IB Psychology

Paper 1
Biological level of analysis
2015-11-04
Rosenzweig & Bennett: (1972) Enriched environments lead to brain development:

Maguire et al. (2002): Using spatial memory

affects the hippocampus

Walker (2007): Sleep deprivation leads to over-activation of the amygdala

Environmental effects
on physiology
(8)
Learning outcome:
Discuss two effects of the environment
on physiological processes
(for example, effects of jet lag on bodily rhythms, effects of deprivation on neuroplasticity,
effects of environmental stressors on reproductive mechanisms).
Course companion: page 46-47
Article about how childhood cognitive stimulation (which is an environmental change) is connected to a
thinner cortex (physiological change). The Guardian: Childhood stimulation key to brain development, study
finds. (http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2012/oct/14/childhood-stimulation-key-brain-development)
Video from CBS 60 minutes: The science of sleep part 2. Shows how sleep deprivation leads to and overly
active amygdala (the emotional center of the brain) and a disconnect between the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex (the part responsible for rational thinking).
Past exam questions:
Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes (May 13, TZ1)
Describe one study that demonstrates the effect that the environment can have on one
physiological process. (Nov 14)

HOW TO ANSWER THE QUESTION (SAQ OR ERQ)

The question asks you to choose two things in the environment (see environmental
change in the vocabulary list below) that effect physiological processes (see definition
in vocabulary list). Since they could ask you about one in an ERQ, you could use
Rosenzweig since there are many studies and there is a lot of information, but make sure
you learn details from the studies mentioned in the evaluation. Your ERQ should not
contain only one study.
For an SAQ, you can choose whatever you want but make sure you check if they are
asking for one or more.

VOCABULARY
Environmental change can be
-

being exposed to stressful events (a stressful environment such as having a lot of

homework or being abused, etc. Stress leads to reduction of cells in the
hippocampus and many other changes in the body.)
sleep deprivation (Walker shows that it leads to over-activation of the amygdala.)
other types of deprivation (such as losing your mother at an early age, not having
enough food, etc.)
poverty
living in a stimulating environment (such as living in an enriched environment, an
environment with many books, instruments, etc.)
learning new things by practicing (such as learning a new language, learning how to
juggle, learning to navigate the streets of London as in Maguires study, learning
how to play an instrument)
having a good or bad childhood
being exposed to a war or pollution
being bullied
meditating

Brain plasticity/neuroplasticity = the changes that occur in the physiology (neural

pathways and synapses) of the brain as a result of learning or experience. The brain
changes throughout life. It was earlier believed that it did not change after a certain age.

Physiology = the biological study of the functions of living organisms and their parts.
Spatial memory = the ability to remember locations in space and navigate between
them. It seems like the mental map is stored in the right posterior hippocampus.

SUMMARY
The brain is a dynamic system that interacts with the environment and it is physically
changed through experience. Not only can the brain determine and change behavior, but
behavior and environment can change the brain.

1.Sleep deprivation affects activation of the brain structure

amygdala
Walker (2007) used fMRI in an experiment to investigate the effects of sleep
deprivation (sleep deprivation is an effect of the environment) on the amygdala
(biological structure in the brain). He showed that participants who were sleep deprived
had a 60% higher activation of the amygdala (the emotional center of the brain) when
shown upsetting images than those who were not sleep deprived.

2. An enriched environment physically changes the brain. This

is called brain plasticity (=the brains ability to rearrange the connections
between its neurons as a result of learning or experience.)

Rosenzweig and Bennett (1972) used rats and showed in a lab experiment that an
environment enriched with toys changes the structure of the brain in rats. The cerebral
cortex becomes thicker, synapses and neurons become larger. It is an example of brain
plasticity (see definition above.)
Rosenzweig et al. showed that an outdoor environment is more enriched than an
enriched lab environment using wild mice in outdoor conditions or an enriched
environment in a lab cage. This indicates that an enriched lab environment is
impoverished compared to an outdoor environment.
Bennet, 1976 showed that even adult animals can learn better when placed in enriched
environments. It was earlier believed that only young brains respond to enriched
environments, this shows that even old ones can change. This knowledge can be applied
in real life, for example by enriching the environments of people with Alzheimers or those
who have suffered from stroke. Though environmental enrichment research has been
mostly done upon rodents, similar effects are likely to affect the human brain. However,
direct research upon human synapses and their numbers is limited.
Hopson used a correlation to shown that old people (over 88) who use their brains (who
are curious) dont loose them.

3. When we use our spatial memory (practicing your navigation

skills) the right posterior hippocampus becomes larger.
Maguire (2002), showed that London taxi drivers, whose job it is to use spatial memory,
have changes the distribution of gray matter in the hippocampus. The part responsible for
spatial memory, the posterior hippocampus, becomes larger and heavier while the anterior
hippocampus becomes smaller.

General information about effects of the

environment on physiological processes
So far, we have learned that the brain (neurotransmitters, hormones, genes, certain
structures) are associated with or can determine and change behavior.
But the reverse is also true: the environment can change the brain. The brain is a
dynamic, changeable system that interacts with the environment. This is one of the
principles of the biological level of analysis.
Before the 1960s, the brain was considered unchangeable. More recent research has
shown that the brain can change in response to the environment. This is called brain
plasticity. For example, a rich environment can change the brain by increasing the size of
brain cells in rats. Also, being a taxi-driver, you have to learn many streets and places in
your job. This increases the size of the hippocampus, which is a structure that has a role in
some types o memory.
Remember that the environment can influence the brain in many different ways and that
the two effects we are going to study are only two examples.
Environmental change can be
- being exposed to stress (a stressful environment such as having a lot of homework
or being abused, bullied, etc.)
- sleep deprivation leads to over-activation of the amygdala (Walkers study)
- other types of deprivation, poverty, being stimulated in different ways (such as living
in an enriched environment)
- learning new things by practicing (such as learning a new language, learning how to
juggle, learning to navigate the streets of London as in Maguires study, listening to
music
- having a good or bad childhood
- being exposed to a war
- being exposed to pollution
- having a certain job (such as being a taxi driver and using your spatial memory a lot)
changes the brain physically. (Maguires study)

Walker (2007)
showed that sleep deprivation (an environmental effect)
can change the activation of the amygdala (phyiology of
a brain structure)
Sleep deprivation leads to over-activation of the amygdala and a disconnect
between the amygdala and the pre-frontal cortex in response to intense images.
This means that when we dont sleep enough, the amygdala responds differently
than when we sleep enough. It over-reacts when we are exposed to stressful
images.
Amygdalae
- are located within the temporal lobes of the brain
- shown in research to perform a primary role in the processing of memory,
decision-making, and emotional reactions
- are considered part of the limbic system.
Pre-frontal cortex
It is involved in many behaviors, but among other things it is involved in determining future
consequences of current activities, prediction of outcomes. It is also involved in social
"control" (the ability to suppress urges that, if not suppressed, could lead to socially
unacceptable outcomes). This could explain why people who are sleep deprived have a
harder time controling their emotions.

Walker (2007) used fMRI to investigate the effects of sleep deprivation

(sleep deprivation is an effect of the environment) on the amygdala (biological
structure in the brain)
Method: lab experiment (IV: amount of sleep; DV: activation of the amygdala)
Aim: investigated the effects of sleep deprivation on the amygdala (and emotional instability)
Participants: 26 men and women 18-36 years old
Procedure: The participants viewed increasingly negative images while their brains were being
scanned scanned in an fMRI. (This means that they were scanned while they were shown images
of upsetting events. First they showed neutral events and then they showed more and more
upsetting events while the researchers watched what happened to the activation of the amygdalathe emotional center of the brain- and other parts of the brain.)
Results: Similar activation was found in the amygdala to the first neutral images, but 60% more
activation was found in the sleep deprived condition in response to the intense images (This is
evidence of a more emotional reaction by the participants who had been sleep deprived than those
who had not).
Conclusion: Lack of sleep causes over-activation in the amygdala and a apparently a disconnect
between the amygdala and the pre-frontal cortex. The pre-frontal cortex is responsible for
determining and predicting the consequences of actions (such as what will be the consequence for
us of seeing the negative images). Sleep seems to regulate emotions and when we dont sleep
enough we are not able to decide what is dangerous for us and what is not. The participants who
were sleep deprived could not control their emotional reaction, but the non-sleep deprived could to
a larger extent. Their pre-frontal cortex was not disconnected from the amygdala and it could tell
the amygdala to calm down.

Rosenzweig et al. (1972)

showed that an enriched environment
(an environmental effect) changes the structure of the
brain in rats.
Brain plasticity is the brains ability to rearrange the connections between its neurons that is, the changes that occur in the structure of the brain as a result of learning and
experience. The changes that take place are related to the challenges of the environment
and therefore represent an adaptation to it.

Brief outline to learn by heart

Method: Lab experiment
Aim: To show that a highly stimulating, enriched environments produce physical changes in the
brain
Procedure: Rats were randomly divided into three types of environments (=IV): an enriched
environment with other rats and toys changed every day, an empoverished environment where
they were alone with no toys and a control condition with other rats without toys. The brains were
then dissected to measure changes.
Results: The brains of the rats from the enriched environment were different from the rats from the
impoverished environment (heavier cortex, higher level of chemical activity, larger synapses)
Conclusion: A stimulating/enriched environment changes the brain. It makes it more developed.
Method: Lab experiment
IV: the type of environment (enriched or impoverished)
DV: the size and weight of different sections of the brain, neurotransmitter activity and synapse
size
Sample: Rats were used as subjects. In each of the 16 experiments, 12 sets of 3 male rats were
used (each set from the same litter)
Design: independent measures design.
One rat from each set was randomly assigned to one of three conditions
Control condition
Experimental condition 1 Experimental condition 2
In a cage with the rest of the colony In enriched environment
Impoverished environment
- with other rats
- with 6-7 other rats
- enough space
- large cage with a lot of toys (a new set of - alone
playthings, drawn out of a pool of 25 objects, - smaller cage in a separate room
was placed in the cage every day)

food and water

food and water

food and water

Procedure
- The rats lived in the different environments for 4-10 weeks.
- Autopsies were performed to see if there were any differences in the brains of the rats from the
different environments.
- The brains were dissected and the various sections were measured, weighed, and analyzed.
Results/Findings
The brains of the enriched rats were different from the impoverished rats (the differences were
small).
- LARGER SYNAPSES: The synapses (where the impulses are passed from one neuron to
another) were 50% larger
- THICKER CEREBRAL CORTEX: The cerebral cortex was heavier and thicker (This is 4the
part of the brain that responds to experience and is responsible for movement, memory,
learning, and all sensory input (vision, hearing, touch, taste, smell)
- LARGER NEURONS: No difference in number of neurons, but in the the neurons were
larger.
- HIGHER LEVEL OF CHEMICAL ACTIVITY in chemicals that are important for faster and
more efficient transmission of impulses among brain cells.
Conclusion
Certain experiences, such as the type of environment, can change the structure of the brain.
Enriched environments lead to/cause (since this is an experiment with the manipulation of the
type of environment) changes in physiology of the brain. Many aspects of brain anatomy and
chemistry change in an enriched environment. We need a stimulating environment for optimal
intellectual development and proper development in the brain.

Evaluation of the study

(+) One strength of this study is that using rats makes it possible to use experiments to
investigate how an enriched environment causes changes in the brain, since the brains of
rats can be investigated physically. Rats are used because
- They are more convenient than using carnivores or primates
- The part of the brain that is the main focus of this research is smooth in the rat, not folded
and complex as it is in higher animals. Therefore, it can be examined and measured more
easily.
- Rats are small and inexpensive
- Rats bear large litters (so members from the same litter can be assigned to different
experimental conditions
(-) However, some claim one should be careful when generalizing animal research to
humans since there are physical differences between animals and humans. (+) The
researchers admitted it is even difficult to generalize from one set of rats to another, and
even more difficult to generalize to humans (+) Though environmental enrichment
research has been mostly done upon rodents, similar effects occur in primates and are
likely to affect the human brain. However, direct research upon human synapses and their
numbers is limited (+) One strength is using animals in these types of experiments that
would be considered unethical to conduct on humans.
(-) On limitation of this study is artificiality (the rats used were not investigated nor taken
from their natural environment), which is a problem because this makes it even more
difficult to generalize to humans. They were lab rats, raised in artificial environments for
100 generations. They bear little resemblance genetically to rats in the wild. (+) This led to
an experiment where Rosenzweig et al. trapped wild mice and randomly placed them
in either natural outdoor conditions or the enriched lab cages. This means that the IV was
whether the enriched environment was artificial (in the lab) or not (outdoors). This was an
independent measures design. Results showed that after 4 weeks, the outdoor mice
showed greater brain development than did those in the enriched lab environment. This

indicates that even the enriched lab environment is impoverished in comparison with a
natural environment but it still showed that an enriched environment changes physiology
of the brain.
(+) One strength is that this was the first clear demonstration of the influences of an
enriched environment on the brain, which often spurs research within an area. This
becomes interesting for other researchers to investigate and replicate.
(-) One limitation is that some critics claimed that extraneous variables influenced the
DV, such as how the rats were treated (the enriched rats were handled twice each day
when the toys were changed). The handling (which means that these rats were touched
while the other rats were not) might have caused the change, and not the IV (the enriched
environment) (+) This lead the researchers to conduct a follow-up experiment where
the IV was handling (one group was handled and one group was not) and no differences
were found. So, one can conclude that this criticism was not valid.
(-) Another possible confounding variable was stress (some claimed that the isolation of
the impoverished rats were influenced by stress and not by the impoverished
environment). (+) However, research had shown that stress alone as an IV (such as
rotating the cage of mild electric shock) did not influence brain development. So, this
criticism was not valid either.
(+) This research is useful because it tests concepts and techniques, which may later
prove useful in research with humans
(+) One strength was that experimenter bias was avoided, which means the researcher
influencing the results instead of the IV, since the person performing the autopsy did not
know from which condition the rats were taken.
(+) It led to continued research in the area (findings have been confirmed and refined) For
example; research has shown that even adult animals can learn better when placed in an
enriched environment (Bennet, 1976). Since it was earlier believed that only young
brains respond to enriched environments, this shows that even old ones can change. This
knowledge can be applied in real life, for example by enriching the environments of people
with Alzheimers or those who have suffered from stroke.
(+) There is evidence involving humans:
- Autopsies of humans who have died naturally show that, as a person develops a greater number
of skills and abilities, the brain actually becomes more complex and heavier
- Autopsies of blind people (who naturally dont have sight experiences) show that, since they lack
certain experiences, the cortex used for vision is less developed, thinner than in the brain of a
person with normal sight
- Hopson has shown that old people (over 88) who use their brains (who are curious) dont loose
them

Maguire et al. (2002)

showed evidence of brain plasticity. They showed that
those who use their spatial memory (taxi drivers) have a
larger posterior hippocampus, probably from using
their navigation skills in their job
Outline of the Maguires study: The study is outlined at the end of this
handout as well as on this site: http://www.holah.co.uk/summary/maguire/. You can just
google Maguire hola hippocampus and youll find it.

Maguire (2002)
Research method: correlationala analysis between use of spatial memory and
physiological change in the brain
- The researchers measured the use of spatial memory by counting the years of
experience the taxi drivers had. The controls had no experiece driving a cab.
- The researchers measured the physiological changes in the brain by measureing
different brain parts to see the difference between taxi drivers and controls
Design: independent measures design (meaning that two different groups were used: taxi
drivers and controls)
Aim: to investigate whether using spatial memory (which is a cognitive function) is related
changes in the brain (which is a physiological change, since it has to do with the structure
of the brain).
Participants:
16 London taxi-drivers with 1.5-42 years experience driving (mean driving
experinece=14.3 years)
They were between 32 and 62 years old (mean age was 44)
A control group of 16 people who were not taxi-drivers were used to compare with.

They used taxi drivers because they undergo extensive training to acquire The
knowledge learning to navigate between thousands of places in London. Learning this
takes an average of two years culminating in a very difficult text.
All 16 participants were right handed, from London. The mean age and range was the
same for the control group. Females and left-handed drivers were excluded.
Procedure: They compared the brains of the taxi drivers and the controls using MRI.
Results: There were no differences in other areas than in the hippocampus. There was no
difference in the total volume of the hippocampus. The posterior hippocampus was larger
in the taxi drivers, and especially in the experienced drivers. The anterior hippocampus
was smaller in the taxi drivers and especially in the experienced drivers.
Conclusion: Using spatial memory seems to change the structure of the brain. There is a
relationship between navigational skills and the distribution of gray matter in the
hippocampus. It seems like the mental map is stored in the posterior hippocampus since
it seemed like the gray matter from the anterior hippocampus was redistributed to the
posterior hippocampus the more they used spatial memory.
Evaluation:
(+) Control of participant variables (healthy neurological profile, healthy in general, age
32-62, only men were used, only right-handed people) excluding those who might have
changes in the hippocampus affecting the results.
(+) Previous research supports the results (a few studies on animals had shown that the
hippocampus increases in volume when the demands on spatial memory increases, such
as when they have to find or store food. a study on humans showed that the posterior
hippocampus is active while we recall and use previously learned navigation information.
An fMRI was used that showed activity in the brain while the participants were asked to
retrieve information stored in the posterior hippocampus).
(+) These results have implications for rehabilitation (se evaluation below)
(+) Images of the MRI were analyzed by experienced analysts (since one limitation of
using scans is that different examiners can come to different conclusions about how large
the hippocampus is in the image analyzed)
(+) Avoided researcher bias in analysis since the person analyzing the scans did not know
which group the participant belonged to.
(-) The correlation method was used, which means that we cannot draw the conclusion
that using your spatial memory actually increases the volume. Maybe the taxi-drivers were
born with this volume and those kinds of people tend to pick jobs that suit their capabilities.
This is unlikely since Maguire showed that the more experienced drivers had larger
volume, which means that it did increase from using their spatial memory. Also, other
studies seem to support this idea of causation (The volume increases in birds at times
when they have to use it). But from this study only, we cannot draw the conclusion that
using spatial memory CAUSES changes in the hippocampus.

Past exam question and mark scheme

ERQ: Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes. [22
marks]
The command term discuss requires candidates to offer a considered and balanced
review, supported by appropriate evidence, of the way in which the environment affects
physiological processes.
Candidates may address two effects of the environment on two different physiological
processes or may address two different effects of the environment on one physiological
process. Both approaches are equally acceptable. The physiological processes should
be clearly identified.
Examples of how the environment may affect physiological processes include:
- effects of jet lag on bodily rhythms
- effects of deprivation on neuroplasticity
- effects of environmental stressors on reproductive mechanisms.
Examples of studies include, but are not limited to:
- Michael Meaneys (1988) study on how environmental stressors lead to hippocampal
cell loss in rats
- Rosenzweig and Bennetts (1972) study on stimulating environments and
dendritic branching
- Small and Vorgans (2008) study on the effect of computer use on the brain
- Studies by Maguire et al. (2000), Draganski et al. (2004), Brefczynski-Lewis et al.
(2007) and Tierney et al. (2001).
Discussion may include but is not limited to:
- methodological and ethical issues
- other contributing factors such as personality, age, or genetic predisposition
- empirical evidence
- application of the findings.
If a candidate discusses more than two effects of the environment, credit should be
given only to the first two discussions.
If a candidate discusses only one effect of the environment, apply the markbands up to a
maximum of [11 marks].

Sample answer
This sample answer has a lot of comments to it but you have to download the pages document from Ping-Pong in order to see them.
I have chosen to write about the following to answer the question below:
- THE EFFECT OF AN ENRICHED ENVIRONEMNET ON BRAIN PLASTICITY and
- THE EFFECT OF SLEEP DEPRIVATION ON ACTIVATION OF THE AMYGDALA
Use Rosenzweig if you are asked about ONE effect. There is enough information below for a whole ERQ. If you are asked about TWO,
reduce the information about Rosenzweigs study and use Walker as well. There is enough information on Walker for half an ERQ here.
If you feel uncertain about Walker, there are a couple of very easy studies in your Course companion, such as the one on the effects of
meditation on the brain. The key to Walker is to focus on the amygdala (since changes in the activation of a structure in the brain is a
physiological process. Mention the emotional swings, but emotions are a cognitive factor and the swings are a product of this
activation in the amygdala.
Note! We have talked about how the scanning techniques are not research methods according to the IB. They are only techniques used
in experiments, observations, etc. Walkers study is an example of an experiment that uses the fMRI as a technique, since he
manipulates an IV (sleep deprived or not). Could be used in the biological, since it shows how sleep deprivation (an environmental
change) influences the amygdala, and in the cognitive level since it shows how they can investigate emotions using technology. Then
you have to focus on emotionals swings and also mention that those is investigated in the cog level.
This answer is too long, but you can omit certain details and certain evaluation points. Just make sure there is an equal amount of facts
and critical thinking (2x9 marks). If they ask for ONE effect, you can use Rosenzweig and Maguire (since that also shows brain
plasticity). You can also just use Rosenzweigs replications and improvements of the study as more research.

ERQ:

Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes

(for example, effects of jet lag on bodily rhythms, effects of deprivation on neuroplasticity,
effects of environmental stressors on reproductive mechanisms).
Two effects of the environment on physiology are the effect of an enriched environment on brain plasticity (illustrated through
Rosenzweig and Bennett, 1972) and the effect of sleep deprivation on the activation of the amygdala (illustrated through Walker, 2007).
Before the 1960s, the brain was thought to be influenced only by genes, and therefore it was considered unchangeable. More recent
research has shown that the brain can change in response to the environment. The brains ability to rearrange the connections between
its neurons is called brain plasticity. Changes occur in the structure of the brain as a result of changes in the environment. For
example, Rosenzweig et al (1972) showed that and enriched environment can change the structure of the brain in rats. Also,
sleep deprivation, which is an environmental change, can change the activity in the amygdala. Walker (2007) showed that, when
people dont sleep enough, the amygdala which is the emotional center of the brain responsible for regulating mood is more active,
which makes us more sensitive to negative experiences.
Rosenzweig et al. (1972) conducted a lab experiment to show that rats raised in highly stimulating (enriched) environments
would demonstrate differences in brain growth and brain chemistry when compared with rats raised in plain or dull
environments.
An independent measures design was used and the independent variable was the type of environment and the dependent
variable was the size and weight of different sections of the brain, neurotransmitter activity and synapse size measured during
autopsies of the rats.
Rats spent 4-10 weeks in different cages. In the control condition the rat was placed in a cage with the rest of the colony with enough
space. In the enriched environment, there were 6-7 other rats in a large cage with a lot of toys, replaced with other toys each day. In the
impoverished environment the rat was alone in a smaller cage in a separate room.
After that, autopsies were performed to see if there were any differences in the brains of the rats from the different environments. The
brains were dissected and the various sections were measured, weighed, and analyzed to determine the amount of cell growth and
levels of neurotransmitter activity (especially one brain enzyme called acetylcholinesterase, a chemical that is important because it
allows for faster and more efficient transmission of impulses among brain cells.) Experimenter bias was avoided since the person
performing the autopsy did not know from which condition the rats were taken.
Results showed that the brains of the enriched rats were different from the impoverished rats even though the differences were quite
small. There was NO difference in number of neurons, but in the size of the neurons and there was a higher level of chemical
activity. The cerebral cortex (the part of the brain that responds to experience and is responsible for movement, memory, learning,
and all sensory input (vision, hearing, touch, taste, smell) had increased in weight and was thicker and the synapses were 50%
larger.
The conclusion drawn from this is that certain experiences, such as the type of environment, can change the structure of the
brain. This was the first clear demonstration of the influences of an enriched environment.
There are ethical issues involved when animals are used in research like this, sicne resechers need to follow the ethical guidelines for
animals. The rats were only used and killed for the purpose of this study but since the results contributed to a much better
understanding of the role of environmental factors in brain plasticity, it can be argued that the research was justified in spite of the
ethical issues because it is more ethical to use animals than humans in this kind of research. The implication of this research was that
the research challenged the belief that brain weight cannot change, This was an important finding at the time when most believed this
was not possible.

Some critics claimed that extraneous variables influenced the DV, such as how the rats were treated. The enriched rats were handled
(which means touched, and it is well know that touch is beneficial) twice each day when the toys were changed. The handling might
have caused the change, and not the IV. This led the researchers to conduct an experiment where the IV was handling. One group was
handled and one group was not, and the same results were found.
Another possible confounding variable was stress. Some claimed that the impoverished rats were not influenced by the impoverished
environment but by stress, because they were isolated from other rats. But further research showed that stress alone as an IV (such as
rotating the cage or mild electric shock) did not influence brain development. This confirmed Rosenzweigs initial results.
The experiment was also criticized of artificiality. The rats used were not taken from their natural environment. They were lab rats,
raised in artificial environments for 100 generations and therefore they were not genetically similar to rats in the wild. This led to an
experiment where Rosenzweig et al. trapped wild mice and randomly placed them in either natural outdoor conditions or the enriched
lab cages. After 4 weeks, the outdoor mice showed greater brain development than did those in the enriched lab environment. This
indicates that even the enriched lab environment is impoverished in comparison with a natural environment.
Some claim animal research cannot be generalized to humans but this kind of experiment could never be performed on humans
(dissection, etc.). The researchers admitted it is difficult to generalize from one set of rats to another, and even more difficult to
generalize to humans but this research is useful because it tests concepts and techniques which may later prove useful in
research with humans. Their studies led to continued research in the area and their results have been confirmed and refined.
There is evidence involving humans even though it is not experimental: Autopsies of humans who have died naturally show that, as
a person develops a greater number of skills and abilities, the brain actually becomes more complex and heavier. Autopsies of
blind people (who naturally dont have sight experiences) show that, since they lack certain experiences, the cortex used for vision is
less developed, thinner than in the brain of a person with normal sight.
Since the experiment was a rigorously controlled lab experiment, it was possible to establish cause-effect relationships. We can
conclude that the enriched environment causes the brain to change.
Another study that shows how environmental changes can affect the brain is an experiment that illustrates the effect of sleep
deprivation on the amygdala. Walker (2007) used an experiment and aimed to investigate whether sleep deprivation (IV) leads to a
change in the activation of the amygdala, the emotional center of the brain that alerts the body to protect itself in times of danger. The
amygdala normally reacts excessively in danger by shutting down the prefrontal cortex, which governs logical reasoning.
Walker used 26 healthy students aged 18-39 in an independent measures design where the experimental group was sleep deprived by
having stayed awake for 35 hours and the control group got a full nights sleep. Participants were then scanned using an fMRI where the
activation of the amygdala was measured while they were watching 100 increasingly negative pictures. The pictures ranged from neutral
to very disturbing images of mutilated bodies, children with tumors, etc.
Results showed similar emotional responses to the neutral images but the amygdala reacted much more strongly to the
negative images in the sleep deprived participants. It was about 60% more active in response to negative images when participants
had been deprived of sleep. Also the volume of the amygdala that was activated was three times that of the sleep control subjects. The
scan also showed that the amygdala was in disconnect with the prefrontal cortex, the part of the brain that makes us reason
logically. Participants who got a good nights sleep showed normal activity in the amygdala. The brain activation pattern in the sleepdeprived participants was similar to the activation shown in psychiatric mood disorders.
The conclusion from this study is that a lack of sleep (which is an environmental change) causes a higher activation in the
amygdala (which is a physiological process) and a disconnect between the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex. This causes
emotional swings. It makes us more sensitive to negative experiences. Sleep, as an environmental factor, does something for emotional
regulation and emotional processing in the brain. A good nights sleep can regulate your mood and help you cope with the next days
emotional challenges. When sleep deprived, the brain is not able to put emotional experiences into context and produce
controlled appropriate and logical responses since there is a disconnect between the emotional center of the brain (the
amygdala) and the reasoning center (the prefrontal cortex).
This was the first experiment that showed that even healthy peoples brains show certain pathological psychiatric patterns when
deprived of sleep.
One limitation of the study is its lack of ecological validity. The researchers did not use a real life setting where people are not totally
sleep deprived but get a few hours of sleep every night. Also, they were shown the images in an fMRI scan, which is not a natural
situation. On the other hand, cause and effect can be inferred since a lab experiment was used. Sleep deprivation causes the overactivation.
In conclusion, the experiments above show a causal link between environmental changes such as an enriched environment
and lack of sleep and changes in the brain. Rosenzweig et al. showed that many aspects of brain anatomy and chemistry change in
an enriched environment. We seem to need a stimulating environment for optimal intellectual development and proper development in
the brain. On the other hand, their research does not show how these changes influence intellectual ability since only changes in the
brain were measured. Walker showed that the brain changes in response to lack of sleep. Previously, It was thought that psychiatric
and mood disorders cause sleep loss. However, Walkers study shows that this isnt necessarily the case as sleep deprivation can itself
be the cause of psychological instability.
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