argument of V3 +i. Solution: x +i. V3 +i, 90 x =-Vv3, 1, then r= x? +y? = VSFT = V4 =V3 = rcosé = 2c0sd. Socos@ = =33 and y = 1 =rsin@ = 2sind, so sin@ = } -cos is negative and sine positive. @ in the 2nd quadrant O=7-242nn = ¥ £2nm,n=0,1,2,... Bam) moulus amplitude form of —J3 +i is 2¢il where 2 is the modulus and 6 = 5 + 2nz is the amplitude (or argument). The principal argument lies —n <0 <7. Thus % is the principal argument. Example 3: Solve the equation 4, — 44 = 0 given that x and y are real. Solution: iy 3yt4i__iycixt+D | Gy +40 ixtl 3ety Ge+DCi+) Grt+y) xytiy Gy+4i) ~ 14x? ~ Gx+y) (xy + iy)Bx + y) — 1 +27)3y + 41) = 0 or yxy — 3) +iGay + y?— 4x7 - 4) =0 (xy — 3) = Oand 3xy + y? — 4x? —4 =0. If y = 0,then.x? +1 = 0, Since xisreal,x? +1 =0 is not possible. Thus y # 0. Assume y # Othen.xy = 3ory 3x 34+ 3 —4x2-4 or 4x4—$x?-~9=0 or (4x? — 9x? +1) =0. Since x is real, x? +1 40. Then 4x? - 9 = 0 or x=t} Thus x 2, Bliminating y, 1.5, y = + 2 are the solutions, Example 4: (+dz24+- HF Determine the curve represented by 0. Solution: (x? + y?)+ (1+ ix + iy)+ (l-A)@ -iy) =00rx? + 2x4 y?-2y= Rewriting (x + 1? +(y — 1? =(V2); which is the equation of a circle with centre at (—1, 1) and of dius V2. Example Locate the points 21 =9+i, z2= 4+ 13i, z3 = —8 + 81 and z 3 — 4i in the Ar- gand diagram and show that these four points form a square. Solution: Distance between zy and zp = length of the side AB =l-2) = 9-§-@- 131) = [5 412i) = VI5+ 14 = V169 = 13 Similarly ley — zal = [17 — Ti] = V338 ler — cal = [12 — Si] = V144-425 = 13 lz2— {12 — Si] = 13 igo — 24] = |7 + 17i| = V338 ia — cal = 1-54 12i] = 13 Since AB = AD = BC = CD (these four sides are equal) the four points z1. 22, 23, 24 form a square in the Argand diagram (complex plane).Example 6: Show that multiplication of acomplex number by ‘i” corresponds to a counterclockwise rotation of the corresponding vector through the angle ©. Solution: Lethe complex numberbez = x +iy = 1(cos@ + i sin@) = re, Then creel arel@+m® iz =ire* Thus the argument of iz is @ + $ which is ¥ more than the argument of z. Hence OZ is rotated through an angle % in the counterclockwise direction. zk Y¥ x +5 ° r Fig. 1.27 Example 7: Determine the domain in the z-plane represented by (a) 3 <|z—4| <5 (b) Im(z) <6 (©) 3 @+iy)-2 &-D4iy GB +iQ — DG iy] (@ =2) +HMG —2 — Fy] +0 — DO Solution: Rewriting (2? —2x +1) +07-y+)=§ or 3 (4) . Thus the locus of isa circle with center at (1, $) and radius Fig. 1.31 De Moivre’s Theorem Example 10: Simplify ‘oSt=sinsoFicosit +1 in 70) Solution: Using De Moivre’s theorem (cos 58 — i sin 58)? = cas 10 — i sin 108 = (cos +i sina? (cos 76 +i sin70)~> = cos 210 —é sin 210 = (cos@ +i sin@y (cos 4# +4 sin 49)” = = (cosé +i sinoy** 108 369 — i sin 360 Substituting these values in given expression, we get (cos@ +i sin@)-"(cos@ +i sin@y** (cos@ +i sin#)-*(cosé + isin é)> _ (cos + ising)" ~ (cos@ +i sin dy Example 11: Show that [(cosa —cos #)+ i(sing — sin B)J" + [(cos@ — cos f)— (sino ~ sin B)" =tgnn (a2) -cosn (ZE2AL rita (Baan Solution: Put cose — cos B = r-cos0, sina —sinp =r sing wo Then r? = (cosa — cos f)? + (sina — sin B)* = cos*a+cos* B—2cosa - cos f+sin? a+sin? B — 2sine sin =2—2cosacosf —2sinasing = 2 —[cos(a + f) + cos(a — B)] —{cos(a — p) —cos(a + B)} =2—2cos(a — B) = 2(1 —cos(@ — B)) 2-2 sin? (25? Sor =2sin (234) ore” = 2%sinn (34) @) Now using (1) eliminating «, 6 in terms of r and 8. [(cosa — cos B) + i(sina — sin A)!" +[(cosa ~ cos B) — i(sin a — sin B)}" = (rc0s6 + irsin 8)" + (r.cos@ — irsingy" = r"[cosnd +i sin + cos nd — i sin nd] =7"-2-cosnd 8) A cosa ~ cose Fig. 1.32 rsin@ sina —sinB e030 — cosa—cosp” Now from (1) tan = cosa—cosf _ cosar— cos, e089 = S084 — 0088 _ BThus 9 = $+ ¢2 Then cosnd = cosn (3 + SH @ Substituting (3) and (4) in (2), we get the required result as ” inn (2B) . 5. x atB 2 sian (: 3 ) a-oon(S + 7 ) Example 12: If z= cis 0 and w = cis show that al" +2-"a™ = 2cos(mO + ng). Solution: Consider 2"ay" + za" = (cis 6)"(cis $Y" + (cis 0)-™(cis ¢)” (using De Movire’s theorem) = (cosm6 + i sin m@\cosng + isinng) + (cosmO — i sinmO)(cos np — i sinnp) = (cos m0 « cosnd — sin m@ « sin ng) = cos(md +np) Example 13: If sina +2sinf +3siny =0 and cosa +2cos 6 +3cos y = 0 then prove that sin3o + 8sin 36 +27sin3y = 18sin(a + B+) and cos3a + 8cos3B + 27cos y = 18cos(e +B + ¥) Solution: Puta =cis a,b = cis B,c = cis y. Then @+2b +3c =cisa + 2cis B + 3cisy = (cosa +i sina) + 2(cos 6 + isin B) + 3cosy +isiny) = Cosa +2c0s A+ 3cosy) +i(sine +2 sin B+ 3siny) =0-+i- 0 = Ousing the given hypothesis. ‘Thus (a + 2b) = —3c Cubing on both sides (a+ 2) = -27¢8 a® + 8b + 3a? - 2b + 3a- 4b? = =27c7 a 4 8b + 6ab(a + 2b) = —27c8 a? + 8b? + 6ab(—3c) = —27c* a? +86" +27c* = Babe (cisa)® + 8(cisB) + 27(cisy)* = 18 - cise cis cisy (cos 3a + i sin3a) + 8(cos 36 + i sin3B) + 21cis 3y + isin3y) = 18 cista+ 6 +y) or (cos 3a + 8 cos 38 +27 cos 3y) + i(sin3a + 8sin 36 + 27sin3y) = 18{cos(a +B +y)+isin@e +6 +y)] ‘On comparing the real and imaginary parts on both sides, the two required results are obtained. ——SSe Workeo Our ExamPLes: Extraction of Roots Example 1: Solve z4 + 1 = 0 and locate the roots in the argand diagram. Solution: 24 =—1s02 =(—1)}. Consider =| = x +iy sox = —I, y = 0; then /i+y=Ji=t 00,0 =y=rsing rel? = Let = (-1} = ricis (2 bis (4280) eis (222) Fig. 1.33Fork = 0,21 = cos} +isin 3 = ts + 45 = 40+ e ae Bei pol, Fork = 1,22 = cos? + isin? = — + = Arto For k = 2,2; = cos + isin & =4C1-i Fork = 3,2, = cos? +isin 3 = = il -i) Thus the four roots of (~1)4 are 45(£1 £1), ie, Z1, 2, Z3, Z4 are the solutions of the given equation. ‘The four roots lie on a circle of radius ‘one’ making angles +, 32, 5* and 7 respectively with the positive. x-axis, Example 2: Find all solutions of the equation (144i) +47 =0 Solution: Then z? — 1 = 0 and z? = 4i or z = +1 and zatWi But i= (e772 =e 50 ger kz"! oe +2 z=+l, (Jy+igy)- The solutions are £1, +V2(1 +i). Example 3: Find all values of (-1 +i V3)" Solution: Let -1+iV3=x+iy, 50 x y= VJ3.Then /x? VIt3=V4 ~l=x=rcosé V3=y 2c0s6, so cosé = —} sin@ =2sin8, so sind = —4=%. Thus =1+iV3 = rel? = 20% Now (14 iv3? = (et )" =¢ = Vee PY) with k= 0.1 gei2*y12 = VBe* = — V8 = -2V2 tork =0 = V8" = +V8 = 2V?2 fork = 1 ‘Thus the solutions are +2,V2. Example 4: Find the n roots of unity or solve Solution: l=xtiy. 16, Then z= V/nell 0,1,...,48-1) Fork=0,z=1 For 1a; ™ = cos +i Fork = 2,0) = eter = (cos + isis = (cos ® +7 sin 2) For k= 3, ay =e" = Thus for k=(@—1), (is) =0f 7 Therefore, the n distinct roots of unity are 1, «, w, 0", Here Qn. on = cos — +i sin — ” ” w=e obtained for 4 = 1 isknownas the primitive n" root of I (i.e., root with the smallest non-zero angle). In the Argand diagram, these n roots of unity are rep- resented by n distinct vertices of a regular polygon of n sides inscribed in a unit circle spaced at angu- lar intervals of =, beginning with one vertex at the Cube roots: 77 Ath roots: 47 5th roots: 9 4,8; v2! © 9=0.2x,4x, 6, Ox 1-328; SESS Fig, 1.34 Fig. 1.35 Fig. 1.36 Example 5: If w is a complex 4th root of unity, prove that 1 +o+a7 +o =0k=0,1,2,3,4. ‘Then @ corresponds _ root with k=1. Thus for lL welt? Now Iltot+oe?+o@=1ti¢P? ti? 1+i-1-i=0 Example 6: Solve the equation 27+ 24 +2) + 1=0. 0. for which @ = 1 is a root (solution). By synthetic division. 42 1 0 —2w+2=(0- iw -2)=0 Solution: Observe that z= —1 is a solution of the given equation since (—1)’ +(—1)4 + (=1)3 + 1 = Thu: = | and oe By synthetic division, Solving z*— z+ 1=0 and z get: = VES = Lay ang 1 1 0 0 1 1 o 0 1 -1 1-1 0 -1 1 - _tvitv2=4 _ 414i T-r-1 0 1 -1T 2 nl Jette ti= @+Deo-S+A42-7241)=0 Now consider fa S+2427 Dividing by z?, -z+1=0 (9-6 ae) Putw =z+ 4, then Hence the seven solutions of the equation are Example 7: Determine the roots common to the equations z* + 1 = Oand 2 - i =0. Solution: The roots of 441=0 arc z= (-D"4 = 1 - cis (# with k = 0,1,2.3 ie., cist, cis¥, ci Similarly the roots of 2° — i are z = i1/6 = 1 “as (4) fork = 0,1,2,3.4,5 iewcish, si, cis, cise, Note that det = cis: Fm aa 4 12 4 andcis! = + — 4 = cis22f arethetwocommon roots. Thus the are the common solu- tions. Example 8: 2cos #, 2cos Find the equation whose roots are +2cos %. Solution: Letz = cos +i sin@ = cis0. Then ‘= 0..Note that @ = 0 cor- responds to 2 jow by synthetic divisionFig. 1.37 Rewrite J-1ls@-DE +S + FHF ¢74+24+H=0 de 4a, 6x, 8 Thus 6 = 2, 44, SF, 8, the equation lox | 12 Spee corresponds to Be FeeeFeetz+1=0 Dividing throughout by z’, 1 1 S+tctlto+gt z°2 1 1 245) +(2+5)+(cr)+1-0 3 z z 3 2 oc (e+!) -3(c+4)+(e42) - z z z -2+(c+!)+1=0 z de, (+1) + (e442. (4) 41=0 1 z=0 or put 2 + 4 = (cos +i sind) + (cosd —i sind) =2c088 = 0 Then the above solution reduces to ao +07 -20+1 observe that = cos (2n — &) = cos cos == = cos (2x ~ —*) = cos, 4x Hence 2 cos £.,2cos #%.,2 cos % are the roots of the equation w + w? — 20 +1=0. Example 9: Express sin” 4 in sines of multiplies of 8. Solution: Let z=cis®, then z 2? = cisp?, 3 = cos pO — isin p9, so 2? — 3 2i sin p8 Consider (2i sin)” = 2” -i?- sin” @ = (¢— 3)" S78 b+ 2d oe —35e4 St 435-DA MPRA F =("-3 7(e- $)+21(2+4)- 35(2-4) 76 — 7-2 sin 50 + 21 - 2i - sin30— — 35 -2isin@ Simplifying 26 sin’ @ = 35sin9 — 21 sin 30 + 7 sin 59 —sin70 Here the RHS is expressed in sines of multiples of 8. Example 10: Show that 32sin* 9 - cos? 8 = cos 60 — 2.cos 44 — cos 20 +2 Solution: When z = cis@, then z+! =2cos@ and z — 1 = 2 sin6; consider 2” + 4 = 2cos p6. Consider (2i sin @)*(2cos0)? = (z — ay (e+ ye (#-42?-t +62 3-42-44 4) x 1 x(#4244) 2 1 1 I (2-42 46-4345) (2+2+5) ~(¢+3)-2(¢+2)-(0+3) 4 ‘Then = 200s 66 —2-2cos4¢ —2-cos26+4 24. i4sin4@ - 2? . cos? @ = 2[cos64 — 2cos40— = 00826 +4] 32 sin @- cos? @ = cos 60 — 2.cos 44 — cos 20+ +4 Exercise 1. Express in a +ib form and find modulus of @ om OH wee 7 tar eaAns. Ans. Ans. Ans. Ellipse with foci at (a) 6V3 (b) 2¥? (@) =} (a) -2 +47, V20 (by HS 1 © M2 - V3-12 + VIF =H, AB Find the modulus and amplitude of @ 52 yi tsina+icose (©) 1—cosa +isine (d) 2 +2V3i @ 14, a & ViVTF ang, F- (© 2sin §. @4,¥ Show tat L +41, 247i and 3+ 101 are collinear Hint: 2 + 7i — (1 + 41) =1+3%,3 + 10i— =(1+4i) =24 61 so 143i = 2(1 + 3i) 2465 Determine the region in complex plane repre- sented by (a) 1 < |z+ 2i| <3 (b) Re(z)>3 (©) X < amp(z) < 4 (a) Annulus region between the concentric cir- cles with centre at (0, 2) and radii | and 3. (b) right open plane to the right of the line x= (©) wedge repion inte first quadrant bounded by the rays @ = 5, Determine the locus given by le-1+hz+1)=3 2 = £1 and major axis 3 If zy = 244i and z, = 3 — Si. Verify that @Grw=1t20Gm) o@)=% If z) = 4 + 3i and zp = 2 — Si, find (@) z1z2 (b) + (©) Re(z}) @ (Rez)* ©ak zz )z/z (a) 23 — 144 (6) 0.16 - 0.12 (c) —44 (@) 64 (© -7 +261 (f) -7— 26: (h) (-7 = 261/29 Izy = -2 + 2i and zy = 34 then find @lazt o©|s| (co) argzyz2 (d) arg OF Hint: = 222 =-6-6i, q+), 10. Ans. 12. 13, 14, 15. argc 35, arger = F Verify the triangle inequality for @21=243i,2=4-i @a=14i, aati Hint: (a) |z1 + ze] = 16+ 2i] lal + lal = VB + VI7 73, (b) dey + 22] = 11 + Bi] = V65 = 8.063, teal = V2, [zal = 7, lal + lel = V24+7= 1414 +7 = 8.414 De Moivre’s Theorem Show that (cos.40 — i sin40)5x (cos40 + sin 40) x (cos 30+ isin 30)* x (cos50 + isin5é)' = 1 Simplify (1 +cos@ +i sin@y"(1 + cos6 — isinay’ +41 can caged 21. cost 4 - cos Mf Vi = 6.32, Hint: Put 1+ cos@ = rcosar, sin@ = sina, r=2eos$,0 = 2 If z = cis, show that (a) z? + 35 = 2cos po ) 5 =2isinpe@ = @OSHL= cosnt Sonn) * Show that cos3+cos3f + cos3y = 3cosa + B+y) and sin3a +sin3p + sin3y = 3sin(a +f +y)ifsine +sinB +siny =Oand cosa + cos 6 +cosy =0 Hint: Puta = cis a,b = cisB,c =cisy,a° + B+} = 3abe Prove that (a) 14cosé 4 cos 26 +. a “35g () sind + sin 29 +--+ sinnd = 3 cot $ — = +c0snd = 34 Hint: Use L4+z4+27+-5-42 when z # 1. ‘Show that cy) cos4@ = cost # — 6.cos*@ - sin? 6 + sin’ @ (b) sin 4@ = 4(cos? 9 - sin — cos - sin’ 4)16. Ans, 17. 18. Ans. 19. Ans. 20. Ans. 21. Ans, Hint: Expand (cis0)* by De Moivre's theorem and binomial expansion. Expand (a) 128 - cos‘ 4 in a series of cosines of multi- ples of @ () 512 -sin’ @ - cos* @ in a series of sines of multiples of 8. (a) cos 89 + 8 cos 64 + 28 cos 40 + 56cos20 435 (b) 14sin 26 — 8 sin 46 — 3sin 60 + 4sin80 — sin 108 Roots If is a complex cube root of unity, show that ltoto?=0 4 1 Hint: o = —5 +74}, 0% Solve the binomial equation z+ £1, ti Hint: 1 = cis, k = 0,1, 2,3 Find all the (a) square (b) cube roots of i (a tJ5(1 +i) (b)-i, 2 Hint: (a) i? = cis (($ + 2k) /2),k = 0.1 (d) i = cis ((F + 2k) /3),k =0, 1,2 Solve the binomial equation 2° = —32 2eis((a + 2kzr)/5) for k = 0, 1, 2.3.4. Hint: —32 in polar form is 32- cist, sor = 2, 7 Find all roots of (a) (—i)'/? (b) 8” (a) i, £53 - § ) V2, (41 21V3)/V2 Hint: (a) eo, ral, O=~-3, (-i)'? = cis ((F + Ler) /3),k = 0,1,2,3 bur (b)8 = 8e",r = 8,0 =0,8"" k=0,1,2,3,4,5 22. Ans, 23. Ans. Ans. 25. Ans. Find the fourth roots of —8i 8!/4cis ((3E + 2kzr) /4) fork = 0,1, 2,3 Hint; —8/ = 8cis. Find all distinct values of (a) (-1 - i) (&) (+ V31)/294 (2) 2Scis (242), & = 0,1, 2,3, 4 Hint: (a) Beles. ( = AVScisSar (b) cis(2k + 1) J fork = 0,1, 2,3 Hint: (b) ($+ ay = (cist) Hint: (2+ Ie — 23 +22 2+) 1 = Owhose roots are eis (SUE) fork = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 Out of these for k = 2, cist = -1 is deleted. Find the equation whose roots are 2cos $, 2cos*¥,2cos . (222) with k= 6, deleting the six roots of 26-25 +24 is, with 1,2, 1 corresponding to ayHIGHER ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS PART-II DIFFERENTIAL AND INTEGRAL CALCULUS Chapter 2 Differential Calculus Chapter 5. Partial Differentiation Chapter 4 Maxima and Minima Chapter 5 Curve Tracing Chapter 6 Integral Calculus Chapter 7 Multiple Integrals Vv vv VvChapter 2 Differential Calculus INTRODUCTION Calculus is one of the most beautiful intellectual achievements of human being. The mathematical study of change, motion, growth or decay is calculus. One of the most important ideas of differential calcu- lus is derivative which measures the rate of change of a given function. Concept of derivative is very useful in engineering, science, economics, medicine and computer science. In this chapter we study the 300-year old Mitchel Rolle’s theorem, Lagrange's mean value theorem which connects the average rate of change of a function over an interval with the in- stantaneous rate of change of the funetion at a point within thatinterval, generalized mean value theorem (Taylor's theorem) which enables to express any dif- ferentiable function in power series, namely Taylor's and Maclaurin’s series. We also consider the prob- Jem of finding curvature, evolutes and envelope of a curve. Suppose a function y = f(x) = x4 + e* + 3sin4x is differentiated wrt. x, then we get the first order derivative of y denoted by v' = /’ 34 2er 4 12cos4x which is itself a function of +. tiating y’ again wart. x, we get the second order derivative, denoted as y” =f” = 12x? +4e" - 48 sin 4x, which isagain a function of x. So by differ- entiating a second order derivative, we get the third order derivative and so on. Thus by differentiating a function y = f(x), times successively, we get the nth order derivative of y or simply mth derivative of feren- y denoted by y'"(x), fx), Dy, $F of yalx). Note: The order of the derivative is taken in paren- theses so as to avoid confusion with the exponent of a power. The order of the derivative is also denowd sometimes by Roman numerals for example 4th, 5th, 6th order derivatives are denoted by y. y*, y*' etc. 2.1 DERIVATION OF nth DERIVATIVE OF ‘SOME ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS Power Function Consider y = (ax +b)", where m is any real num- ber. Differentiating y wat. x, successively, we get y= amtax + by" yz = mon — 1Yax + by"? a? 2Max +b)" -a3 y3 = mn ~ 1)(m — After n differentiations, Yamin — Whom ~ 2)- +m — 9 — Daa + 5" Case a: When m is a positive integer, then 23-21 x mim —1 yon (a= 1ym=n)) ” > (many 32d xat(ax +by"—" ———a"ax +b". ae. (n= ai (ax +b) dinfex+or"| = Case b: | When m =n =a positive integer a" af) tte 0 tn Stas + by | = Fatax +BYa constant. Case ce: When n > m, then jn =0 i.e., all the derivatives of orderm + I,m +2,m +3 ete. are zero. Cased: When m = —1, then 1 axtb and yy =(—1(-2K—3)--+(— mda” «(ax +b)" al 1 j=ouee ye(artby t= Yn * as" laxtb) ~ ato Case e: If y = In(ax +5), then a Oe tb using result of Case (d) and differentiating (n ~ 1) times air Ita" ae FoF _ at — bla = bat Thus ao iner+ of {So Exponential Function Consider y = a™* Differentiating y west. x, successively, we get yy = ma” «og, a y= mal™ -(log.ay? Yn = mital™ (log, a)". In particular, when a = ¢ In general, ae iieni Moen n= leh = og.ey" = Trigonometric Functions Case a: Suppose y = cos(ax +b). Then : x a =a: sinlax +b) =aces (av +b+2) n= nai B -eostac +4) = ateos (a+ b+ 25) ype ta? - sin(ax +b) = a? cos (ax + +35) Generalizing, = Fa costar +) on a cos (ax+6-+n5). In a similar way, we can get Case bi: aye ng x vem Ff sina +0} sin(ax + b+ n> Product Functions Case a: Consider y = e** - cos(bx + ¢). Differentiating, = ae costhx + c)— e «b+ sin(bx +0) vu mae [e scos(bx +c) — bsin(br + o}- To rewrite this in the form of cos, put a=rcosg, b=rsing. Then yee [cos -cos(bx +0) —r sing sin(bx + o| y = re cous € c+6)} Here r = fa? +F and ¢ = tan“! (4). Differentiating y, again ws.t. x, we get yomrac cos(bx +e +9) — re" -b-sin(br +e +$)- ‘Substituting for @ and b, r= re™rcosg- cos(ox +0+4)— ree or sing -sinbx +049) =re*| cose cos(hx +649) — —sing « sin(bx +c +0] pe ret| cour + +10} Observe that differentiation increases, the power of rand angle @. Thus yee [coun tet >| In general,gi ae -cos(bx+c+n¢), cos(bx + o| = Case b: Ina similar way, we obtain a | ax Hear In= Fan fet sink +o = rle™ . sin(bx + 6+ nd). Case e: When the function f(x) is the product of the powers of sine and cosine functions, then express £(«) as the sum of the sine and cosines of multiples Of the independent variable (angles) and use results in Trigonometric Functions (mentioned above). Example: site conte = (2) cn a 5 COI a 3 o0s2x- cond 1 tl Deora eessnwce Case d: When the function f(x) is an algebraic rational function then using partial fractions f(x) can be decomposed into real linear factors and apply result Power Function. In case, f(x) gets decomposed into complex linear factors, apply Case (d)and use DeMoivre's theorem (cos. + sin.x)" = cosnx + isinnx. Example: Example: Higher Derivatives of Sum ‘We have the obvious formulas a’ iar ROD + 1D ty ax" and Zeno} where c is any arbitrary constant. a Workep Out ExaMPLes Example 1: Find the fifth derivative of x3 Inx. Solution: Let y=x3 inx so yy=3x?Inx +3 6x Inx43x7t 42x; y3=6Inx+6- xb 4342; Example 2: If y = “4 prove that 2y;y3 = Solution: ; yy = EA Ma = (ax + Be ad ~be ~ (ex +p ~ (ex +d? _ 67(ad — be) Be aro Now dyrya = 2 d= HO), Sead ~ be) SS crea (ex tay __ 122 ad ~ be? [=a f= 2 eras era | Example 3: If y=sinh [m log [x +/G2+]], prove that (x? + I)y2 + xy = my. Solution: veoh [mi [rvVoren Jom slit] nae con [mine Vea]. x4ve FI ‘Squaring on both sides (1 +.7)y7 =m? cosh? [m In fs tyett 7] Differentiating (he 2 syrt2ny] 2 2.cosnfmin (xv? xssi nin fH] 1 x»—_L—|u iA. na eal (+ y2y1y2 + 2eyp= InP yy or (14x )y2 tary = my. Example 4: If x a sint, then find {cos + 5 Intan? (5)} and Solution: 42 =acosr dx nex! F = -asint+ 5a - at 2 tan? S ; 1 [- sagt] [-sinr +] sinz dx _ a(l~sin?) dt sinr as dy_(#) ax acoet &y dx? és dx? Example §: Find © ifx? + Baxy. ‘Solution: Differentiating the implicit equation 3x7 +3y7y1 (y? andy (ay ~ 4 Differentiating Qyy1 —ady) +)? — andy Substituting y) (2 —? ax? @ Stxty —2ax?y?)— aay? — Py tax) ~axy= = ax? + Jax*y? or =3a.7)? ay68 + 99) 4ahay + 2? — ax)! Since x’ + y? = 3axy, we have Example 6: Show that D®"(x? — 1)" = (2n)! Solution: In the binomial series expansion of (x? — 1)", the highest power of x is x2". All the remain- ing terms will be degree less than 2. So when (x? — 1)" is differentiated 2n times, derivatives of all the terms except x”, become zero. Now a 8 (52) San 2n— = 2)+++(2n-(2n— Sau [8] = 28m DAN —2)---@n—Gn—V) = 2n(2n — 1)Qn — 2)---3-2-1 =(2n)! Example 7: If y = sin’ r. find y,. Solution: in? x = sinx «sin? x 3 sin (30 4 Example 8: Find the nth derivative of 28 cos. sin? 2x. Solution: Rewriting cos x sin? 2x =cos x2 1 a Neanl sasetease So =! fo cnt when e™ co(bx +c), then yn = re cos(bx +6 + ng) where r= Va? +B, o=tn! (2). nie (¥3)" 2* -cos(x + nun! 5) (v38)" 2 -cos (5 + mtn! E 3 Example 9: If y = 4¢4, find y,. S ; (48)' 2 cose enon!2). btn! +2 cert 12 Gaye yt eat 1 1 At 2 [peat + pei when niseven, — ya(0)= SB 20 when 1 is odd, Example 1: If = tan“! 7255, find yy. (UPTU 2002) Solution: Differentiating y wart. x, Fy tan! 5 = — dx Oe a= (C= 2/2 - 2x(-28) (14 x4 = 2x? + 4x) a—2yP 20+07) dee? We know that cys sin(n + 18+ sin"! 6 fi \ ae ere where @ = cot"! (£) = an"! (2). Solution: Now differentiating yy, (n ~ 1) times rel os#t 3 a aya Y" Fa DEFD 4 x2 de> Get = Geet {as yin! io Ital yt Ta ear Example 10: Determine y,(0) if y = aa Solution: a | Partly l stl @DeFD EU gees le x1 G@=DEFD aks I gh 1 1 x yal 3[x-1 7 x47 = A=-N"'(n = I} sinnd -sin" al = tN cot where tan Example 12: Find the nth derivative of text Solution: The roots of x?+x+1=0 are In terms of linear complex factors, x A B zea) OTe2) + Bx a) AGi— 2) or A = Bea-u) o B= V3i = ai where a = V3. So ogee aa To find yp, apply Power Function Case (d), then yan" a Dente 2 Arye 42741440 3 > 7 Sor=Ve 4x41 By De Moivre's theorem (c=)! = (rcos6 -irrsinoyt a (re iby cc tle (9) Similarly. (e+ 2H! = (cose +i rsinaytt! — Gr elyrtl = pntigiin® Gy Also +¥3i 6 4) and = ro) an Substituting (2), (3), (4), (S) in (1), we get 2 Den! LE (04 vin) ever n= past H+ Vineet] <1yin! = EE B+ V3i loosen ei snot 19) 43 — Vii) foosin + 12 — isintn + D9] -§ [Beosen +199 ~ 2V3sinin + De] iyteat a= aT [eosin 1d = = sini + we]. where r=/a7Fx41 and o=tan~ (%,). Beat Exercise Find the derivatives of y of indicated order (1 to 5). Ly=(L) oy. Ans. 0 2 y=3s', yy, Ans, y® = 3-8! 3 2¥m, yy. Ans. y 4. y=arthxt+ertdxttertf, =0 tnx, oy”. 6sect x —4sec? x = e* sin.x, prove that y" — 2y' + 2y =0. 7. If p? = a? cos? 6 + b? sin? @, prove that dp arb? +e 8. Show that y” + tan y - (y/)? = 0 when y= tan“\(sinh x). 9, If b?x? +.a?y? = a*b*, then find y> and ys, “ , “Ate x = Mr fr. n= 10. If p = tan(@ + p), find os. ‘Ans, —2528024304 2 11. Find y when x=a(r— sin), y (= cost). Ans. 12, Ifx =acost,y =assint, find 5. Ans, ~ 352. 13, Find yon and y2n41 Where y = sinh.x. ut Ans, S55 (inh.x)= sinh x, 2555 (sinh x)= cosh x 14, Find yy where (a) y= EE; (b) y = etx: sinx. ()Ans. (a) 2-1) peters (b) ex tm: (©) xsin (x +3) — nos (x +4). 15. If y = cost x, find yn. cos 21+ +} 608-4. Ans. " cos (2x +n) + 14" cos (4x +3) 16. Find nth derivative of y = e* cos* x « sin x. 1 cos? x sin x= 25924 sin x= sin s+ Ans. Ya? 1)3e% «sin (x + ntan7! 1) 4 +4(a? +9) %e% « sin (3x +n tana! 3 17, If y =cosx- cos 2x - cos3x find yy Hint: cos.x -cos2x -cos3x = }fcos 6x + cos4r +.cos 2x + I]. 1 [6 cos (6x +n) +4" cos (4x + 03) 42" cos (2x +-n2)). Ans, 2 18. Determine yy if y = ey Hint aa tate Ans, Supe! wip + gine + tet] 19, Calculate yq where y = at Hint: De Moivre’s theorem. Ans, RE cos(n + 1)0,1 = Ve? + a2, = tans! (5). 20. fy = sky, then find yn. Ans, AGRE sin(n + 18 where r= Vx74x41, and 6 = cot~! (21), 21. Find the nth derivative of (a) y (b) y = sin" (253). Ans. (a) (=I)?! (n= DI sin" 8 -sinn® where @ = cot"! x; (b) same as (a). £ 2.2 LEIBNITZ’S THEOREM (RULE or FORMULA) Let u(x) and v(x) be two functions of x having derivatives of nth order. Then the nth derivative of the product of these two functions is an HOR) = Ge in V0-+ ey Hn —1 04 Hike Mn —202 hot Reg tinar tp meg ttn Proof by mathematical induction: By direct differentiation, we have a (uv) = (uv) 10 + MOLL dx 2 So j(uv) = (uv)e = urn + eyvy + ivy + Uae: GeZte) = 2 = novo yey Hae + MoUs = 429 + 2u1v1 + gd? Here the subscripts indicate the orders of deriva- tive and zero indices in the end terms indicate the functions themselves (i.e., derivatives of zero order). Thus (uv) = mang + u2vy + 2egv) + 2uyv2 + uyv2 + urs = w30p + 3ugvy + 3uyv2 + uous. Similarly, (uv)4 = uavo + 43v; + 6ugv2 +403 + nova. Assume that the Leibnitz’s theorem is valid for k Then (uv) = ary + keyte—101 + Reyte—202 ++ Rep Atk rb 1 + Repke De Hoe +kequove Differentiating the above both sides Cav) er = Masia + envy + Key v1) Heya i02 + keytte-102) “Pept 203 + 20+ Rey iter e201 Heyy Mi mr $1 Ur + Key hrs 1Yr) her tkar eg Ho + Regt te + kek oveet We know that bey the = K+ Der, ker = (K+ Dewey the =1 +k =k+ DeTherefore (ery = ees v0 + RF Die meny + (K+ Dera 102 Pee PIKE Dern rat PrP K+ Dek + Dugvest i.e., theorem is valid for k + 1 also. Hence by mathematical induction the result is valid for any n. Note: The Leibnitz’s rule (or formula) is obtained by expanding (u + v)" by the binomial theorem and in the expansion obtained the exponents of the powersof u and v are replaced by (subscripts) indices that are the orders of the derivatives. —<—<——$——— Workep Out EXAMPLES Example 1: Find the nth derivative of y = x? sin.x nx, v (in.x) 2 ‘We know that , _ nt Steinar +59) = a" sin (ax +b +S) n(n — Dsin (x +S — 2) 2nx -cos (x + “E Yn = (02 =n? +n)sin (« +3) =o aay a0 (2 Yn{at x = 0) = (n wysin ([). Example 2: Determine the nth derivative of eflnx. Solution: Applying Leibnitz’s rule Jalen «Ix +1¢)(e*)y—1lln x), rege nnn xp ++ + negle* XIN a (n'a = ta" Since Fglnlax + ) = sa Bee = men 1 J - weet [ins ner t = nen 2 mega 9 foe HED = Dinca") Example 3: If y = acos(in x) + b sin(In x), prove thatx?yne2+ Qn + Dyn +0? + Dyn = 0. Solution: Differentiating y wart. x, yi seentes)? (2) +b -costinx) 4 x x xyi = a sin(Inx) + bcos(In.x). Differentiating ats a -costin): + ~ bsindnx): ee xy) = [a cos(lnx) +6 sin(in x] = y or Py tant yao. Differentiating n times using Leibnitz’s rule, we get [rone2 ter 20+ yng ten 2-3] + + [xyept ters 1+ yn] + yn =O. Rewriting 7 yng + 2Ax + X1yngt + [AGr— 1) ++ Lyn Example 4: Find the nth derivative of sInxats=4, Solution: Differentiating ns@= De? nx +2" ayer De na pat xy s(a— Dy tx), Differentiating (n ~ 1) times using Leibnitz’s rule [ey += Deed =(n— Dyn +0 ~ DI aMax + by" _ dx" ami “Yat since alax + by"Example 5: Determine y,(0) where y=e"' Solution: Differentiating y w.ct. x, =m ( ‘Squaring on both sides v1 (1x4 = my, Differentiating again (1=2)2y192— 2eyf = m?-2yy1 or =x) — 291 my. Using Leibnitz'srule, differentiate both sides times [01 =P oyna +e (2009s Hteg(—Dyn] — — [xyes baer 1+ mn] = or 1 = 37 )yn42 — n+ Dxyngs — OF + m?)y Put x = 0, then Ynsa(O) = (1? + m)y9(0). y= eF y10) = —me"® CF + m?)y(0) = mPe"E = (P +m?)y(0) = (P +m? \(-meF ) = 2 +m?)yx0) y20 at ya = mea? +mye% For n=3, ys) = 3? +m*)yx(0) mim? + m2 (3? +m Jan(O) = m?(2? + m4? + m2). x » (G42 mt) oF Yan41(0) = mC? + MPVS? + m7). x x (Gn-1P +m?) Example 6: If y = sin(m sin“! x), prove that (= 27) 42 = Ont Dtyngs ~ (0? = m)yn = 0. (UPTU 2002) Solution: Differentiating y w.rt. x, cos(m sin or ¥1— 22 y= m-costmsin”! x). Differentiating again wart. x, a 1 I Vi-x?y2 +5 Vin = be the angles between theradius vector O P and tangents PT; and OP and Py respectively. Angle of intersection of two curves = /T PT = a @=lOPT-LOPT.=2- (10) Corollary 3: The curves are said to intersect at right angle or intersect orthogonally if the angle be- tween them a = 90°. Fig. 22 Polar Subtangent and Tangent and Polar Subnormal and Normal Let NOT be a straight line through the pole O and perpendicular to the radius vector OP. The tangent at P and the normal at P meets this line in T and N respectively. Then OT and ON are known as the polar subtangent and polar subnormal respectively, polar subtangent = OT = r- tang ae Fig. 23 where (9) is used to replace tan @. Polar subnomal= ON=r- cor par. tePolar angent=PT-=ry/ + ta? gor | Lr? (2) ne (& y Length of the Perpendicular from Pole on the Tangent Let p be the length of the perpendicular OM drawn from the pole on to the tangent PT. Then from the right angle triangle OPM Polar normal=PN=r V/1+ cot? p= p=rsing. Rewriting (1 +eot? 6) ‘dr\? (a) where (9) is used to replace cot ¢. —< Worxeo Our Examrces Example 1: For the parabola #4 — 1 — cos @, show that (io p= acosec! )) polar sub- tangent = 2acosecé; (iv) Find polar subnormal. Solution: Differentiating the equation of parabola — cos wart. 8, we get = aH = acosec $ =e iii, Polar subtangent = 242 = | — 2a cosec 6| = 2a cosec 6 iv, Polar subnormal = 44 Solution: Point of intersection of the two curves tan 62 = 1 Angle of intersection of the two curves is ow a(-9)-G ice., they cut orthogonally. Example 3: Find the angle of intersection of the curves r =a and r = 2a cosé. Solution: For the curve r = %=0 50 6 tangs =r emea ae ob for the curve r=2acosé, so 40 1 2a cos tangy cote sind Points of intersection of the two curves are2acosé cos = 5. Sn So, 7 Hence the points of intersection are (a, Angle of intersection is 5 + Example 4: Prove that (i) for he curve r = a9, the polar subnormal is constant; (ii) forthe curve ré the polar subtangent is constant. Solution: i. Forr = a0, 4 = a= constant Polar subnormal = 45 = a = constant. Polar subtangent =r? constant. Example5: Forthecurver? = a? cos36,show that the normal at any point (r, @) to the curve makes an angle 46 with the initial line. Solution: Differentiating wrt. r, ar? = 30° sin30. 2 Now Slope of the tangent y = $+6=$+30+0 ~”. Slope of the normal at any point (r, 6) is 40. Example6: Find the polartangentandpolar normal ra to the curve # = cos“! f — / #54 Solution: Differentiating w.r.t.r, we get (=r? yar Dara = fie (22) eas enfra2@o . y" +3 = Polar normal = ,/7? + do. BP “yp EXERCISE 1, Show that, for the cardioid r = a(1 — cos 6), (i$ = $5 (i) p = 2a sin’ $; Gif) polar subtan- gent = 2asin’ § -tan $; (iv) polar subnormal =asind, 2. Prove that the curves r” =a™cosm@ and tan m8, $2 = m0, by — 3. Determine the angle of intersection of the curves r = 30086, and r= “biome: Hint: Points of intersection ars =}o=% 3X). tangs = —cot f= — J sand = at — 3, tani — dn) b=4. Show that the angle of intersection of the curves r = sin + cos, r = 2sind is 5. is point of intersection, tan) = 5. Prove that the tangent to the logarithmic spiral r = e™” intersects the radius vector at a con- stant angle. Hint: =ang= cot”! a = const. 6. Prove that for the curve r = ae", the ratio of polar subnormal to polar subtangent is propo. tional to 0”. 7. Find ¢ for the following curves (a) £=1+ecosd; (b) r=all +c0s6); (©) # =1 +c0s6 Ans. (a) cot"! (7288,); (b) § + $:(0) F - $. 8. Show that the following pair of curves cut orthogonall: (a) # = 1+cos6, % = 1—cosd; (b) r= acos@, r=a sind; (c) P sin20=a", r? cos20 = By; (d)r = all +0080), r 2.4 ROLLE'S THEOREM If, f(x) is (i) continuous in fa, b] Gi) derivable in (a,b) and Gi) f(a) = f(b), then there exists at least one value ¢ € (a, b) such that f'(c) = 0. Proof: 1. If f(x) = 0 for all x, then f(x) = Ofor all x Il. Since fis continuous in [a, b], it is bounded and attains its maximum M and minimum m say at two numbers c and d lying in between a and b such that S() = M and f(d) =m. Case a: If M = mm, then fisa constant function so that f" is zero for all x in (a, b). Caseb: If M 4 m,thenM = fic) > flc+ Ayfor values of A both positive and negative. Then fle+h)= flo) A <0 forh>o aay and fleth)— fio h Since fis differentiable in (a, ) from (1) and (2) as, hh 0,wehave F(Z0 and f)=0 Hence f'(c) = 0 for some value cin (a, 6). Similarly ifm = f(a) S f(d +h) for values of k both positive and negative it follows that Sd +h)- sid) Ah 20 forh<0 a4) 20 for h>0 and Ld+ m= fay h Ash—0, fd) >and f’(d) <0. Hence f’(d)=0. Note 1: Geometrically, Rolle’s theorem states that the tangents at ¢1,c2, cy are parallel to x-axis (see <0 for h 0 for every x in (0, 1). Therefore f(r) crosses the x-axis exactly once. In other words, f(x) = 0 has one and only one root in between @ and 1.Exercise: ‘Verify Rolle’s theorem for the following functions J) in the indicated interval: L. sin.x/e* in (0, x] Ans. c=x/4 12x in (0, 2V3} 2 3. sin xin (0, 2x] Ans. 4 and 4 4. |x| in [—1. 1] Hint: Function is not differentiable at 0. Ans. Rolle’s theorem is not valid 1, when x =0 when Qlm>l mbtna mH 12, x° —4x in {-2,2] Ans, 4/2/3 13, x8 —3x? — x +3 in [1,3] in [a,6] with b>a, Ans. Ans. 14+ 2/V3 14. In {(x? +6)/5x} in (2, 3] = v6 15. x(x + 3)e7*? in [—3, 0] Ans, -2 16. (x +2)°(x —3)* in [-2, 3] Ans, 1/7 17. tanxin (0, 7] Hint: tan x is discontinuous at x = 77/2. Ans. Ans. Rolle’s theorem not applicable 18 1-@—3)} Hint: f(2) = (4) = 0, but f’ does not exist atx =3€ (2.4). ‘Ans. Rolle’s theorem not applicable ot TF Hint: The point of discontinuity x = —2 does not belong to (0,4) where f(0) = f(4) = 0. Ans, c= XV3—1) 20. Show that between any two roots of e* cosx — | = 0, there exists at least one root ofe*sins —1 “cosx—etsinx. Since e*cosx =1 so f’ =| —e' sinx. Let a, b be two roots of (x). Then by Rolle’s theorem ¢ € (a, 6)3 fc) = Vie, cis aroot of 1 — e* sinx = 0. 21. Show that polynomial equation gx” + ayx"! 4 ayn? tay = has at least one real root in (0, 1) if wm a ntl on ant 2 and do, ay +p, are real numbers. Hint: Take f(x) = $2, xtth +B xn 4. + “51 x? 4a,x in [0.1]. Apply Rolle’s theorem. 22. Prove that if a rational integral function f(x) has n zeros between a and b then f’(x) has +n =0(x — 1) zer0s in (a, b). Hint: Suppose x),*2,...%y are the zeros of fin (a, b) $0 f(4,) = 0, fori = 1.2,...0 Then by Rolle’s theorem applied to the (n ~ 1) intervals (1, ¥2), (42,43)4 +++ (y—15 &n)3C 3 Sed) =9, for é wi: Without solving exactly, show that the fol- lowing equations have one and only one real root in the given interval. 23. x4 43x4+1=0in(-2,—1. 24, 2x3 — 3x? — 12x -6 =O in (-1, 0). 25. Iffand Fare continuous in [a, b] and derivable in (a, b) with F(x) # 0 for every x in (a,b) then prove that there exists c € (a, b) such that fo) _ flo) fla) Fe) Fb) Fe) Hint: Choose 6(x) = f(x)[F(b) — Flay] — [f@)-S@ILF(x)- F@)- (6) = f@lF)~F(a)) = o1a). ¢ satisfies Rolle’s theorem. But 90) = f'OMF(b) — Fla) — fCOLF) - F(a) — FNS) — fa], P(e) = 0. 2.5 LAGRANGE’S MEAN VALUE THEOREM Let be (i) continuous in fa, b] and (ii) derivable in (a,b). Then there exists at least one value c € (a,b) such that fb) fo =f. Proof: Choose $(x) = fix) +x A.x € a,b]. Since f and x are continuous in {a.b] and deriv- able in (a,b), therefoze } is continuous in [a,b] and derivable in (a, 6). Now choose the unknown constant A such that f(b) + b- A = $(b) = 6(a) = fla)+a-A so that Thus @ satisfies all the three conditions of the Rolle’s theorem. Therefore by Rolle’s theorem there exists a number c € (a, ) such that O=PO=fOtTA Thus f'(c)=—A £ib)- flay feeho. Alternate Form of Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem Ifb=a+h then fa+h)~ fla) _ ,, Gehag = fat on ¢ =a +6h lies between a and b = (a +h) when 0<0<1 Thus fa +h)= fla) thf +On).0<6 <1, Note 1: Lagrange’s Mean Value (LMV) theorem is generalization of Rolle’s theorem, In the special case when f(b) = f(a) then LMV theorem reduces to Rolle’s theorem. Note 2: Geometrically LMV theorem states that the tangent to the curve at D is parallel to the chord AB (see Fig. 2.6). y yeti BO. 0), Ala. t(a) a © ’ Fig. 26 Note 3: The average rate of change of f over the interval (a, b) given by LO=LO js equal wo fC) which is the actual rate of change of fat some point of the interval (a, b). Note4: Using MY theorem, approximate solution of equation f(x) = 0 can be obtained by Newton's method as follows: ‘Suppose a + is exact (actual) root so that O= flath)= flay +h fa +0h),0<0 <1 =f Therefore h = — fi¢h.Thus starting at a guess value ‘a’, h (correction) canbe calculated approximately. By iteration a better root can be obtained. Note 5: If M* and m* are the maximum and mini- mum of f'(x) ina be any two points of [a,b] such that x, <.x2. Applying LMV theo- rem in [x),.x2), there exists a number ¢ € (x1,.x2) such that fey = fo = Orv s' a L. If f(x) = 0 for every x € (4), x2) then fla) - fl) =0 or f (a2) = fxs) = constant So fis. constant function in [x.x2]. IL. If f(x) > 0 then it follows from (1) that Flax) ~ f(x) > Vor flea) > for) since (x2 —x)) > 0. So fis strictly increasing, function. TIL. If f’(x) < 0 then it follows from (1) that £22) — FO) <0 08 fa) < foe) ice., fis strictly decreasing function. ——— WORKED OuT EXAMPLES Verify the Lagrange’s Mean Value theorem: f(x) = 37 in (1,5) Solution: f is continuous and differentiable in (2,3) so by LMV theorem, Ftb) ~ fla) _ Example 1: Fie for some c Here f(5) = (a, b). + FL) = 1, f(x) = 2x. Therefore: =3e(1,5). Example 2: f(x) =x3,(-1, 1) Solution: ~LMV theorem is not applicable because fis not differentiable at x = 0 € (-1, 1). Example 3: f(x) = cotrx.(—}, 4) Solution: LMV theorem is not valid because f is discontinuous at 0 € (— Example 4: Deduce Lagrange’s Mean Value theorem from Rolle’s theorem. Solution: Choose g(x) = f(x) ~ f(a) — Ax —a) where A is a constant and f is continuous in [a,b] and derivable in (a, b). Then g(x) is also continuous in [a, 6) and derivable in (a, 6). Further g(a) = Oand determine A such that B(b) = f(b) — f(a) — Ab ay=0 f(b) ~ f(a) boa Solving A Thus g satisfies all the conditions of Rolle’s theo- rem. Therefore there exists a number ¢ € (a. h) such that gi(c)=0 But giis)= fis) so O=g%)= se) A f(b) ~ fia) ~(b=ay which is the result of Lagrange’s Mean Value theorem, f= Example 5: Show that (5s < tan“! A 0. Solution: Take f(x) = tan“! -xinO fg caw the Example 6: Separate the intervals in which the polynomial f(x) = creasing. 4— 27) is increasing or de- Solution: — f'(x) = 2(4 — x?(-2x) Since f(2) = Oand f(-2) x-axis at ~2 and 2. Note that 4x(x? — 4). soy = f(x) crosses f' > 0 when x > O and x > 2. s0,fis increasing in 2,00) f' <0 whenx >Oand.x <2 so fis decreasing in 0,2) f' > 0 when x —2 sofis increasing in (-2. 0) f' <0 when x 0 l4x0 for any x>0, so f is an increasing function and (0) = 0. Therefore f > 0 forany x >0 ie. etx) > 00rl ts 0 for any x > 0. Thus gis an increasing function and therefore g > 0 Le, I+xet-eF > 0 or ef In => a) na — > x or -1 Now choose f(x) (1 — x) which is continuous and differentiable in (0, 1). So applying LMV theo- rem in (0, x) for any x between 0 and 1. In(1—x)— In -0) — =fo @ because ¢ lies between O and x. Here 0<@ <1. Since @x 0, > 0,x0 > Gor —x8 <0 1-x8<1 or @) From (2), (3) and (4), we get the inequality (1) Ing Example 9: Calculate approximately the root of the equation x4 — 12x + 7 = 0 near 2. Solution: Choose =12x+7 0 fa) = 40-12 By LMV theorem, f(a + h) = f(a) + hf'(a+ 6h) fa 7) =1, f(Q)=32-12=20 cy ~ py = 10.05 so (2) = 16-2447 h Anapproximate root x =a +h = 2 +0.05 = 2.05 Applying LMV theorem again h~- FQ.05) F'(2.05) = -0,0027 0.061 2.46 A better approximated root =a +h = 2.05 ~ 0.0027 = 2.0473,Example 10: Calculate approximately 0. Hint: Choose f(x) =In(1 +x) - (7-4) and 0, g > 0). Note: f(0) = g(0) = 0,80 f > Oand g > 0. ‘Show that "= > 2 forO 0. F(0). sof > 0 Also f(0) = 0, so f > 0. Use LMV theorem to prove thatif0 cos 3 53 17. Determine the root of the equation x3 + 5x — 10 =0 which lies in (1, 2) correct to two decimal places. Ans, 1.43 18. Using Mean Value theorem calculate approxi- mately 65. Hint: Take f(x) = x¢ in (64, 65). Use f(a +h) = fla) + hf'(a). Ans. 2.0052 19. A circular hole 4 inches in diameter and 1 foot’ deep in a metal block is drilled out to increase the diameter to 4.12 inches. Estimate the amount of metal removed. Hint: V = f(x) = 1(12)s*inches. By LMV theorem £(2.06)— f(2) = by MYT = 0.06 f'(x1) = 0.06(247.x1) where 2 cosb Tora 0. Also in (0, 2/2) maximum value of sin.xis 1. So sincec € (a.5),and c 0, show that Hint: 2 2 © (e* cosps) ltt sesltet ye. ax! =o +e «005 (bx e+ man! 4) Solution: The = Maclaurin’s theorem with a Lasoo’ fee of remainder for the function aie oa me NPTR, 2 3 ee faltetoty Ans. e* cos bx = 1 tax + + where 0 <@ < 1. Note that e* and all its derivatives are continuous for any x. Taking remainder up to 2 “yb terms ie., 1 =2, we have x cos (bx +nun-'”) 3. Verify Maclaurin’s theorem for fxy= (1-29? ‘with Lagrange’s remainder up to3 terms when. xel Hint: f(x) = 0) +.x/'0)+ EF'O)+ a f(h). Ans. 0= % =0.25€ 0,1) 4, Verify Taylor's theorem for f(x 3x? + 2x in (0, }] with Lagrange’s remainder up to2 terms. Hint: f (4) = (0+ 47) + “2¥ f"). Ans, 0= 5 € (0,4)10. Ans, Using Taylor's theorem prove the following: In(l+x) 0 Hint: For Lagrange’s with 3 terms xe x 3+ rom? * and (1+6x) > I forx >0 Ind +a) Bel : = Note: fini +x) = HUD # aa x-@ 0 ‘Hint: Maclaurin’s with 2 and 5 terms : x Fcostix.0 <6) <1 sinx = 3 and ae , x sin Ht gosh 0 0 Show that for any x > O anda > 0 2 x a’ =14x-ina + (na)? Ina + 5a)? + (nay! + ana)" tam Show that for any x > 0 anda > 0 at =14x-inat Sina? +--- (nay! + Sa" anay" a Find the first 3 terms and the Lagrange’s re- mainder after m terms of the function f(x) @* sin bx. Hint: a’ gyal sinba) = (a? + Bye sin(bx + na) 30. £0) = (a + BY"? - sinna. ba? — by 2 3 be baba? $a cosa = vat +e 2.8 TAYLOR'S SERIES AND MACLAURIN’S SERIES EXPANSIONS. From the Taylor's theorem with Lagrange’s form of remainder, we get the Taylor’s formula Gir AO" f(a + 0x — a) w mt where <9 <1 Note: Taylor's formula for n = 1, reduces to the Lagrange’s mean value theorem (the law of means). Denote the first » terms of RLS. of (1) by Py(x) which is a polynomial of (n — I)th degree in the variable (x — a) and the last term on R.H.S. of (1) by Rq(x) which is the Lagrange’s form of remainder after n terms i.e., Sea 2 Pale) = fla) +(x — ay 4 S=™ pany. way! oy arte @ and R= noe "a +x —a)) 8) Then Sls) Pyls) + Rubs) or Ryle = fe) = Pair) isen BC = AC~AB Thus for those values of x, for which Ry(x) is small, the polynomial P,(x) yields an approximaterepresentation of (x). When a = 0, the Taylor's formula (1) at origin (0, 0) reduces to 2 a £0) MO FS) tooo f= [04 +h MO 4 0%) ry (4) is known as Maclaurin’s formula, In (1) asm — 00 if Ry(x) > 0, then f(x) is repre- sented by infinite series in powers of (x — a) and is, given by 2 Payton for= fas $39 pays SS (ray + fa) +o (5) The power series (5) is known as Taylor's series. Rewriting in the summation form FO ua fa) = f+ >> =I ‘Thus (5) or (6) is the Taylor's series expansion of f(x) about the point ‘a’ (or in powers of x — a). When a = 0, (6) reduces to iy Fa) = f0) + 5 Ow a = The infinite series in powers of x given by (7) is called the Maclaurin’s series expansion of f(x) or simply Maclaurin’s series of f(x) (about origin). Maciaurin Series Expansion of Some Elementary Functions 1, Exponential function f(x) Differentiating n times, f(x) = e*. So atx = 0, f°O) = 1. Substituting in the Maclaurin’s formula (4), we obtain x PP os eo ‘rita tape ne where 0 <0 <1, For0 <6 <1, ¢” isbounded for any x(< e* for x > Qand <1 for x <0). Thus the Lagrange’s remainder tbe moecu coo aw Therefore e can be evaluated to any degree of accuracy by taking sufficient number of terms. 2. Expansion of f(x) = cosx Differentiating n times, f(x) = cos (x + so f(0) = cosn. The remainder Aybar 0a cos (tH) 0 as noe since |cos (9x + "¥)| <1, for all values of x. Atx=0. f(0) = 1, f%0) = cos ¥ = 0, £70) -1. £0) = 0, £0) = 7 = | and so on, Substituling these values in the Maclaurin series given by (7), we get 2 4 fix)=cmx= 140-5 +045 40- Ag sie t ght: wcrc We know that f"(x) = sin (x +3). So f°") = sinn¥ then f(0) = 0. f'(0) = sin = 1, F20) = si 0, £20) = sin ¥ = -1, £0) etc, Substituting these values in (7), we get the Maclaurin series expansion of f(x) valid for anyFig. 2.8 Figure 2.8 shows the graphs of the function F(x) = sin.x and the first three approximations 4. Expansion of f(x) = sinhe. ‘We know that f"+")(x) = coshx and fOr) = sinhx so f2"*(0) = 1, f2(0) = 0, FO) = 0. Substituting in (7), dwt cal Sidesinbisrt tg tate 5. Expansion of f(x) = coshx. ince f(x) = cosh and f2"*M(x) = sinh, we have f2"(0) = 1, f2"+1(0) = 0, f) = 1 From (7), Ao fomeoshisle T+ + ~o0<1<00 a 6. Expansion of f(x) = (ax + bY" where m is any real number and x > —£ (ie., ax +6 > 0) and a # 0. The nth derivative of f is Fm =1)on=2) Atx =0, f°") = mom — 1m — 2) (m—n+ Da" b"" and f(0) = b”. Substituting in (7), we obtain FQ) = (ax + bY “(mn 1a"ax+by mea -bm ly 2 tii — 1a? b™ 3 tim(on — yon — 2) 0899 oe (aterm orien (2) e min (8) E+ semen — inn —2)(4)" 54] valid for any real m and for any x > -4,a #0. Corollary 1: Whena = b = 1, x a fl) = (14x) = Lm + mim DS 7 tonto — Dom — 205 bes valid for any real m and for any x > —1. In(1 +x). We know that Eso F 2 fey= nls) = 04x F 428 w Hal — Dt io A or Inlenex-S4+ 5-54 ey n valid for 1 +x > Oie,x > -1. 8. Expansion of f(x) = In(1 — x). Here P(e) = SUMED gy pth(Q) = -@-D! From (7), fix) = In == valid for x < 1 Note: For any given function f(x), in general, the nth derivative f(x).can not be determined and therefore the nature of R,, not known. Therefore by assuming that R, —+ 0 as n —> co, formal Maclau- rin's expansions of any given function is obtainedfrom (7) by substituting f and its derivatives evalu- Solution: ated at x = 0. If the nth derivative is not obtainable, first few (5 to 6) terms are determined. Some times f(x) can be expressed as sum or product of two or more infinite series. Sir) = Vx, fla) = f= Workep Our EXAMPLES Example 1: Expand the polynomial farm 424 badd in powers of x + 1. = Taylor’s formula with Lagrange’s remainder up to 4 terms (i.e. = 3) Obtain the Taylor's series expansion of f(x) about the point x = —1. f@ 2 F(a) I0)= f+ -a FF + - ar Se Solution: f(-1)= -142-1-141=0 fa) x =a _ P= Se4 4 8x5 — De LCD) = 5-8 4241 = Hemel ge Lat Ox ay Fa) = We + Ux? —2, f"(-1) = -204 24-2 = 2 —_ ; Pmt eat fa Oia id Substituting f and its derivatives at a = 1, SM a= 12x 448, fT) = 120-448 = ~72 ‘ plats xy = 120, f°" —1) = 120 fSOS1EO= Ded +e =D (-3) i "y= _ 31 S'@)=0 for n>. Hohe +e pt (3 ‘The Taylor series expansion of f(x) about x 1 ' , of" “TaeG-pe # fe) = fa) Heap") +x a Fla) 4a = iF " 1 1 a 5 ait¢ta-n-te-p+ tee a3 Gene Le st gar P+ gee 0 5 m J Here a = —1. Substituting the above values ~ pag — + eG I fa H2t Het 2 (4 IP Example 3: Expand sinx in powers of (x — =040t4I- 5412.5 x 3 +t a $1? Solution: =. BED, 19 2 : - nim x fis) =6+ DP 4264 19-3604 DE HO + DS singa)— sin (x — + 5) = sin ((x— 5) +5 Example 2: Write Taylor's formula for the = sin(x — 5) cos 5 +-sin 5 - cos (x — function y= JX with Lagrange’s remainder with . a=l,n= =041 cos (x- 52.20 = HiCHER QuOneanRAR AMMO AEH AIG =e 3-1) (4-2) 73 We know that cos.x = 9-(—1) 80 EG) ay = | Ee yee = i x sinx = +o0s(x ~ 5 considering the first four terms, sly 6 ir 1 a Example 6: Find the first seven terms of the ° Maclaurin series of f(x) = In sec x. ‘The Taylor series expansion of sinx about.x = 5 nm l* % 3.1629. InsecO = In} =0 Solution: (0) Example 4: Obtain the first 4 terms of the Taylor's Differentiating w. series of cos.x about.x = 3. foe) = — -seex tans = tans, (0) = tan0= 0 Salution: cosx =cos(x— F +4) =cos(t+ 5) y%x)— sees, £0) = sec? =1 where f=x—% " fl =2scex- secx- tanx=2 sec? x- tanx, £"(0)=0 cncnemtcon tarank a Leman) fata meaner a fm Ase tan? x + 2see! 1, f'"%0) = 042 =2 1 3 i(- f7" = 8sec? x stan? x + 16sec4x -tanx, f”"(0) =0 97 = 163602 x tan x + 8B sect x tan? x +16sec® x, f””"(0) = 16 ‘The Maclaurin series is 2 LO= HO FO) + f"0)- 5 s ? +f" OF nyt Substituting the above as #@-F)oack Example 5: Using Taylor's serics expansion cal- culate an approximate value of 10. Solution: Let J10=/OFD=3 (14)! using, (t= 1+ mx MD 2 P 2 Example 7: If y = sin In(x? + 2x + 1), expand y yimtn = yen Deg in ascending powers of x up to.x°. Solution: Differentiating y wrt. x, = 2 3 n= toosins? +2641): (5) @r+9) n= seosin(x? + 2x + 1) a4(x + Dyy = 2cosIn(x? + 2x + 1) Differentiating again wat. x, =2- sin In(x? + 2x +1) G+Dyty 1 *(s¢a1) Gree) 4 ay = yyy sian? +t = 5 oO (x4 DPy2 ++ Dy +4y =O. Differentiate ‘n’ times using Leibnitz’s rule, n(n—1) + [e+ Dynti tae lyn] + 4in =O [= Wyn pat 2A Dyn or (e+ yng +O + DQM + Dyna +4404 = 0. Recurrence relation: At x = 0 Ye4200) = — [2n + Dyn) +4 +0 )yn(0)] Now y(0) =0, i(0) =2, Using recurrence relation 2O= -Ly1O) + 4y(0)] = -12 + 4-0) = — 330) = -13)2(0) + 5y10)] = -[H(-2) + 5-2] = = y4(0)= ~[5y3(0) + 8y2(0)] = ~[5(—4) + 8(—2)] = 36 ¥s(0) = —{794(0) + 13y3(0)]= -[136141(—4)}= — 200 (0) = —[9y3(0) + 20y(0)]= —[%-200)+20136)]=1080 Substituting these values in the Maclaurin series, 436. 5 = 200. + 1080. = ox Pt ey 2234s 2x get pet pat pat Example 8: Prove that a Come altx- ee Solution: R.H.S. in a Maclaurin series expansion of y = f(x) = e* cos x- We know that. en scr Lt costha Beco (e tn Forn =4, y4(x) =2?- e - cos(x + 2) = —4e* cos.x =—4y ie, y= —4y Differentiating n times by Leibnitz’s rule, we get the recurrence relation Ynys) Ayn (x) Ate =0, Ynts(0) = — Ayn (0). Also y(0) = f) = &-cos0 = 1; 1) = 1, 3y2(0) = 05 y3(0) = —2, y4(0) = —4, y5(0) = —4, Ye(0) = 0, yx(0) = Bete. With these values, the Maclaurin series expansion of efcosx=l tx Zri—dxt— 2 $x pe Example9: Expand e' sin’ x in ascending powers of x uptox®. Solution: Let f(x) = et + sin? x. We know at Both the series are truncated, because we are consid- ering terms upto x*. Multiplying the scries term by term, we getSolution: We know that e' = 3 = mon e rss Fe ecco =” ee ga mt coon 4 HEOEAY , ome)? of fii, In? — J3(x - 4) -2(r- 3) + enti ou But me Wont so a 4, Prove that eae ert) (ey att)? _ ( acide é =H (Dew se)eg (bev or) So) = flay+2 ( ) 1 (gay? wa (ts) +e (Sor) +- “8a” (2! i pe (& ate) 4 3350 Hint: Expand f(x) = f (3% + fa) =f (St + 5. Show that w wan" + y= an! x =hsine- “2 — casing? 82 Hine: ve Tar s series, x 2, take f(x) = tan“! x. . Calculate the approximate value of cos 32° using Toylor series. 2 1. Expand the polynomial x4 — 5x345x24x +2 Hint: Expand £(30 + 2) = cos(30 +2) in powers of x ~ 2. Ans, 0.8482 Ans, ~Wx—2) ~ (x2) + Hx-2)' +. — 2)" 7. Obtain the Maclaurin series of a* 2. Expand 2x3 + 7x? + x - 1 about x = 2. Hint: f(x) = a" (loga)", f(0) = (loga)" Ans, 45 +53(x — 2) + 19x — 2° +20 - 29° Ans, ai =1+4xloga+ $(xlogay? + 4(x logay 3. Find Taylor series expansion of f(x) about ‘a” toot E(vlogay” + where 8. If f(x) = x3 + 3x? + 15x — 10, calculate the i. fx) =Inxya = 1 approximate value of f (14), i. f(x) = tanx, Hint: Use Taylor's series and expand (13) = ili. f(x) = Incosx.a = % fet hy= ft by f=9, [= 24,Ans. 10. Ans. A Ans. 12. Ans. 1B. Ans. 4. P= 12, fF" =6. . 11.461 Determine the approximate value of m using the Maclaurin series expansion of sin~! x ity =x + Ee + BES + EE aT te 2 ngs — On DxYne1 — PY ¥n42(0) = 7 Yn(0)- 1 = 3.1386 Expand f(r) =e-sin bx in ascending powers of x. Hint: f°) =(a? + B7)3 sinnd; 6 a are © arr be & sin be = bx +abx? + HH y3 4. Obtain the Maclaurin series of tan .x. Hint: f()=tanx, f(0)=0. f’(e)=1+ tan’ x, SO) =1, f" = tan x+ tan} x): f"(0) = 0, f= 248tan?x + 6tan4x, f"(0) =2, f= 16tanx+40 tan x-+24 tan x, f""(0)=0 f°" = 16sec? x + 120tan? x sec? s+ 120tan4 x sec? x, f”"(0) = 16 tnx art feo Baht Find the Maclaurin series of y = e* In(1 +x). Hints (1 + x)yn42 + (2 — a) ynet — (+ Dyn = ef = 0, y(0) = 0, (0) = 1, y2(0) = 1, 3n2(0) = — yng (0) + (n+ Vyn(0) + 1 xt G+ ew Bey. Write the Maclaurin formula for y = 1 + x when n = 2 and with Lagrange’s remainder Vigxatt tebe t 8 + oxye, 0<0<1 Show that ¥(0) = 1, 10) =a, y2(0) a (1 = 7 )nga = (20 + Dang = (0? + ?)yq = 0 and yn42(0) = (1? + a7)yy(O) 15. Show that tan“! x =x — $23 + x5 +--+ for Ix| < 1. (This series is known as Gregory’s series). Hint: (i + x? 1 + ya + 2nxyn +2(R — V¥n-1 =O, yn41(0) = —n(n — Vyn-10). 2.9 INDETERMINATE FORMS If two functions f(x) and g(x) are both zero at x =a, the fraction £4 js said to assume the indeter- fu) minate form 5. Although the function F(x) = £45 is undefined (indeterminate) at x = a, it may however approach a limit as x approaches a. The process of determining such a limit, if it exists, is known as the evaluation of indeterminate forms. The L’Hospital’s rule (theorem) allows the evaluation of indeterminate forms. UHospital’s Rule Let f(x) and g(x) be continuous in an interval (c,d) containing x = a. Suppose f(a) = 0 and g(a) = 0. Also the derivatives of f and g exist and g'(x) #0 in (c, d) except possibly atx = a. Then tim, £2 = tim LO meh ga) a gla) a provided the limit on R.H'S. of (1) exists. Proof: Since f(x) and g(x) satisfy conditions of Cauchy's mean value theorem in (c, d), we have fe @ fe gO) —g@) Be where e¢(c, d) such that x <¢ a,wehave LE) gq LD ete ga) gx)Note: InR.HS. of (1) the functions f(x) and g(x) aredifferentiated w.r.1.x, separately, not by using the quotient rule. Corollary 1: Suppose f’(a) = 0, and g(a) = 0in addition to f(a) = 0 and g(a) =0. Then applying ‘Cauchy's mean value theoremto j’(x) and g/(x), we get the L'Hospital’s rule as tim £2 wove g(x) Corollary 2: If f(a) = 0, g(a) =0, fa) = 0, 8a) = 0... f(a) = 0, ga) = 0, and ga) # Othen » tim 29 jim LO = lim sta g(x) 0 g(a) Corollary 3: As x + oo if 4 assumes indeter- minate form § then the L'Hospital’s rule is fe) fe) we g(a) = eo gx) Results similar to Corollary 1, and Corollary 2 are valid as x > 00. Indeterminate Forms of the Type © Suppose f(x) = 00 and g(x) =00 as x +a (or as x — £00). Then £2 assumes the indeterminate form = which can also be evaluated by L'Hospital’s rule. im 0 (x) oe td) 8) gy) Results similar to Corollary 1 and Corollary 2 are valid in this case also. Important Note: While evaluating the indetermi- nate form ©, in many cases, it is advised to convert the indeterminate from % to the form 2 as early as possible (say by rewriting as 5%), Otherwise the 7s process of differentiation of the numerator f(x) and denominator g(x) may never terminate, thus compli- cating the problem. Indeterminate Form 0. co Asx a (orx—> to0)if f(x) > Oand g(x) + 00 then the product f(a) g(a) is undefined and is said to assume the indeterminate form 0 - oo. This can be comverted to the indeterminate form $ or = by rewriting (ar) n Tes Fas) = FO og (5) and apply L’Hospital’s rule. Indeterminate Form oo—co Asx — a(or x — +00) if f(x) + oo and g(x) > 0 then the difference f(a) — g(a) is indeterminate of the form oo ~ oo. Rewriting the difference into a fraction of algebraic means, we get Lo fey) = BS Tea which $ form. Applying L'Hospital's rule, the indeterminate form oo — co is evaluated. Indeterminate Forms of the Type 0°, 00°, 1°. Asx — a (ox +7 00), the expression f(a) is said to be (i) indeterminate form of type 0° if f(x) > O and g(x) — 0 (ii) indeterminate form of type 00° if f(x) + 00 and g(x) > 0 (ii) indeterminate form of type 1° if f(x) + | and g(x) + co. To evaluate these forms consider. v= frye? Taking logarithm Iny = gx) In fon) which is of the form 0 - 00 and can be evaluated asin Indeterminate Form - 00. Taking the limitasx > a (orx + £90) Jim tn y = k (say). Then = tno) = (1) = (i, F0*) 2 Tiny FG) = et Notes: i, Maclaurin series expansion may be used to sim- plify the expressions.