> Gestalt Psychology's focused on perception and how perception influences thinking and

problem solving.
> Greek word "Gestalt" translated as pattern or organized whole.

The Scientific Method

Is an organized way of using experience and testing ideas in an effort to expand and refine
knowledge.
HYPOTHESIS -a specific statement about behavior or mental processes that is tested through
research.
CORRELATION- it is between findings with cause and effect.
SELECTION FACTOR- a source of bias that may occur in research findings when participants
are allowed to choose for themselves a certain treatment in a scientific study.

Samples and Populations

>a small amount of something that gives you information about the thing it was taken from
>part or segment of population (the group the is targeted for study)
Problems in Generating from Psychological Research
> We consider research in with the participants were drawn from a population of college men
who were social drinkers (example)
Random and Stratified Sampling
- RANDOM SAMPLE a sample drawn so that each member of population has an equal chance of
being selected to participate.
- STRATIFIED SAMPLE a sample draw so that identified subgroups in the population are
represented proportionately in the sample
- VOLUNTEER BIAS a source of bias or error in research reflecting the prospect that people
who offer to participate in research studies differ systematically from people who do not.
Case Study
> a carefully drawn biography that may be obtain through interviews, questionnaires, and
psychological tests.
The Survey
> This is the method of scientific investigation in which a large sample of people answer question
about their attitude or behavior.

Naturalistic Observation
> Scientific method in which organism are observe in their natural environment.
Correlation coefficient
> a number between + 1.00 and - 1.00 that express the strength and direction (positive and
negative) of the relation between two.

The Experimental Method

> a scientific method that seeks to confirm cause and effect relationship by introducing
independent variable and observing their effect on dependent variables.
- INDEPENDENT VARIABLE is a condition in scientific study that is manipulated so that its
effect may be observed.
- DEPENDENT VARIABLE a measure of an assumed effect of independent variable.
Experimental and Control Group
> group whose member obtain the treatment.
> group whose member do not obtain the treatment, while other condition are held constant.

Case Study
Problem/ Question: How does sunlight affect the growth of plant?
Data & information:
Plants need sunlight. Houseplants lean toward the Sun, and if they do not get enough light they
wither and die. Plants use sunlight to make their food. This process is called photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is a scientific word made up from Greek words. These words mean putting things
together using light. Inside plants leaves, light causes air and water to combine to make new
chemicals. These chemicals are food for the plants. In most plants, photosynthesis takes place
mainly in the leaves. Like other living things, plants are made up of tiny cells. The cells in a plants
leaves contain even smaller, disc-shaped parts called chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are the food
factories where photosynthesis happens. A leaf the size of your little fingernail contains more
than 10 million of them. Chloroplasts contain chemical called chlorophyll, which is bright green.
Chlorophyll gives plants their green color and makes photosynthesis work. For photosynthesis to
work, the chloroplasts need to collect three ingredients: sunlight, air, and water. Sunlight shines
on the leaf, and the green chlorophyll inside the chloroplasts soaks it up. Air enters the leaf
through tiny holes in the leafs surface, called stomata. Water is sucked from the ground by the
plants roots. It travels through tubes in the stem or trunk to the leaves. When all three
ingredients are present inside the chloroplasts, a chemical reaction takes place. The reaction
takes place between a gas in air called carbon dioxide and hydrogen, a part of water. Sunlight

causes these two to combine and make new chemicals called carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are
plant food. Plants use these chemicals to live and grow.
Hypothesis:
1. Without the use of sunlight carbohydrates cannot be formed, thus, the reaction would not be
complete and there would be no food for the plant.
2. With the absence of one main ingredient (sunlight) photosynthesis cannot takes place. There
would be no sunlight that will shines on the leaf, there would be no more inside the chloroplasts
to be soaked up.
3. With the absence of sunlight plants cannot grow healthy.
4. Without the enough sunlight plants mat wither and die.
Experiments: Trial & error.
We are going to have two different set-ups. Plant A would be place inside a box, with the
absence of sunlight. Plant B would be place outside the house with sufficient amount of sunlight.
After a week we observed the effect of sunlight the growth and development of the plants.
Plant A, which is place inside the box wither and die. Due to the absence of the sunlight
Photosynthesis never takes place. Because as photosynthesis means, putting things together
using light, meaning without the use of sunlight other ingredients for the reaction of
photosynthesis cannot takes place.
While Plant B, with sufficient amount of sunlight grow healthy because the reaction takes place
between a gases in air called carbon dioxide and hydrogen, a part of water. Sunlight causes these
two to combine and make new chemicals called carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are plant food.
Plants use these chemicals to live and grow.
Conclusion:
Therefore, it only proves that sunlight has a great effect in the reaction taking place inside the
chloroplast. And without sunlight plants cant live nor grow to the fullest.

Chapter 2
ACTION POTENTIAL
Action Potential The nerve impulse activated in a neuron that travels down the axon and causes
neurotransmitters to be released into a synapse.
Polarize to ready a neuron for firing by creating an internal negative charge in relation to the body
fluid outside the cell membrane.
Resting Potential the electrical potential across the neural membrane when it is not responding to
other neurons.
Depolarize to reduce the resting potential of a cell membrane when it is not responding to other
neurons.
Actual Potential the electrical impulse that provides the basis for the conduction of a neural
impulse along an axon of a neuron.

ANATOMY OF NEURON
Dendrites roadlike structures, attached to the cell body of a neuron that receive impulses from
other neurons.
Myelin sheath a fatty substance that encases and insulates axons, facilitating transmission of
neural impulses.
Axon a long, thin part of a neuron that transmits impulses to other neurons from branching
structures called terminal buttons.
Terminal buttons contains sacs of chemical called neurotransmitters
Cell body contains the core or nucleus of the cell.
Nucleus uses oxygen and nutrients to generate the energy needed to carry out the work of the
cell.

THE DIVISION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nerve a bundle of axon from many neurons.
Central Nervous System consists of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System consists of somatic and autonomic system.

Somatic system the division of the peripheral nervous system that connects the central nervous
system with sensory reception, skeletal muscles and the surface of the body.
Autonomic system the division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates glands and
activities such as heartbeat, respiration, digestion and dilation of the pupils.
Afferent Neuron (Sensory) which receive and transmits messages to the brain and spinal cord.
Efferent Neuron (Motor) which transmits messages from the brain or spinal cord to the muscles
and glands.
PARASYMPAHTETIC/SYMPATHETIC BRANCHES OF AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Sympathetic branch branch of the ANS that is most active during emotional responses such as
fear and anxiety that spend the bodys reserves of energy.
Parasympathetic branch branch of the ANS that is most active during processes (such as
digestions) the restore the bodys reserves of energy.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
A spinal cord column of nerves within the spine that transmits messages from sensory receptors in
the brain and from the brain to muscles and glands throughout the body.
Spinal reflex an unlearned response to a stimulus that may require only two neurons
(Sensory&Motor Neuron)
Gray matter grayish neurons and neural segments that are involved in spinal reflexes.
White matter axon bundles that carry messages from and to the brain.
Brain an organ of soft neurons tissue contained in the skull of vertebrates, functioning as the
coordinating center of sensation and intellectual and nervous activity.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF BRAIN IMAGING TECHNIQUES

Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT or CT Scan) a method of a brain imaging that passes a
narrow X-ray beam through the head and measures structures that reflect the ray from the various
angles and enabling a computer to generate a three-dimensional image.
Position Emission Tomography (PET SCAN) a method of brain imaging that injects a radioactive
tracer into the bloodstream and assesses activity of parts of the brain according to the amount of
glucose they metabolize.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) a method of brain imaging that places a person in a magnetic
field and uses radio waves to cause the brain to emit signals that reveal shifts in the flow of the
blood which in turn indicate brain activity.

THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX

Cerebral cortex a wrinkled surface area (gray matter) of the cerebrum.

Frontal lobe lies in front of the central fissure.
Concerned with behavior, learning, personality, and voluntary movement.
Pariental lobe lies behind the frontal lobe.
Concerned with the reception and correlation of sensory information
Temporal lobe lies below the side or lateral fissure- across from the frontal lobe and pariental.
Concerned with the understanding of speech
Occipital lobe lies behind the temporal lobe and behind and below the pariental lobe.

Somatosensory- the section of cortex in which sensory stimulation is projected. It lies

just behind the central fissure in the pariental lobe.
Motor Cortex- the section of cortex that lies in the frontal lobe, just across the
central fissure from the sensory cortex, neural impulses in the motor cortex are linked
to muscular responses throughout the body.

ENDOCRINE GLAND
Endocrine system the bodys system of ductless glands that secrete hormone and release them
directly into the bloodstream.
Gland an organ that secretes one or more chemical substances such as hormones, saliva or milk.
Pituitary Gland the gland that secretes growth hormone, prolactin, antidiuretic hormone, and
other hormone.
Pineal Gland secretes the hormones melatonin, which helps regulate the sleep-wake cycleand may
affect the onset of puberty.
Thyroid Gland the bodys accelerator.
Adrenal Gland secretes hormones known as corticosteroids or cortial steroids.
Testes and Ovaries produce steroids, among them are testosterone and estrogen.

GENES, CELLS, CHROMOSOMES & DNA

Genes a basic unit of heredity which found at a specific point on a chromosome.
Cells the smallest structural and functional unit of an organism, typically microscopic and
consisting of cytoplasm and a nucleus enclosed in a membrane.
Chromosomes a microscopic rod-shaped body in the cell nucleus carrying genes that transmits
hereditary traits from generation to generation: human normally have 46 chromosomes.

DNA acronym for deoxynucleic acid, the substance that forms the basic material of chromosomes,
it takes the form, of a double helix and contains the genetic code.

Other terminologies:
Neurons a specialized cell of the nervous system that transmits messages.
Glial cells cells that remove dead neurons and waste products from the nervous system, nourish
and insulate neurons and enable them to send messages in waves.
Electrochemical voyage the process by which neural impulses travel to electrochemical.
Medulla an oblong area of the hindbrain involved in regulation of heartbeat and respiration.
Pons a structure of the hindbrain in respiration, attention, sleep and dreaming.
Cerebellum a part of the hindbrain involved in muscle coordination and balance.
Thalamus located near the center of the brain and could be said to lie between the forebrain and
midbrain.
Hypothalamus a bundle of nuclei below the thalamus involved in body temperature, motivation and
emotion.
Limbic System a group of structures involved in memory, motivation and emotion that forms a
fringe along the inner edge of the cerebrum.
Amygdala a part of the limbic system that apparently facilitates stereotypical aggressive
responses.
Cerebrum the large mass of the forebrain, which consists of two hemispheres.
Corpus Callosum a chick fiber bundle that connects the hemispheres of the cortex.
Aphasia a disruption in the ability to understand or produce language.
Wernickes Aphasia a language disorder characterized by difficulty comprehending the meaning of
spoken language.
Brocas Aphasia a language disorder characterized by slow, laborious speech.
Mutation (a sudden variation in a heritable characteristic as distinguished from a variation that
results from generations of gradual selection.
Species a category of biological classification consisting of related organisms who are capable of
interbreeding.
Instinct (a stereotyped pattern of behavior that is triggered by a particular stimulus and nearly
identical among members of a species, even when they are reared in isolation.
Heredity the transmission of traits from parents to offspring by means of genes.
Genetics the area of biology that focuses on heredity.
Polyphonic referring to trait that are influenced by a combination of genes.
Genotype ones genetic makeup, based on the sequencing of the nucleotides we term A, C, G, and T.

Phenotype ones actual development and appearance, as based on ones genotype and environmental
influences.

Chapter 3
Prenatal Development

Zygote a fertilized ovum ( egg cell )

Germinal Stage- the first stage of prenatal development, during which the dividing

mass of cells has not become implanted in the uterus wall.

Embryonic Stage- lasts from implantation until about eight week of development
Amniotic Sac- a sac within the uterus that contains the embryo or fetus.
Sac- is surrounded by a clear membrane and contains amniotic fluid.
Fluid- is a sort of natural air bag, allowing the child to move or even jerk around injury.
Placenta- a membrane that permits the exchange of nutrients and waste products

between mother and her developing child but does not allow maternal and fetal
bloodstreams to mix.
Umbilical Cord- a tube between the mother and her developing child through which
nutrients and waste product are conducted.
Fetal Stage- last from the beginning of the third month until birth.

Childhood
Childhood begins with birth.
Physical Development
Reflex- a simple unlearned response to a stimulus.
Rooting- the turning of an infants head toward a touch, such as by the mothers
nipple.
Motor Development
Motor development of the child refers to the progression from simple acts like
lifting of head to running around.
Motor development provides some of the most fascinating changes in infants, in
part because so much seems to happen quickly.
Jeans Piagets Cognitive-Developmental Theory
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) earned his Ph.D in biology.

Assimilation- according to Piaget, the inclusion of new event into an existing

schema.
Schema- according to Piaget, a hypothetical mental structure that permits the

classification and organization of new information.

Accommodation- according to Piaget, the modification of schemas so that

information inconsistent with existing schemas can be integrated or understood.

Sensorimotor Stage
The Sensorimotor Stage is the first of Piagets stage of cognitive
development, characterized by coordination of sensory information and
motor activity, early exploration of the environment, and lack of
language.
Lev Vygotskys Sociocultural Theory
Vygotskys Sociocultural theory focuses on the ways in which childrens

cognitive development is influenced by the cultures in which they are

reared and the people who teach them.
Vygotskys theory (1978) - focuses on the transmission of information
and cognitive skills from generation to generation.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)- Vygotskys term for the situation
in which a child carries out tasks the help of someone who is more
skilled, frequently an adult who represents the culture in which the child
develop.
Scaffolding- Vygotskys term for temporary cognitive structures or
methods of solving problems that help the child as he or she learns to

function independently.
Lawrence Kohlberg Theory of Moral Development
Preconventional Level- according to Kohlberg, a period during which moral

judgements are based largely on expectation of reward or punishment.

Conventional Level- according to Kohlberg, a period during which moral
judgement largely reflect social conventions; a law and order approach to
morality.
Evolution of Kohlbergs Theory- Kohlberg believed that the stages of moral
development were universal, but he may have underestimated the influence of

social, cultural and educational influences.

Social and Emotional Development (Erik Ericksons)
- Social relationship are crucial to us as children.
Trust Versus Mistrust- Ericksons first stage of psychosocial development,
during which children do-or do not-come to trust that primary caregivers and

the environment will meet their needs.

Attachment- the enduring affectional tie that binds one person to another.

Contact Comfort- a hypothesized primary drive to seek physical comfort

through contact with another.

Ethologist- a scientist who studies the characteristics behavior patterns of

species of animals.
Critical Period- a period time when an instinctive response can be elicited by a
particular stimulus.

Adolescence
-The period of life bounded by puberty and the assumption of adult responsibilities.

Puberty- the period of physical development during which sexual reproduction first

becomes possible.
Secondary Sex Characteristics- characteristics that distinguish the sexes, such as

distribution of body hair and depth of voice, but that are not directly involved in
reproduction.
Menarche- the beginning of menstruation.
Formal Operational Stage- Piagets fourth stage, characterized by abstract logical

thought and deduction from principles

Imaginary Audience- an aspect of adolescent egocentrism; the belief that other

people are as concerned with our thoughts and behavior as we are.

Personal Fable- another aspect of adolescent egocentrism; the belief that our feelings
and ideas are special and unique and that we are invulnerable.

Adulthood
-Stability of Life.
Physical Development
Young Adulthood- Most young adults are at their height of sensory sharpness,

strength, reaction time and cardiovascular fitness. Early adulthood become

readily aroused. Early adulthood covers the ages between 20-40 years old.
Middle Adulthood- In our middle years, we are unlikely to possess the strength,
coordination and stamina that we had during our twenties and thirties. The
years 40-60 are reasonable stable.
Late Adulthood- An age quake is coming. Various changes- some of them
troublesome-do occur during the late years. Changes in calcium metabolism

increase the brittleness of the bones and heighten the risk of breaks due to
falls. Late adulthood begins at 65 years old.

Chapter 4:
Sensation and Perception
Sensation the stimulation of sensory receptors and the transmission of sensory information
to the Central Nervous System.
Perception the process by which sensations are organized into an inner representation of
the world.
Absolute Threshold the minimal amount of energy that can produce a sensation.
Pitch the highness or lowness of a sound, as determined by the frequent of the sound waves.
Difference Threshold the minimal difference in intensity required between two sources of
energy so that they will be perceived as being different.
Webers Constant the fraction of the intensity by which a source of physical energy must
be increased or decreased so that a difference in intensity will be perceived.
Just Noticeable Difference (JND) the minimal amount by which a source of energy must
be increased or decreased so that a difference in intensity will be perceived.
Signal-Detection Theory the view that the perception of sensory stimuli involves the
interaction of physical, biological and psychological factors.
Feature Detectors neurons in the sensory cortex that fire in response to specific features
of sensory information such as lines or edges of objects.
Sensory Adaptation the process by which organisms become more sensitive that are low in
magnitude and less sensitive to stimuli that are constant or ongoing in magnitude.

Sensitization the type of sensory adaptation in which we become more sensitive to stimuli
that are low in magnitude. Also called Positive Adaptation.
Desensitization the type of sensory adaptation in which we become less sensitive to
constant stimuli. Also called Negative Adaptation.

Vision
Eyes biological windows on the world.
Electromagnetic Spectrum includes radio waves, microwaves, x-rays, cosmic rays and ultra
violet rays.
Cosmic rays the wavelengths of these rays from outer space are only a few trillionths of an
inch long.
Radio waves some radio signals extend for miles.
Visible light roses are red, violets are blue. Why? Different colors have different
wavelengths, with violet the shortest at about 400 billionths of a meter in length and red the
longest at 700 billionths of a meter.

The Human Eye

Cornea transparent tissue forming the outer surface of the eyeball.
Iris a muscular membrane whose dilation regulates the amount of light that enters the eye.
Pupil the black-looking opening in the center of the iris, through which light enters the eye.
Lens a transparent body behind the iris that focuses an image on the retina.
Retina the area of the inner surface of the eye that contains rods and cones.
Photoreceptors cells that respond to light.
Bipolar cells neurons that conduct neural impulses from rods and cones to ganglion cells.
Ganglion cells neurons whose axons form the optic nerve.
Optic nerve the nerve that transmits sensory information from the eye to the brain.
Rods rod-shaped photoreceptors that are sensitive only to the intensity of light.
Cones cone-shaped photoreceptors that transmit sensations of color.

Fovea an area near the center of the retina that is dense with cones and wher vision is
consequently most acute.
Blind spot the area of the retina where axons from ganglion cells meet to form the optic
nerve.

Complementary Colors
Complementary descriptive of colors of the spectrum that when combined produce white or
nearly white light.

Theories of Color Vision

1) Trichromatic Theory (Thomas Young) theory that color vision is made possible by
three types of cones, some of which respond to red light, green and blue.
2) Opponent-Process Theory (Ewald Hering) theory that color vision is made possible by
three types of cones, some of which respond to red or green light, some to blue or
yellow, and some to the intensity of light.

Color Blindness
1) Trichromata person with normal color vision.
2) Monochromat a person who is sensitive to black and white only and hence color-blind.
3) Dichromat a person who is sensitive to black-white and either red-green or blueyellow and hence partially color blind.

Visual Perception
Visual Perception process by which we organize or make sense of the sensory impressions
caused by the light that strike our eyes.
Other gestalt rules for organization
1. Closure the tendency to perceive a broken figure as being complete or whole.
2. Proximity nearness; the perceptual tendency to group together objects that are
near one another.
3. Similarity the perceptual tendency to group together objects t5hat are similar in
appearance.

Continuity the tendency to perceive a series of points or lines as having unity.

Common Fate the tendency to perceive elements that move together as belonging together.

Monocular Cues stimuli suggestive of depth that can be perceived with only one eye.
Perspective a monocular cue for depth based on the convergence of parallel lines as they
recede into the distance.
Texture Gradient a monocular for depth based on the perception that closer objects appear
to have rougher surfaces.
Motion parallax a monocular cue for depth based on the perception that nearby objects
appear to move more rapidly in relation to our own motion.

Binocular Cues stimuli suggestive of depth that involve simultaneous perception by both
eyes.
Retinal Disparity a binocular cue for depth based on the difference in the image cast by an
object on the retinas of the eyes as the object moves closer or farther away.
Convergence a binocular cue for depth based on the inward movement of the eyes as they
attempt to focus on an object that is drawing nearer.

Perceptual Constancies
Size Constancy the tendency to perceive an object as being the same size even as the size
of its retinal image changes according to the objects distance.
Color Constancy the tendency to perceive an object as being the same color even though
lightning conditions change its appearance.
Brightness constancy the tendency to perceive an object as being just as bright even though
lightning conditions change its intensity.
Shape Constancy the tendency to perceive an object as being the same shape although the
retinal image varies in shape as it rotates.
Visual Illusions the principles of perceptual organization make it possible for our eyes to
play tricks on us.

Hearing

Sound (auditory stimulation) the vibration of molecules in a medium such as air or water.
Two Psychological Dimension of Sound

Pitch the quality of a sound governed by the rate of vibrations producing it; the

degree of highness or lowness of tone.

Loudness the characteristic of a sound that is primarily a psychological correlate of
physical strength (amplitude).

The Human Ear

Ear shaped and structured to capture sound waves, vibrates in sympathy with them and
transmit them to the brain.

Parts of the Ear

Outer Ear funnel sound waves to the eardrums.

Middle Ear contains the eardrum and three small bones which also transmitted by

vibrating.
Inner Ear

Cochlea the inner ear; the bony tube that contains the basilar membrane and the organ of
corti.
Basilar Membrane a membrane that lies coiled within the cochlea.
Organ of Corti the receptor for hearing that lies on the basilar membrane in the cochlea.
Auditory Nerve the axon bundle that transmits neural impulses from the organ of Corti to
the brain.
The skin senses
Skin senses sensory system for processing touch, warmth, cold, texture and pain.
Touch and pressure sensory receptors embedded in the skin fire when the surface of the
skin is touched.
Temperature the receptors for temperature are neurons located just beneath the skin.
When skin temperature increases, the receptors for warmth fire. Decreases in skin
temperature causes receptors for cold to fire. Thermo receptors detect changes in
temperature using two types of receptor cells: warm and cold.

Pain for most people pain is a frequent visitor. Pain results when neurons called nocieptors in
the skin are stimulated. Pain usually originates at the point of contact.
Phantom Limb Pain sensation that an amputated or missing limb is still attached to the body
and is moving appropriately with other body parts. Phantom sensations may also occur after
the removal of body parts other than the limbs.
Gate theory of pain the gate control theory of pain asserts that non-painful input closes
the gates to painful input, which prevents pain sensation from travelling to the central
nervous system.

Chapter 5
What is Consciousness?
The normal state of being awake and able to understand what is happening around you.

Consciousness as Awareness
Different aspects of Consciousness
1. Sensory Awareness - the ability to receive and differentiate sensory stimuli.
2. Selective Attention - the focus of consciousness on a particular stimulus.
3. Direct Inner Awareness - knowledge of one's own thoughts, feelings, and memories.

Conscious, Preconscious, Unconscious,

and Non conscious

Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, differentiated between thoughts and

feelings of which we are conscious and those that are preconscious and unconscious.

Preconscious - it is the descriptive of material that is not in awareness but can be brought
into awareness by focusing one's attention.

Unconscious - it is the descriptive of ideas and feelings that are not available to awareness;
also: without consciousness.
Non conscious - concerning mental functioning that is not represented in consciousness.

Consciousness as Personal Unity

There is a totality to our impression, thoughts, and feelings that makes up our
consciousness - our continuing sense of self in the world.

Consciousness as the Waking State

The awareness of sensations and thoughts while we are awake.
Psychologists study Waking Consciousness through:

Memory

Language

Perception

Problem Solving

Sleep and Dreams

Sleep
A periodic, natural, reversible and near total loss of consciousness.
Biological Rhythm
Annual Cycles: Seasonal variation (bears hibernation, seasonal, seasonal affective disorder)
28 days cycles: Menstrual Cycle
24 hour cycle: Our Circadian Rhythm
90 minute cycle: Sleep Cycle
Circadian Rhythm
Our 24 biological clock.
Our body temperature and awareness changes throughout the day.
It is best to take a test or study during your circadian peaks.

Stages of Sleep
(NREM1) NONRAPID EYE MOVEMENT Theta waves (low frequency, low amplitude)
This experienced as falling to sleep and is a transition stage between wake and sleep.
From 5 and 10 minutes the body and muscle starts to relax
(NREM2) NONRAPID EYE MOVEMENT- Sleep Spindles and the K complex
The baseline of Sleep
Your brain activity, heart rate and breathing start to slow down. Youre beginning to
reach a state of total relaxation.
(NREM3) NONRAPID EYE MOVEMENT- beginning of delta waves (low frequency, high
amplitude)
(NREM4) NONRAPID EYE MOVEMENT- delta waves continue to increase in amplitude.
Stages 3 and 4 are Delta sleep or slow wave sleep and may last 15-30 minutes.
You get deeper into sleep
REM RAPID EYE MOVEMENT- brain waves pattern are very similar to those of initial
NREM stage 1

This is a very active stage of sleep

Composes of 20-25% of a normal nights sleep.
Breathing, heart rate and brain wave activity quicken.
Vivid dreams can occur
From REM, you go back to stage 2.

Function of Sleep

Restoration of the body

Stress Relief
Memory Consolidation
Rest!

Sleeps Disorders
Insomnia recurring problems on falling or staying sleep.
Narcolepsy a sleep disorder characterized (sometimes) by uncontrollable sleep
attacks.
Sleep Apnea- a sleep disorder that causes the sleeper to temporarily stop breathing.

Night Terror a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of

being terrified.
Sleep Walking- Ambulation (walking or moving about) that occurs during sleep. The
onset typically occurs in pre pubertal children.

Dreams

A sequence of images, emotions, and thought passing through a sleeping persons mind.

Manifest Content: the remembered storyline of a dream.

Latent Content: the underlying meaning of a dream.

Theories of Dreams
Dreams as the Residue of the day
Dreams act to sort out and understand the memories that you experience that day.
REM sleeps does increase after stressful events.

Dreams as the Expression of Unconscious Desires

Dreams are the key to understanding our inner conflicts.
Ideas and thoughts that are hidden in our unconsciousness.
Activation-Synthesis Theory
During the night our brainstem releases random neural activity, dreams may be a way
to make sense of that activity.

ALTERING CONSCIOUSNESS THROUGH

HYPNOSIS, MEDITATION AND BIOFEEDBACK
Hypnosis

The word hypnosis is derived from the greek word for sleep.

 It is an altered state of consciousness in which people are suggestible.

Franz Mesmer in the 18th Century- asserted that everything in the universe was
connected by form of magnetism.
Hypnosis helps people relax to cope with stress & enhance the functioning of their
immune system (Kiecolt-Glaser et al., 2001)
Hypnosis can also be useful in helping people control their weight and stop smoking
( Lynn et al., 2003)
People who are easily hypnotized are said to have HYPNOTIC SUGGESTIBILITY.

Explaining Hypnosis
According to Freud, hypnotized adults permit themselves to return to childish modes
of responding that emphasize fantasy & impulses rather than fact & logic.
Role Theory - a theory that explains hypnotic events in terms of the person's ability act as
though he or she were hypnotized.
Response Set Theory- the view that response expectancies play a key role in the production
of the experiences suggested by the hypnotist.

Meditation
The dictionary defines medication as the act or process of thinking.
Meditation refers to various ways of focusing one's consciousness to alter one's
relationship to the world.
Meditation can also refer to a process by which people seem to suspend thinking &
allow the world to fade away.

Common form of Meditation

1. Transcendental Meditation (TM) - the simplified form of meditation brought to the
United States by the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi & used as a method for coping with stress.
Herbert Benson (1975) found that TM lowered the heart & respiration rates & also
produced what he labeled a relaxation response.
2. Mindfulness Meditation (MM) - a form of meditation that provides clients with
techniques they can use to focus on the present moment rather than ruminate about
problems.
Psychologist Jon Kabat Zinn, founder of the Stress Reduction Clinic at the University
Of Massachusetts Medical Center, has promoted the use of MM in cognitive and behavior
therapy.

Biofeedback
It is a system that provides or "feedback", information about a bodily function to an
organism.

Biofeedback Training (BFT)

- The systematic feeding back to an organism information about a bodily function so that
the organism can gain control of that function.
- BFT used in many ways including helping people combat stress, tension & anxiety.
- Biofeedback is widely used by Sport Psychologists to teach athletes how to relax
muscle groups that are unessential to the task at the hand so that athletes can control
anxiety & tension.

ALTERING CONSCIOUSNESS THROUGH

DRUGS
Substance Abuse and Dependence
Substance Abuse- persistent use of a substance even though it is causing or compounding
problems in meeting the demands of life.
Substance Dependence loss of control over use of a substance; biologically speaking,
dependence is typified by tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, or both.

Psychoactive drugs

Depressants act by slowing the activity of the Central Nervous System.

Stimulants it increase the activity of the Nervous System.

Hallucinogens named because they produce hallucinations that is, sensations and
perceptions in the absence so external stimulation. Hallucinogens may also additional
such as relaxation, euphoria, or, in some cases panic.

Drug
Alcohol
Barbiturates

Amphetamines

Type
Depressant
Depressant

Stimulants

How Taken
By mouth

Desired Effects
Relaxation, euphoria,

Impai

lowered inhibitions

poor j

By mouth,
injected

Relaxation, sleep,
euphoria, lowered

Impai
menta

By mouth,

inhibitions
Alertness, euphoria

drows
Restle

Euphoria, selfconfidence

appeti
sympt
Restle
appeti

Relaxation, stimulation,
weight control

stroke
sympt
Cance
and re

injected
Cocaine

Stimulants

By mouth,
snorted,
injected

Nicotine
(Cigarettes)

Marijuana

LSD
(Lysergic Acid
Diethylamide

Stimulants

Hallucinogens

Hallucinogens

By tobacco
(smoked,

chewed, or
sniffed)
Smoke, by mouth Relaxation, perceptual
distortions,

By mouth

enhancement of
experience
Perceptual distortions,
vivid hallucinations

Impai
respir

Impai
psycho