From the Authors desk..

This book contains basic knowledge of Environmental Engineering and

Pollution control. Students of final year Diploma (Civil Engineering) will
find it useful and this book covers topic of water supply which Diploma
(Civil Engineering) students of second year will find it quite useful. Every
effort has been made to make this book as simple as possible and easy
in language. All the references in this book are taken from Wikipedia
which is a great source of knowledge and from other websites too.
I would like to thank to my family and friends who are the constant
source of inspiration to me.
Suggestions for improvement of the text will be highly appreciated.
Ravi Bhushan Bhardwaj
ravibhushanbhardwajofficial@gmail.com

Dedicated to my
Mom and Dad

Content

Chapter 1. Ecology of Environment4-7

What is environment ?.................................................................................4
Land, water, Air as Habitat..4-5
Ecosystem...........5
Different Nutrient Cycle..6-7
Chapter 2.Renewable Energy.8-12
Renewable Energy..8
Types of Renewable Energy.8
Solar Energy and Solar Devices..8-11
Wind energy.11
Energy from water12
Ocean Energy12
Bio Energy12
Geothermal Energy12
Chapter 3. Water Supply13-28
Importance of water supply14
Wholesome water.14
Water demand.14-16
Per capita Demand.16-17
Factors affecting per capita demand..17-18
Variation in demand.18-19
Population Forecasting methods19-20
Sources of water supply20-21
Characteristics of water21-22
Water treatment Process.23-24
Water distribution.24-28
Chapter 4. Water Pollution..29-35
Sources of Water pollution..29
Major types of water Pollutants and their Effect..29-31
Measurement of the level of pollution31-32
Process of waste water treatment.32-34
Water quality.34-35

Chapter 5. Air Pollution.36-44

Composition of Air36-37
Structure of Atmosphere37-38
Air Pollutants38-39
Harmful Effects of Air Pollution39-41
Prevention and Control of Air Pollution.41-44
Chapter 6.Noise Pollution45-49
What is Noise?.........................................................................................45
Sources of Noise45-46
Effect of Noise Pollution..46-47
Physical Properties of Noise.47-49
Noise control49
Chapter 7. Solid waste Pollution50-53
Type of solid waste50-51
Modes of Solid waste disposal.51-53
Solid waste management53

Chapter 1
Ecology of Environment
What is Environment?
Everything that surrounds us in which animals and plants live, including both the
physical factors and other living organism is called Environment. In simple words;
Environment is where we live in.
We can classify environment into two types based on the above explanation1. Natural environment- It includes all living and non-living thing occurring
naturally in the area.
2. Built Environment- It includes all the man-made surroundings that provides
comfort and setting for human activities. e.g.; building, parks, cities, transport etc.

Our mother Earth has four spheres- the atmosphere (air), the lithosphere (land),
the hydrosphere (water) and the biosphere (where life exists).

Land, Water, Air as Habitat

1. Water (Aquatic Habitat) - Water is a habitat for variety of organisms called

aquatic organisms. These organisms lives and breeds in water and can be further
classified into marine and fresh water organisms. The fresh water habitat includes
lakes, reservoirs, ponds, springs, mountain, brooks, streams and river.
2. Land (Terrestrial habitat) - We all are familiar with land because we humans
live and propagate on land. Organisms that live and propagate on land are called
terrestrial organisms like; man, elephant, camel etc.

3. Air (Aerial habitat) - Some organisms use air as a medium for their activities
(like; flying) but air can't be responsible to support life because no organism live
and breed in air. Organism like birds, insects are called aerial organism and the
organism use air (sky) for their activities.

Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction with non-living
components of their environment (like; air, water and mineral soil), interacting as
a system. Ecosystem comes in small or large sizes. In Ecosystem there is frequent
exchange of materials and energy. Ecosystem has its two parts; (i) Natural
Ecosystem (which includes both land and aquatic, eg; lake, river, grassland etc.),
(ii) Artificial Ecosystem (which includes ecosystem made by human being. e.g.;
parks, garden etc.).
We all are familiar with biotic component (Producers, carnivores, decomposers)
and Abiotic components (Nutrient elements and compounds like; carbon,
nitrogen etc). These are components of ecosystem. We humans get variety of
goods and services; hence it make important for environmental engineers to
recognize and understand a wide range of ecosystem services in environmental
engineering services.

Energy Flow
Flow of energy through a food chain is called 'Energy Flow'. Our sun in the center
of solar system is responsible for the all earth's energy. Sun spreads its energy in a
form of heat and visible light. Autotrophs (i.e; primary producers) use this energy
to make their food through photosynthesis. The stored energy in the plants is
absorb by Primary consumers (i.e; herbivores) through process of digestion, and
transform it into the form of energy they need through respiration. This received
energy is stored as body mass where as some energy is lost in the form of body
heat and via excretion. Secondary consumers (carnivores) then consume the
6

primary consumer and absorb the stored energy in the primary consumers
through the process of digestion. At each trophic level 90% of energy is used and
only 10% of it is transferred to next trophic level. This limit the food chain 4 to 5
links only. A final link in food chain is decomposers which break down the organic
matter of the dead consumers (at all levels) and the undigested food excreted by
the consumers, and release nutrients into the environment.

Different Nutrient Cycle1. Oxygen Cycle- We know, animals take oxygen from the atmosphere and
releases carbon dioxide as a waste product into the atmosphere. This carbon
dioxide is used by plants and release oxygen into the atmosphere. This makes a
balance between Carbon dioxide and Oxygen. Combustion and formation of
oxides of nitrogen also uses oxygen from the atmosphere.

2. Nitrogen Cycle- Nitrogen is an important element required by organisms for

synthesizing proteins. But the nitrogen cant be used by living system in its
element form. It must be firstly converted into nitrates for the use of plants.
Generally, nitrogen fixation is done by bacteria but industrial nitrogen fixation can
also be done to convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates. Nitrates are absorb by
plants. When a plant or animal dies, or an animal expels waste, the initial form of
nitrogen is organic. This organic matter is decomposed to ammonia and amino
acids by microorganisms in soil. This ammonia is oxidized into nitrates. Some
microorganisms convert ammonia into nitrates. Finally, there are some other
bacteria (decomposers) reduce nitrates back to nitrogen. Free nitrogen is returns
to atmosphere and oxides are taken up by plants.
3. Carbon-Cycle - Plant utilizes the atmospheric carbon in photosynthesis to
produce carbohydrates. Plant food is taken by herbivores and then passes
through small and large carnivores. At each trophic level of food chain, respiration
helps in returning the carbon dioxide quickly to the atmosphere. The carbon
7

dioxide is returned to the atmosphere by various activities such as respiration,

decomposition, combustion and volcanic activities.

Environment and Sustainable Development

If we will see, in last few decades we humans have harm our environment in
several different ways. In the age of science and technology, we have used natural
resources to create an environment of our own but this practice has led to
degradation of our natural environment. We have converted villages, hills,
beaches etc into cities and big towns. We have used agricultural lands for
constructing big hotels, industries etc. In order to generate electricity we have
constructed big dams. Water bodies have shrunken.
To maintain a balance between the developments, It is necessary to strive for
sustainable development to meet the needs of present generation without
foreclosing the options for future generation. To achieve this, we have to consider
different aspects of development. Conservation, sustainability and biological
diversity are inter related. If we have to survive, we have to live in harmony with
nature. More plants have to be planted, adopt such technologies that are
environment friendly and based on maximizing, recycling and efficient use of
resources.

Chapter 2
Renewable Energy
Most of countries are dependent heavily on coal, oil, natural gas for energy. These
are fossil fuels that are finite resources and will no longer exist for future use after
years; also they are damaging our environment and expensive to use. On other
hands renewable energy resources will be available longer for use, it also not
damages our environment and yeah! They are free of cost to use like; solar
energy can be used directly heating and lighting homes and other building for
generating electricity, it can be use for water heating etc. Wind energy is captured
with windmills that can use for water pumping, crop irrigation etc. Energy can
also be drawn from beneath the earth and we called this 'Geothermal Energy'.

Types of Renewable Energy

1. Solar Energy - Sun radiate its energy in space in all direction. Including
Earth other solar planets also receive energy by sun. Earth receives only a
small fraction of energy but this small fraction of energy is enough to fulfill
our demands. The radiation coming from the sun not only contain heat and
light but also carries energy in the form of ultraviolet and gamma rays. The
solar energy reaching the earth's atmosphere is considered to be constant
for all practical purposes and called as the solar constant. It is not possible
to calculate the exact value of solar constant but it is estimated
approximately 1.4 kW per square meter. About 47% of solar energy reaches
the earth surface and the rest of the radiation gets reflected back to the
space. The atmosphere absorbs a portion of solar energy that percolates
down towards the earth's surface is mostly in the form of heat and light.
This solar energy is absorb by the landmass and water bodies like rivers,
9

lakes and oceans. Some parts of this energy is utilize by plants to synthesize
their food through photosynthesis and the solar energy trapped by the land
and water bodies, in turn induces many physical changes in nature, like
wind and storms, ocean waves, rain and snow fall.
From the beginning of the civilization, we human beings have always been
utilizing solar energy for various purposes like; drying of woodgrain, clothes, etc.
Now, we have developed technology that enables us to harness solar energy in a
more efficient and convenient manner. We have solar devices like; solar cookers,
solar water heaters, solar water pumps and photovoltaic cells (PV) or solar cells to
harness solar energy.
Some of the solar devices used to harness solar energy are -

a) Solar cookers and water heaters

The solar cookers and solar water heaters are devices that collect solar energy in
the form of heat. The above two are most common example of solar devices that
are used to collect solar energy in the form of heat over a period of time. These
devices works on the principle of collecting solar energy in the form of heat. In
solar cookers the inner surfaces are painted with black colour because black
surface absorbs more heat as compare to white surfaces. A glass which is plain an
transparent is provided in solar cookers which allows infra-red radiation of
shorter wavelengths but does not allow infra-red radiation of longer wavelength
to pass through it. The infra-red radiation pass through the glass into the box is
absorbed by black surface of its inner walls. When the walls become hot, they too
started to radiate heat in the form of infra-red radiation. The wavelengths of
radiation emitted inside the box are much longer than the incoming infra-red. As,
the above property of glass explained, the glass cover does not allow the heat to
radiate out, which helps the box to retain heat inside it.

10

Solar water heaters are designed on the same principle as the solar cookers. Solar
water heater consists of copper pipe with its outer surface painted in black
colour. It is in a coil form which is fixed in a box, helps to increase the surface area
for heating. A reservoir is used to collect cold water which is connected to a small
tank kept slightly above the water heater. One end of the copper pipe is
connected to the bottom of the small tank of water, while its other end is joined
near its middle. Water circulates through the copper pipe due to difference in
pressure. Because of the slow movement of water it absorbs solar heat and gets
heated. The hot water in upper part of tank is drawn through tap and cold water
replaces the hot water from the reservoir.

(i)

(ii)

Fig. (i) solar water heater & (ii) parabolic solar cooker(image source Wikipedia)

b) Solar Concentrator - A much higher temperature is obtained with solar

concentrator. Solar concentrators are solar devices that are designed to reflect
and concentrate energy of sunlight from over a large area into a small area. For
this a spherical or parabolic reflector is mounted in such manner that its concave
surface recieves maximum amount of solar radiation which can be used in solar
concentrator or heater for domestic use. Some reflectors are able to rotate in the
direction of sun.
Some designs of reflectors consist of large numbers of small mirrors and are used
in solar power tower to generate electricity.

11

c) Solar Cells or Photovoltaic - Solar cells convert solar energy into electricity. It is
easy to convert directly solar energy in comparison of heating systems. Now, a
days we use silicon to manufacture solar cells because it is environment friendly
and abundant in nature. A typical solar cell consist of a 2 cm square piece of pure
silicon and can generate about 0.7 watt of electricity when exposed to sun. A
large number of solar cells are use together to produce enough electricity that we
call them 'Solar Panels'. Solar cells are environment friendly, clean and pollution
free source of electricity. But it is costly to install solar panels.

Fig.Satellite image of the 550-megawatt Topaz solar farm in California,USA

2) Wind Energy - Suns energy is also responsible for the movement of air in the
atmosphere we called this 'Wind'. The wind energy is the form of kinetic energy
possessed by the air velocity. Windmills are designed to convert wind energy into
mechanical energy or electrical energy. A windmill consists of a basically number
of blades and a rigid support erected at some height. The number of blades, their
shape and the height of the windmill are decided on the basis of average wind
velocity and other related factors based on area. The principle of working of
windmills is very simple. When winds strike the blades of windmill generates a
pressure difference between its different region, this produces truning effect to
make the blades rotate. Speeds can vary according to the wind velocity.Windmill
is used to lift water' wind energy farm consist of a number of windmills over a
large area is used to generate electricity on a commercial scale.

12

Fig.Windmill (image source Wikipedia)

3) Energy from Water - Water flowing through rivers is also a form of energy. This
energy is used for irrigation, to generate electricity. Dams are constructed to
collect water in large artificial lakes by obstructing the flow of water. It include a
simple process, the water is made to fall on the turbine blades from top of the
dam ( here during this process the kinetic energy of flowing water changes into
potential energy) which rotates the armature of the electric generators.

4) Using Ocean Energy- As, we know oceans have tides. Due to the rise and fall in
tides, it possessed energy know as tidal energy. This energy can also be use for
the generation of electricity. To achieve this, a dam is constructed across narrow
opening to the sea. In this opening water moves in and out during high and low
tides. During this process it flows over the turbines fixed inside dam that generate
electricity. We can also harness the ocean energy by Ocean thermal energy
conversion (OTEC) power plants. A temperature difference of 20'C or more
between surface waters and water at depths upto 1000 is required to operate
OTEC systems.

5) Bio-Energy - Bio energy is derived from biological sources. As we know, sun is

responsible for all sources of energy on earth therefore biomass contains small
fraction of sun's energy in the form of chemical energy. Biomass as fuel includes
wood waste, wood etc. We use biomass mainly for the generation of electricity.

13

By 2010, there was 35 GW of globally instaled bio energy capacity for electricity
generation, of which 7 GW was in the United States.

6) Geothermal Energy - Thermal energy is stored inside the Earth. We can use this
source of energy to generate electricity, in industrial processes, agricultural
applications etc. This thermal energy inside the Earth is generated from
radioactive decay and continual heat loss from Earth's formation and we called
this 'Geothermal Energy'. The deeper regions of the Earth's crust is very hot and
can reach over 4000'C. This high temperature cause some rocks to melt. We call
this molten rocks magma. Geological changes in some regions push the magma
upward, which gets collected at some depth below the Earth surface called hot
spots, are the sources of geothermal energy. Geothermal power is effective,
reliable, sustainable and environmentally friendly. Geothermal power has the
potential to help mitigate global warming if widely used in place of fossil fuels.

14

Chapter 3
Water supply

Importance of water supply

Water is one of natural resources which is important for our daily needs like;
bathing, drinking, washing clothes etc and also responsible for life on Earth.
Water is available on Earth in form of various sources like; river, lakes, reservoir,
etc. But also it is true that due to increase in technological advancement, we
require water except all these basic needs in large amount.
Therefore, proper water supply becomes important. 'Water supply is the
provision of water for public, domestic, industrial etc. via a system of facilities
which may include pumps, pipes, river etc.'

Wholesome Water
Wholesome water is defined as the water which contains minerals at requisite
levels and free from harmful impurities but infact water found in nature also
contains impurities in varying amounts and that's why pure water does not exist.
Wholesome water must be free from bacteria, free from objectionable matter
and must be colourless, odour free, cool and also have dissolved oxygen free from
carbonic acid. These are the possible requirements of wholesome water.

Water Demand
Water supply for town or city depends on the total quantity of water required for
various purposes. Estimation of water demand becomes necessary for the supply
system or to an existing system. With the help of certain empirical formulae and
thumb rules is possible to determine the water demand.
15

The various types of water demands are1. Domestic - The quantity of water required for drinking, bathing, washing,
cooking, etc in houses is called domestic water demand. It depends on
various factors like; habit, climatic conditions etc of the people, for
developed countries water demand is usually much higher than the
minimum. For the countries like India the domestic consumption of water
is about 135 litres/day/capita.
The details of the domestic consumption area) Drinking------------------------------------------------------ 5 litres
b) Cooking------------------------------------------------------ 5 litres
c) Bathing------------------------------------------------------- 55 litres
d) Clothes washing----------------------------------------- 20 litres
e) Utensil's washing---------------------------------------- 10 litres
f) House washing-------------------------------------------- 10 litres
____________________
135 litres/day/capita
2. Industrial - The water demand in industries depends on the type of industries.
Water demand by factories, sugar refineries, etc comes under industrial water
demand. For industries the water demand is around 20 to 25% of the total
demand of water by city.

3. Institution and Commercial- Water required by universities, commercial

building and commercial centers (Office building, ware houses, railway and bus
stations etc.) are called Institution and commercial water demand.

16

4. Public- Water required for public use like; for washing and sprinkling of road,
cleaning of sewers, watering of public parks, gardens, public fountains etc are
public water demands.

5. Fire - Fire is one of the serious disasters (natural or man-made) that if not
control on time it may lead to serious damage in the city by burning houses, etc.
To extinguish fire a large amount of water required. This water demand is called
Fire demand.
The quantity of water required for fire fighting can be calculated by following
formulae. For Indian conditions kuichings formula gives satisfactory results.
Q= 3182 VP
where 'Q' is quantity of water required in litres/min, 'P' is population of town/city
in thousands.

6. Losses- All the water, which goes in the distribution pipes does not reach the
consumers because of the losses due to defective pipes ( broken pipes, cracked
pipes etc), and there are much more reasons that allow the wastage of water.

Per Capita Demand

Per Capita demand depends on various factors like climatic condition, size of
community etc.
Let 'Q' be the total quantity of water required by a town per year and 'P' be the
population of town, then per capita demand will be -

Per Capita Demand = Q / Px 365 litres/day

17

In India for an average town, the requirement of water is1. Domestic Purpose------------------------------------ 135 litre/capita/day
2. Industrial use-------------------------------------------- 40 litre/capita/day
3. Public use------------------------------------------------- 25 litre/capita/day
4. Fire demand---------------------------------------------- 15 litre/capita/day
5. Losses, wastage--------------------------------------- 55 litres/capita/day
____________________
Total : 270 litres/Capita/day

Factors affecting per capita demand

Following are the factors affecting per capita demand of the town1.Climatic Conditions- The quantity of water required in hotter and dry places is
more than cold countries because in hotter places people uses air coolers, air
conditioners, sprinkling of water in lawns, use of water for washing rooms,
washing clothes and bathing (twice a day). But sometimes in cold countries water
required is more due to wastage of water like; use of hot water for keeping the
rooms warm.

2. Size of Community- As we know, water demands also depend on population

and size of community of town or city hence size of community also effect per
capita demand. More water is required in street washing, running of sewers,
maintenance of parks and gardens.

18

3. Living standard of the people- People uses air conditioners, room coolers,
maintain their lawns, use automatic home appliances etc. This causes variation in
per capita demand of the town with their standard of living.

4. Industrial and Commercial Activities- Industries required much more water

than the domestic water demand. Due to their presence in town will enormously
increase per capita demand of town.

5. Pressure in the distribution system - The rate of water consumption increase

in the pressure of the building and even with the required pressure at the farthest
point, the consumption of water will automatically increase. This causes increase
in water quantity due to use of water freely by the people and also due to the loss
of water (which may include leakage, wastage etc).

6. Cost of water- The cost of water also affects the per capita demand. Because, if
cost of water is higher,less quantity of water will be used by the people.

Variation in Demand
The per capita demand of town does not remain uniform throughout. It varies
from season to season also hour to hour.

1. Seasonal Variations- The water demand varies from season to season. In

summer the water demand is more as compared to winters. People will more use
water for bathing, washing, sprinkling waters in lawn etc in summers where as in
winter this demand will decrease, because of less water consumption for bathing,
washing etc. the variations may be up to 15% of the average demand of year.

19

2. Daily Variations- Daily variations depends on the general habits of people,

climatic conditions and also it depends on the character of city as industrial,
commercial and residential. Water demands increases on Sundays and holidays
due to more bathing, washing etc as compared to other working days. The
maximum daily consumption is usually taken as 180% of the average
consumption.

3. Hourly Variations- On Sundays and other holidays the peak hours may be
about 8 A.M due to late awakening where as it may be 6 A.M to 10 A.M and 4 P.M
to 8 P.M and minimum flow may be between 12 P.M to 4 P.M because most of
the people are sleeping. The maximum consumption may rise up to 200% that of
average daily demand.

Total Requirement of water for a town or city

Total quantity of water required by a town/city per day = 270 x P litres/day.
where 'P' is total population of city/town.

Population Forecasting Methods

After fixing design period (which is taken about 22-30 years) next step is to
determine the population of town/city. Population of town depends on various
factors which includes; births, deaths, migration and annexation.
Given below are following standard methods by which the forecasting population
is doneArithematical Increase Method
This method is based on the assumption that the population is increasing at a
constant rate. The rate of change of population with time is constant. The
population after 'n' decades can be determined by formula -

20

Pn = P+ n.c
where 'P'is population at present, 'n' no.of decades, 'c' constant determined by
the average of increase of 'n' decades.

Geometrical Increase Method

This method is based on the assumption that the percentage increase in
population from decade to decade remains constant. In this method the average
percentage of growth of last few decades is determined; the population
forecasting is done on the basis that percentage increase per decade will be the
same.
The population at the end of 'n' decades is calculated byPn = P ( 1+ Ig/100)
Where 'P' is population at present and 'Ig' is percentage increase in population.
Incremental Increase method
This is the improved method over the above two methods. The average increase
in the population is determined by the arithematical method and to this is added
the average of the net incremental increase once for each future decade.

Sources of Water Supply

Water supply is only possible when there is availability of water and the
availability of water depends on the commonly water sources1. Rain water- Rain water collects on the earth in the form of surface water and
underground water.
2. Surface water- Water is present on the surface of earth in the form of oceans,
rivers, lakes, ponds and streams. These are called surface water.
21

3. Underground water- Some of the rainwater seeps through the soil on to the
non-porous rocks below. This is called underground water. Sometimes due to high
pressure, this water sprouts out in the form of springs. It can be obtained by
digging wells, sinking tube wells, etc.
4. Reclaimed and reused water- From former wastewater is treated to remove
solids and certain impurities. Instead of being discharged into surface water
bodies such as rivers and oceans, it is used in irrigation, landscaping, ground
water recharge, etc.

Characteristics of Water
The impurities present in water may be divided into the following three
categories 1. Physical Characteristics- Physical characteristics of water includes; Turbidity,
colour and temperature, Taste and Odour.
a) Turbidity- Turbidity is a measure of resistance of water to the passage of light
through it. Presence of suspended and colloid matter in the water is main cause
of turbidity.
Turbidity is expressed as NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Units) or PPM (Parts Per
Million) or milligrams per litre (mg/l). Turbidity in water is measured by (i)
Turbidity rod or Tape, (ii) Jacksons Turbidimeter, (iii) Bali's Turbidimeter.
b) Colour and Temperature- Colour in water is usually due to the presence of
organic matter, mineral and dissolve impurities. The colour produced by one
milligram of platinum in a litre of water has been fixed as the unit of colour. The
permissible colour for domestic water is 20 ppm on platinum cobalt scale.
Temperature of water is measured by ordinary thermometers. The desirable
temperature for public supply between 4.4'C to 10'C. The temperatures above
35C are unfit for public supply, because it is not palatable.

22

c) Taste and Odour- Dead or alive micro-organisms, dissolved gases in water such
as carbon dioxide, methane, hydrogen sulphide, etc combined with organic
matter' mineral substances such as sodium chloride, iron compounds and
carbonate and sulphates of other substances are responsible for taste and odour
in water.
Intensities of the odours are measured in terms of threshold number.
2.Chemical Characteristics- Chemical properties of water is used to describe the
chemical constituents of water. Water has chemical properties like COD, BOD,
total nitrogen total phosphate, dissolved oxygen (DO), total pesticides, etc.
Calcium is the abundant in water and it is a major constituent of water hardness
with magnesium. Sulphur may occur as sulphates and reduce sulphides (in
groundwater with low dissolved oxygen).
3.Biological Characteristics- Biological properties of water is used to describe
pathogenic microorganisms. Water is safe or not is only determined by; total
coliform bacteria, faecal coliform counts, faecal streptococci counts, Salmonella
counts etc.

23

Water treatment process

Water treatment is a process that makes water suitable for various uses. This may
include; drinking, industrial water supply, agricultural, etc. Water treatment
process includes screening, coagulation, sedimentation, flocculation, filtration,
disinfection.
1.Screening
Coarse screens are used to remove solids (large in size such as rubbish etc.). Finer
screens are used to remove fine solids or algae.
2.Coagulation and Flocculation
Water contains fine clay and colloidal impurities which are electrically charged are
continually in motion. Certain chemicals with a positive charge are added to water
to neutralize the negative charge of dissolved particles in the water. This makes
the particles bind with the chemicals and form floc. Coagulants are chosen
depending upon the pH of water. Most commonly use coagulant is Alum or
Aluminium sulphate because of its low cost and ease of storage as solid crystals
over long periods.
3. Sedimentation
Floc settles down to the bottom because of its weight. This settling process is
known as sedimentation.
4. Filtration
After the sedimentation when floc settles down the clear water is pass through
bes of sand or other granular materials. This process is called filtration. This helps
to remove bacteria, viruses, parasites.

24

5. Disinfection
After filtration, a disinfectant such as chlorine is added into the water in order to
kill remaining bacteria, parasites, viruses, before it is supply for public use.
Disinfection of water can be done by various methods (i) Physical methods which
include boiling, ultra-violet rays, ultrasonic rays. (ii) Chemical methods like
chlorination, bromine and iodine, potassium permaganate, ozone and excess lime
treatment.

Water Distribution
Treated water is supplied to the consumers by a water distribution system which
uses network of pipelines.

Layout of Distribution system

Generally used system are-

1. Dead end or Tree system

In this system water flows in one direction only into submains and branches. This
system is suitable for irregular developed town or cities. Advantages of using tree
system are; we can calculate the discharged and pressure at any point in the
distribution system easily, It requires less valves in number, it is economical and
cheap because the pipes used are smaller in diameter, the laying of water pipes is
used as simple.

25

Main

Sub main

Branch
Fig. Dead End System

2. Grid Iron System

In this water enters from the mains to the branches in all junctions in two
different directions into submains of equal diameter. In the line the pressure is
balanced from two directions because of interconnected network of pipes. But it
requires more length of pipes and number of valves and hence it increases cost of
construction in comparison with dead end or tree system.

26

Fig. Grid- Iron Method

3. Circular or Ring System

In this system, supply of water to the inner pipes is from mains around the
boundary. It uses smaller diameter pipes.

Fig.Circular or Ring system

27

4. Radial System
In this system water is pumped to the distribution reservoirs and from the
reservoirs it flows by gravity to the tree system of pipes.

Fig. Radial system

28

System of distribution
For efficient distribution of water it is important that the water should reach to
every consumer with required rate of flow. Therefore it requires a proper
distribution system. Distribution system is classified according to the methods of
distribution(i) Gravity System- This system can be adopted where ground is available
sufficiently high above the city area; this can be best utilized for distribution
system in maintaining pressure in water mains. This is more reliable system for
the distribution of water because it uses only gravitational forces nd no pumping
is required.
(ii) Pumping System- Constant pressure can be maintained in the system by direct
pumping into mains.
(iii) Combined Pumping and Gravity system- In this pump is connected to the
mains plus elevated reservoir both. When demand is small the water is stored in
elevated reservoir, but when demand increases the rate of pumping, the flow in
the distribution system comes from both elevated reservoir and pumping station.

The water is supplied to the consumers in two systems; continuous system (24
hours) and intermittent system (fixed hours in a day or alternate day).

29

Chapter 4
Water Pollution
Water is an important natural resource. The major portion of the earths surface
is covered with 75% of water. Water is used for mainly public water supply,
irrigation, industrial production.

What is water Pollution?

Water pollution refers to the any physical, chemical or biological change in water
quality which adversely impacts on living organism in the environment or leading
to the loss of beneficial use of water as resource.

Sources of Water Pollution

Pollution may be caused by Point sources and Non-Point sources
1) Point Sources Point sources are discrete and readily identifiable; as a
result they are relatively easy to monitor and regulate. These caused at
stationary locations most sewage and industrial wastes are discharged from
point sources.

2) Non-Point Sources- Non-Point sources are also called diffuse sources as

they are distributed in a diffused manner. The location and origin of nonpoint sources are sometimes difficult to establish and they are therefore
less amenable to control. Land run-off and the atmosphere, are example of
non-point sources of water pollution.

Major Types of Water Pollutant and their Effect

30

1) Pathogens Pathogens are disease causing microorganisms. A few

pathogenic bacteria can cause disease. Main source of pathogens in water
is sewage. Sewage contains several pathogenic organisms e.g; bacteria
(causing typhoid, cholera, diarrhoea, etc.) , protozoa (causing amoebic
dysentery, giardiasis etc) and virus (causing hepatitis, polionyletis,
gastroenteritis, etc.). Most of these pathogens are contributed by faeces,
but some bacteria are present in urine also. Most pathogenic viruses are
inactivated during water treatment. Specific treatments may sometimes be
needed to eliminate some pathogenic bacteria and protozoa.
2) Oil Seepage Oil is a natural product and is biodegradable. But when large
spill occur, the problem of pollution becomes serious. Oil is recalcitrant
mainly because of the toxicity of some of its components.
3) Thermal Pollution- In industries water is used as a coolant. This industrial
cooling process discharge heated water into water bodies which changes
the natural temperature regime of a water system and affect the
ecosystem. Due to this some aquatic species may die.

4) Silt- Silt are defined as small granular size particle which is carried by
moving water or deposited as sediment. Silt is a major problem to water
industries in water supplies.

5) Radioactive waste- Radioactive waste includes nuclear-waste, uranium mill

waste etc. Due to the radioactive contamination water gets polluted and no
more can be use.

31

6) Toxic waste Toxic waste contain chemicals, heavy metals (mercury, lead,
cadmium, arsenic), lighter metals (beryllium). Main source of toxic waste
are; farming, mining, construction, automotive.

7)

Organic Waste- When large quantities of organic compounds, which act as

substrates for microorganisms are released into water courses causes
organic pollution. Organic pollution results in the depletion of oxygen and
severe consequences for the stream biota.

Measurement of the level of Pollution

There are several parameters for determining the level of pollution in the water;
these usually determine the amount of organic matter suspended and/ or
dissolved in the water. The important measurements are (i) biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD), (ii) chemical oxygen demand (COD), (iii) suspended solids,(iv)
biological indicators.
1. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) It is the amount of oxygen required
by microorganisms to break down in organic matter. BOD is defined as
amount of O2 used up after an incubation of 1 l of water for a period of 120
1 hr at 200C in the dark. BOD is expressed in mg O2/L. BOD estimates the
amount of biologically oxidisable organic matter present in the water.

2. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)- This is an estimate of the amount of

chemically oxidisable matter present in water. An excess of acidic
potassium dichromate is added to the test sample and after 2 hr the
amount of unused dichromate is measured by titration with ferrous
ammonium sulphate. This allows an estimate the total organic matter that
can be oxidized chemically irrespective of whether it is biodegradable or
not. COD is always higher than BOD.

32

3. Suspended Solids- The suspended solids are either filtered or allowed to

settle and their amount in 1 l of waste water is determined. These materials
impose a long term O2 demand on the river water.

4. Biological Indicators The relative abundance/absence of certain

organisms in the river water serves as a good indicator of the level of
pollution.

Process of waste water treatment

After the determination of the level of pollutants in waste water, treatment of the
water proceeds through the following five stages1) Preliminary Treatment To remove grit and heavy solids by setting and
screening. Preliminary treatment is necessary to prevent clogging of
pipelines, damage to pumps and interference with the subsequent process.
2) Primary Treatment- This treatment utilizes settling tanks of upward,
horizontal or radial flow type. The water flow is reduced to allow 15-45 min
residence time which about 70% of the suspended solids either settle to
bottom or float as scum on the top; the latter is removed by scum baffle.
This process reduces BOD by about 40%.
3) Secondary Treatment In this microorganisms are used to remove the
dissolved organic matter/suspended in waste water by aerobic/anaerobic
processes.
4) Tertiary Treatment- This stage aims to remove suspended matter and
thereby to reduce BOD still further, and to remove specific materials such
as nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (p) from the biologically treated waste
33

water. The process used is either physical or chemical. Suspended matter is

removed by means of (i) lagooning (for settlement of particles), (ii)Grassplot irrigation and recovery of under-drained water (filtration), (iii)
microscreening using large filtration devices, (iv) slow sand filters, (v) rapid
downward flow filter, (vi) upflow sand filter and (viii) upward flow clarifiers.
Phosphate is usually removed by precipitation using lime or alum; the
precipitate is removed by settling in tanks.
Untreated
sewage/

Screening

Grit settling

waste water
Primary Treatment

Sedimentation of suspended matter

Aerobic digestor

Sedimentation

Treated effluent

Waste Sludge
Anaerobic sludge
treatment
Fig. A schematic representation of the various stages in waste water (sewage) treatment

34

5) Sludge Treatment Sludge is the settled solid component of water

recovered during the treatment process. It is treated mainly anaerobically
to make it safe before disposal.

Water Quality
Water Quality is a measure of the suitability of water for various uses based upon
the chemical, physical and biological features of the water. Water analysis is done
to safeguard human health, to control the pollution level of water bodies, to
maintain and improve water qualities for various uses like bathing, fisheries,
irrigation, etc. and also to protect and conserve flora and fauna. Water quality is
measured by several factors , such as the concentration of dissolved oxygen,
bacteria levels, the amount of salinity or the amount of turbidity in the water, pH,
colour, temperature, conductivity etc.
Table: Parameter of water quality for water consumption (Drinking water standards)
Parameter
Colour
Temperature
Turbidity
Taste and Odour
pH
Total dissolved solid (mg/litre)
Total Hardness (mg/l)
Chlorides (mg/l)
Sulphate (mg/l)
Nitrates (mg/l)
Fluorides (mg/l)
Calcium (mg/l)
Magnesium (mg/l)
Iron (mg/l)
Manganese (mg/l)
Phenolic (mg/l)
Arsenic (mg/l)
Chromium (mg/l)

Normally Acceptable Value

5.0
100C-150C
2.5
unobjectionable
7.0-8.5
500
200
200
200
45
1.0
75
30-120
0.1
0.05
0.001
0.05
0.05
35

Maximum Permissible limit

25
10
6.5-9.2
1500
600
1000
400
45
1.5
200
150
1.0
0.5
0.002
0.05
0.05

Cynamides (mg/l)
Coliform count per 100 ml of
waste sample

0.05
zero

36

0.05
-

Chapter 5
Air Pollution
The layer of gases that surrounds the planet Earth is commonly known as air. The
atmosphere is responsible for life on Earth, by absorbing ultraviolet solar
radiation, warming the surface through heat retention (greenhouse effect), and
reducing temperature extremes between day and night (the diurnal temperature
variation).
Over the past century, greenhouse gases and other air pollutants released
into the atmosphere have been causing big changes like global warming, ozone
holes and acid rain.

Composition of Air
The atmosphere is a mixture of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% other gases
that surrounds the Earth. The atmosphere becomes thinner with altitude until it
gradually reaches space.

37

Table: Composition of Dry air (NOAA,2012)

Gas
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Argon
Carbon dioxide
Neon
Helium
Methane
Krypton
Hydrogen
Nitrous oxide
Carbon monoxide
Xenon
Ozone
Nitrogen dioxide
Iodine
Ammonia

Formula
N2
O2
Ar
CO2
Ne
He
CH4
Kr
H2
N2O
CO
Xe
O3
NO2
I2
NH3

Volume (ppm)
780,840 ppmv
209,460 ppmv
9,340 ppmv
394.45 ppmv
18.8 ppmv
5.24 ppmv
1.79 ppmv
1.14 ppmv
0.55 ppmv
0.3 ppmv
0.1 ppmv
0.09 ppmv
0.0 to 0.07 ppmv
0.02 ppmv
0.01 ppmv
trace

Volume %
78.1%
20.9%
0.93%
0.04%
0.002%
0.0005%
0.0002%
0.0001%
0.00006%
0.00003%
0.00001%
0.00001%
0.000007%
0.000002%
0.000001%

Structure of Atmosphere
1. Troposphere - It is the atmospheric layer closest to the Earth. It contains
around 80% of the mass of the total atmosphere and contains 99% of water
vapour in atmosphere. Temperature in the troposphere decreases with
altitude. It also contains water vapour which plays a major role in regulating
air temperature because it absorbs solar nergy and thermal radiation from
the earth surface. It ranges from 9 km at the poles to 17 km at the equators
(it varies with season as well).
2. Stratosphere- It is the second lowest layer of Earths atmosphere. it
extends from the tropopause to about 50 to 5 km. About 20% of the
atmospheres mass is contained in the stratosphere. Temperature varies
within the stratosphere with the seasons.

38

3. Mesosphere Mesosphere ranges from 50 to 90 km with its temperature

decreasing in height. Meteors collided with the earth are mostly melted or
vaporised in this layer.
4. Thermosphere- It ranges from 80 to 350 km. The air is very thin here and
stable with increasing temperature ( upto 1500 C)

Air Pollutants
There are mainly six air pollutants as given below
1. Carbon Monoxide (CO)- Carbon monoxide is emitted from automobile
exhausts. It is also produced due to the incomplete combustion of fuel such
as natural gas, coal or wood. CO is a colour less, odourless, and toxic gas.
2. Sulphuric acid (SO2)- Combustion of coal and petroleum generates sulphur
dioxide because of the presence of sulphur in them. Many raw materials
like aluminium, copper and iron ores contain sulphur and their extractions
produce SO2. Volcanoes also produce SO2. Due to the presence of oxides of
nitrogen and sulphur in the air. Their oxides dissolve in rainwater and
causes acid rain.

3. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)- NO2 is produced from combustion of fuel that

converts oxygen and nitrogen (78% of the air) to NO and then NO2. This is
reddish brown toxic gas with a characteristic sharp biting odour.
4. Particulate matter (PM)- Particulate matters are tiny particles of solid or
liquid suspended on a gas. Particle pollution is made up of a number of

39

components, including acids, organic chemicals, metals and soil or dust

particle.
According to EPA :
PM of size larger than 2.5 micrometer and smaller than 10
micrometer are inhalable coarse particles.
Particles of 2.5 micrometers in diameter and smaller are fine
particles and generally found in smoke and haze. These particles can
be directly emitted from sources such as forest fires, industries and
automobiles react in air.
5. Ground level Ozone (O3)- Ground level ozone is created by chemical
reactions between oxides of nitrogen (NOX) and Volatile organic
compounds (VOC) driven by sunlight. Major source of NOX and VOC are
industrial facilities, automobiles exhaust, gasoline vapours and chemical
solvents. Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent readily reacting with other
chemical compounds to make many possible toxic oxides. Ozone damages
crops and plants, reduces biodiversity.
6. Others- there are also many other pollutants in air such as radioactive
pollutants, CO2, CFCs, ammonia (NH3) etc.

Harmful Effects of Air Pollution

1. Air pollution affects respiratory system of living organisms and causes
asthma, lung cancer, pneumonia, etc. Emission of carbon monoxide (CO)
from motor vehicles affects the central nervous system. Carbon monoxide
(CO) forms a stable compound called COHb (Carboxy haemoglobin), which
is poisonous and causes suffocation and death.
40

2. Depletion of ozone layer is caused by CFCs (Chloro Fluoro Carbon). Due to

depletion of ozone layer, UV radiation reaches Earth. UV radiation causes
skin cancer, damage to eyes and immune system.

3. Acid rain is caused due to air pollution. This is caused by presence of oxides
of nitrogen and sulphur in the air. These oxides dissolve in rain water to
form sulphuric acid and nitric acid respectively. Various monuments,
buildings and statues are damaged due to corrosion by acid present in the
rain and also the soil becomes acidic.
4. The greenhouse gases such as CO2 and methane, which are produced by
burning of fossil fuel, agricultural activity and deforestation, trap the heat
radiated from earth. This leads to an increase in earths temperature.
Increased temperature may cause melting of Ice caps and glaciers, resulting
in floods. It also leads to weather variability and rise in sea level.
5. Some metals and pesticides also cause pollution. Lead, discharged from
exhaust pipes of automobiles, is highly toxic. It causes anaemia, brain
damage, convulsions and death. Some pesticides,such as DDT (Dichloro
diphenyl trichloroethane), are very toxic. Presence of these pesticides into
our food chain causes kidney disorders and problems of brain and
circulatory system.
Occupational Hazard
These are certain diseases which are related to ones occupation. These are
caused by constant use of certain substances that sneak into air and then
enter our body.
1. Inhalation of free silica or SiO2 (silicon dioxide), while mining or working
in industries related to pottery, ceramic, glass, building and construction
work causes Silicosis (Silico tuberculosis).
41

2. Asbestos causes Asbestosis, which is used in making ceilings. It is also

considered as cancer causing agent.

3. Byssinosis is a disabling lung disease, which is marked by chronic cough

and chronic bnochities due to inhalation of cotton fibers over a long
period of time.
4. Inhalation of coal dust from coal mining industry
Pneumoconiosis. The workers suffer from lung problems.

causes

Prevention and Control of Air Pollution

Air pollutants can be gaseous or particulate. Different techniques for controlling
these pollutants areMethods of controlling gaseous pollutants
1. Combustion- Combustion is used when the air pollutants are in the form of
organic gases or vapour. During flame combustion or catalytic process, the
organic pollutants are converted into water vapour and relatively less
harmful products such as CO2.
2. Absorption- In absorption, gaseous effluents are passed through scrubbers
or absorbers. These contain a suitable liquid absorbent, which removes or
modifies one or more of the pollutants present in the gaseous effluents.

3. Adsorption- The gaseous effluents are passed through porous solid

adsorbents kept in suitable containers. The organic and inorganic

42

constituents of the effluent gases are trapped at the interface of the solid
adsorbent by physical adsorbent.
Methods to control particulate emission
Mechanical devices generally works on the basis of the following Gravity- In this process the particles settle down by gravitational force.
Sudden change in the direction of gas flow. This causes particles to
separate out due to greater momentum.
1. Fabric Filters- The gases containing dust are passed through a porous
medium. These porous media may be woven or filled fabrics. The particles
present in the gas are trapped and collected in the filters. The gases freed
from the particles are discharged.
2. Wet scrubber- wet scrubbers are used in chemical, mining and
metallurgical industries. Wet scrubbers are effective air pollution control
devices for removing particulate emissions.
In a wet scrubber air is drawn through a mist of water made
by spray nozzles, then through separators where water droplets with dust
and particles are removed. Water is added with active chemicals adapted
to the process, is sprayed in to the air flow. Water with the chemicals is
sprayed through nozzle with high pressure into the air flow. Some of the
water evaporates and disappear with the exhaust. Water droplets are
separated from the exhaust and re-circulated back to the water reservoir.
Evaporated water is replaced by fresh water and chemicals. Dust and
pollution products from the process are removed periodically through the
drain.

43

Clean Gas/mist out

Water liquid in
Nozzle

Dirty gas in
Dirty gas in

Slurry outlet
Fig. Wet Scrruber

3. Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP)- Electro static Precipitator is a filtration

device that removes suspended particles (like dust or smoke) by applying a
high voltage electrostatic charge and collecting the particles on charged
plates.
A high voltage is applied to the discharge wires to form an
electrical field between the wires and the collecting plates and also ionizes
the gas around the discharge wires to supply ions. When gas that contains
dust or mist flows between the collecting plates and the discharge wires,
the dust or mist in the gas are charged by ions. The coloumb force caused
by the electric field causes the charged particles to be collected on the
collecting plates, and the gas is purified. The electrostatic precipitator (ESP)
44

works on the above given principle on an industrial scale. The particles

collected on the collecting plates are removed by (i) dislodging by rapping
the collecting plates, (ii) scraping off with a brush, or (iii) washing off with
water, and removing from a hopper.

45

Chapter 6
Noise Pollution
What is noise?
Noise is an unwanted sound or sound which produces unpleasant effects and
discomfort on the ears, the noise pollution is defined as the unwanted sound
which is released into the environment. It disturbs the human being and cause
an adverse effect on the mental and psychological well being. It is measured in
the units of decibels and is denoted by the dB. The noise which is more than 115
dB is tolerant. The industrial limit of sound in the industries must be 75 dB
according to the world health organization.

Sources of Noise pollution

Industrial Noise
Industrial machinery and processes are composed of various noise sources such
as rotors, stators, gears, fans, vibrating panels, turbulent fluid flow, impact
processes, electrical machines, internal combustion engines etc. The mechanisms
of noise generation depend on the particularly noisy operations and equipment
including crushing, riveting, blasting (quarries and mines) etc. Noise from
mechanical saws and pneumatic drills is unbearable and a nuisance to public.
Workers in steel industry, who work close to heavy industrial blowers, are
exposed 112 dB for eight hours suffer from occupational pollution.
Transport Noise
Road traffic noise, Rail traffic noise and Aircraft noise These are constantly
making a lot of noise and people always struggle to cope with them. Traffic is the
most widespread source of noise in all countries and the most prevalent cause of
46

annoyance and interference. Levels of highway traffic noise typically range from
70 to 80 dB.
Commercial Noise
Sometimes people at work or at home are disturbed by noise which originates
from commercial or industrial premises. Examples are machinery noise, fan
noises, Vehicle movements, alarms and radios.
Construction site noise
Construction sites are very common source of noise pollution. This covers
inherently noisy operations- building works, road works, demolition, dredging etc.
They often take place in areas which were quite beforehand and expected to be
quiet again when the work is complete.

Effect of Noise pollution

1. Hearing Problem Any unwanted sound that our ears have not been built
to filter can cause problems within the body. Our ears can take in a certain
range of sounds without getting damaged. Constant exposure to loud levels
of noise (like; jackhammers, horns, machinery etc) can easily result in the
damage of our ear drums and loss of hearing.
2. Health Issues Excessive noise pollution in working areas such as offices,
construction sites, bars and even in our homes can influence psychological
health. It causes aggressive behaviour, disturbance of sleep, constant stress
and hypertension.
3. Cardiovascular Issues Blood pressure levels, cardio- vascular disease and
stress related heart problems. High intensity noise can causes high blood
pressure and increases heart beat rate as it disrupts the normal blood flow.

47

4. Trouble communicating High decibel noise can put trouble and may not
allow two people to communicate freely. This may lead to
misunderstanding and may get difficult understanding the other person.
Table: Effect of Noise at different Decibel Levels
S.no
1.
2.

Range in decibel
Below 65 dB
80 dB

3.

88 dB

4.

110 dB

5.

135 dB

Effect
Tolerable
Annoying
or
irritating
Hearing
Disorder if
prolonged
to
exposure
Discomfort
and may
cause
hearing
loss
Painful

Physical Properties of Noise

In physics, sound is a vibration that propagates as a typically audible mechanical
wave of pressure and displacement, through a medium such as air. In simple
words, Sound is produced by vibrating objects and reaches the listeners ears as
waves in the air or media. When an object vibrates, it causes slight changes in air
pressure. These air pressure changes travel as wave through the air and produce
sound.

48

Table: Approximate speed of sound in Common materials

Medium
Air, dry 0C
Wood (soft- along the fibre)
Water (15C)
Concrete
Steel

Sound Velocity m/s

330
3,400
1,400
3,100
5,960

The noise sound has these generic properties:

1. Frequency: The period of a sound is the duration of one cycle of its motion.
Frequency is the number of cycles that occur within a second. Frequency is
measured in Hertz (Hz). The period and frequency of a sound are
reciprocally related ( i.e; period = 1/Frequency).
Human beings can perceive frequencies from about 20 Hz up to about
18,000 Hz.
2. Wavelength: The wavelength of a wave is the disstance from any point on
one wave to the same point on the next wave along. Wavelength is also
measured in meters (m).
3. Sound pressure: Sound pressure or acoustic pressure is the local pressure
deviation from the ambient (average or equilibrium) atnospheric pressure
caused by a sound wave. Sound pressure can be measured using a
microphone, and in water with a hydrophone. The SI unit of sound pressure
is the pascal (Pa). The effective sound pressure is the root mean square of
the instantaneous sound pressure over a given interval of tme

P= 0 2 ()/
It is more useful to convert sound pressure values (in Pa) to sound pressure
level (SPL) which is a logarithmic measure of the effective sound pressure,
the sound pressure level in decibels is defined as49

 = 10 log 10

=
20
log
10
()
2

where the reference sound pressure is 2x10 (Pa) which is usually

considered the threshold of human hearing (at 1kHz). The decibel (dB) is
used in a wide range of measurement in science and engineering. A change
of the value ratio by a factor of 10 is 10dB change and a change by a factor
of 2 is approx. a 3dB change.
The formula for the sum of the sound pressure levels of several incoherent
radiant sources is4. Speed of sound: The speed of sound depends on the medium. For example;
the speed of sound in gases depends on temperature. In 20'C air at sea
level, the speed of sound is approximately 1,482 m/s. In steel, the speed of
sound is about 5,960 m/s.

Noise Control
To get control over noise, we need to get control over these three elements
i.e; Source > Transmissionpath > Reciever
1. By Control on Source- We can control noise by stopping its generation
from its source.
2. By control on Transmission Path- We can control noise by getting
control over the transmission path. Sound insulation is one of its
common example, as it prvents the transmission of noise by the
introduction of mass barrier ( common materials of high density
properties such as brick, thick glass, concrete, metal etc.)
3. By control on Reciever- We can also control noise by protecting reciever
from its adverse effect.For this reciever can protect himself by wearing ear
protection.

50

Chapter 7
Solid Waste Pollution
Solid wastes are discarded or abandoned materials that are no longer of values.
Solid waste can be any garbage, sludge from a waste water treatment plant, scarp
metal etc. Improper management of solid waste can result in adverse effects on
human health and the environment. Pollution of rivers and groundwater, foul air
are some examples of improper management of solid waste.

Type of solid waste

According to source; solid waste can be classified into different types1) Municipal Solid waste - This type of solid waste consists of household waste,
construction and demolition, sanitation residue and waste from streets. This
garbage includes organic waste (kitchen waste, vegetables, flowers, fruit etc.),
Toxic waste (old machines, paints, chemicals, fertilizers and plastic containers,
batteries), Recyclable (paper, glass, metals, plastics), Soiled (hospital waste
such as cloth soiled with blood and other body fluids).
2) Hazardous waste Hazardous waste consist of toxic substances which could
be highly toxic to humans, animals and plants. These are highly inflammable or
explosive and react when exposed to certain things (like gases). Industrial and
hospital waste is considered hazardous because they contain toxic substances.

3) Biomedical waste These are also called hospital waste. These wastes are
generated during the diagnosis, treatment or immunization of human beings
or animals or research activities or in the production or testing of biological. It
51

may include wastes like sharps, soiled waste, disposables, anatomical waste
etc. This waste is highly infectious and can be serious threat to human health
and environment if not managed and discriminate manner.

Table: Each generated waste takes their own time to degenerate (as illustrated in table)
Type of waste
Approx. time it takes in degenerate waste
Organic waste
a week or two
Paper
10-30 days
Cotton waste
2-5 months
Wood
10-15 years
Woollen items
1 year
Tin, aluminium and other metal items
100-500 years
Plastic bags
More than one million years (maybe)
Glass bottles
Undetermined

Effect of Solid Waste Pollution

Solid waste include things such as ash, glass, pealing of fruit and vegetables,
paper, clothes, plastics, rubber, leather, brick, sand, metal etc. Chemicals
discharged into air such as compounds of sulphur and lead eventually come to soil
and pollute it. Solid waste destroys the natural beauty and surroundings become
dirty. Flies, mosquitoes visit the dumped waste and foul smell comes from the
waste. The waste may block the flow of water in the drain which then becomes
the breeding place for mosquitoes. Mosquitoes are carriers of parasites of malaria
and dengue. Consumption of polluted water causes many diseases, such as
cholera, diarrhoea and dysentery.

Modes of Solid Waste disposal

The disposal of waste should be done scientifically. There are different techniques
of waste disposal1) Incineration- The volume of the waste can be reduced by incineration or
burning at high temperature. Incineration is suitable for wastes with high
52

energy content, low moisture content and low ash content which include
paper, plastics, textiles, rubber leather and wood. By incineration 95-96%
the volume of waste can be reduced.
2) Landfill- Landfill is used to treat solid wastes like garbage and the solids
remaining after waste treatment. The wastes are used for landfill in which a
natural or human made pit or hollow is filled with the waste covered with
soil. It is important to choose landfill site carefully to avoid subsequent
problems; it is highly desirable that landfills are located in an unused area
land. The waste is collected and maybe being placed in the pit.
3) Recycling- Recycling is the process of converting waste materials into new
reusable products. Recycling reduces the consumption of fresh raw
materials, energy usage, air pollution (from incineration) and water
pollution (from landfills). Recyclable materials include many kinds of glass,
paper, plastic, metal etc. Waste coming out of industries such as metals can
be melted and recycled into solid metal once again. Similarly, recycling of
plastic materials can also be taken up for reuse; for example, plastic bags,
buckets, bowls, dishes, mugs, plates, desks, table, park benches. Molten
plastic waste mixed with asphalt can also be used for making roads. This
reduces pollution.
Recyclable wastes are separated either by human or machines.
Ferrous metals can be separated by magnets. Using screens, shaking tables,
burst of air and rotating screens papers and plastics waste are separated on
their difference in density and sizes. Glass with different colours and
aluminium materials can also be separated by machines but many
situations, people are still needed to aid the separation of waste materials.
Materials to be recycled are brought to collection centre or picked up from
the kerbside, then sorted, cleaned and reprocessed into new materials.
Benefits of recycling are1) Reduces the amount of waste sent to landfills and incinerations.
53

2)
3)
4)
5)

Conserve natural resources such as timber, water and minerals.

Prevents pollution by reducing the need to collect new raw materials.
Reduces chances of global climate change.
Helps sustain the environment for future generations.

4) Composting- Composting is a simple way to add nutrient rich humus which

fuels plant growth and helps to maintain nutrient level in soil. Its free, easy
to make and good for environment. Landfill requires lots of space but due
to shortage of space in bigger cities, apart from the municipal waste, the
biodegradable yard waste is allowed to degenerate or decompose in a
medium.
To work effectively composting organisms require four equally important
things; (i) carbon (ton produce heat by the microbial oxidation of carbon),
(ii) nitrogen (to grow and reproduce more organisms), (iii) oxygen (for
oxidizing the carbon as part of the decomposition process) and (iv) water
(to maintain activity without causing anaerobic conditions). When carbon :
nitrogen mix of about 30 to 1 the most efficient composting occurs. Almost,
all plants and animal materials have both carbon and nitrogen but in
different amounts. When one waste compostable on its own, it mixing with
other materials may help to build a proper carbon : nitrogen mix, air
porosity and pH.
Solid Waste Management
Solid waste management is a complex task and requires a systems approach.
People must follow the policy of prevention, minimisation, reuse, recycle and
disposal to reduce the solid waste in the environment. In waste management
system the three Rs (Reduce, Reuse and Recycle) are expanded into waste
hierarchy which classifies waste management strategies according to the
desirability.

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