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Journal of Food Engineering 86 (2008) 453459

www.elsevier.com/locate/jfoodeng

A review on simultaneous determination of thermal diusivity and

heat transfer coecient
Ferruh Erdogdu *
Department of Food Engineering (Gida Muh. Bol.), University of Mersin, Ciftlikkoy-Mersin 33343, Turkey
Received 11 June 2007; received in revised form 26 September 2007; accepted 23 October 2007
Available online 30 October 2007

Abstract
Mathematical simulation studies for thermal food processes require knowledge of thermal diusivity and convective heat transfer
coecient. There have been dierent experimental and empirical approaches reported in the literature for determination of these parameters
where dierent approximations were applied. One of the most applied approaches is to assume an innite convective heat transfer coecient
at the surface boundary when analytical solutions for innite slab, innite cylinder and sphere are used for further determinations. Since this
approach results in certain errors in results, it would be an important task to determine thermal diusivity and convective heat transfer
coecient simultaneously.
Therefore, the objective of this study was to review the literature for determination of thermal diusivity and mathematically apply
optimization methodologies for simultaneous determination of heat transfer coecient. For this purpose, constrained optimization
methodologies, based on analytical solutions of innite slab, innite cylinder and sphere were dened, and results were discussed intensively. The results showed that a precise determination of thermal diusivity and convective heat transfer coecient is a dicult task, but
knowing the location where the experimental timetemperature was obtained would really simplify this problem.
2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Keywords: Convective heat transfer coecient; Thermal diusivity; Optimization

1. Introduction
Thermal conductivity (k), specic heat (cp) and density
(q) are important parameters in design and analysis of food
processes and processing equipment.
Ratio
of these three


k
parameters, thermal diusivity a qcp , denes how fast
heat propagates or diuses through a material (Singh,
1982), and it is generally aected by composition of the
food product. Convection heat transfer coecient (h) is
another important parameter, and it depends on characteristics of the food product (shape and dimensions), changes
in surface temperature and roughness, and characteristics

Tel.: +90 533 812 0686; fax: +90 324 361 0032.
E-mail addresses: ferruherdogdu@mersin.edu.tr, ferruherdogdu@
yahoo.com.
0260-8774/$ - see front matter 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2007.10.019

of uid ow (velocity and turbulence) around the product

itself (Erdogdu et al., 1998).
Studies in food process engineering related with thermal
processing require prior knowledge of these two parameters (thermal diusivity and convective heat transfer coecient) since the information on these parameters is not
often available. A separate and detailed analysis is generally required to determine the precise values (Assan et al.,
2000). Therefore, experimental determination of these
parameters has been subject to a lot of research, and there
has been an accumulated knowledge on this area. Dickerson (1965) explained an experimental methodology based
on assuming a constant temperature dierence between
center and surface of the food product after a certain lag
period. Nesvadba (1982) gave a critical review of mathematical approaches for thermal diusivity measurement
methods of food stus. Singh (1982) explained four commonly methods for experimental determination of thermal

F. Erdogdu / Journal of Food Engineering 86 (2008) 453459

454

Nomenclature
NBi
NFo
cp
h
J0
J1
k
L
m



Biot number hL
k


Fourier number at
2
L
specic heat (J/kg K)
heat transfer coecient (W/m2 K)
Bessel function of rst kind zeroth order
Bessel function of rst kind rst order
thermal conductivity (W/m K)
half thickness of an innite slab and radius of an
innite cylinder or a sphere (m)
slope of temperature ratio versus time (1/s)

diusivity: least squares estimation, use of heat penetration

data, use of timetemperature charts and use of analytical
solutions. The least squares estimation, to use a given set of
experimental timetemperature data, was rst proposed by
Beck (1963). Now, these methods range from the given simple methodologies to modern sophisticated methods using
laser pulses and infrared detectors to measure the time
for the peak in a thermal wave to pass through a thin sample (Cernuschi et al., 2004; Woodeld et al., 2007). Determining the composition of the material and then using
predictive equations can also be given as an example for
experimental determination (Mendonca et al., 2005).
Application of mathematical approaches is mostly based
on using analytical or numerical solutions of transient heat
transfer in regular shape products via experimentally
obtained timetemperature data. A generally known case
applied with analytical solutions is to use slope of linear
part of temperature ratio curves regardless of location
where the experimental data was obtained (Erdogdu,
2005) after a certain process time has elapsed (Fourier number NFo being greater than 0.2). This would lead to use
the rst term of the given series analytical solution. There
has been also some argument on limiting value of NFo.
For example, McCabe et al. (1987) reported that only the
rst term of the series analytical solutions is signicant
and other terms can be neglected when the value of NFo
is greater than about 0.1. Kee et al. (2002) stated that analytical solutions for center can be approximated by an
exponential decay when NFo is greater than 0.15. The convective heat transfer coecient, in these approaches, has
been generally assumed to be innite even though its solution from the same experimental data would be possible.
Erdogdu (2005) gave a detailed discussion on this issue,
and he concluded that intercept of the given trend line to
determine the convective heat transfer coecient and thermal diusivity can be easily applied when the location of
experimentally obtained timetemperature data is known.
Fricke and Becker (2002) applied an iterative algorithm
to the cooling temperature data to determine the heat
transfer coecient. Erdogdu et al. (1998) explained use of
quasi-steady state, transient and trial-and-error methods

t
T
Ti
T1
x
a
q
l
h

time (s)
temperature (C)
initial temperature (C)
medium temperature (C)
location, distance from the center of the innite
slab, innite cylinder or sphere
thermal diusivity (m2/s)
density (kg/m3)
characteristic root of Eqs. (2), (4) or (6)


1
temperature ratio T x;tT
T i T 1

with experimental time temperature data. Ramesh and

Sathyarayana (1997) determined the heat transfer coecient in steam cooking of vegetables using the temperature
ratio obtained at their centre by applying analytical solutions. Awuah et al. (1995) reported a detailed comparison
of two methodologies to evaluate the heat transfer coecient. Both methods were based on using timetemperature
data obtained from regular objects and their analytical
solutions. There have been also numerous expressions in
the literature (dierent Nusselt number correlations as a
function of Reynolds or Grashof and Prandtl numbers) to
determine the convective heat transfer coecient. Lumped
system methodology is another very common approach
applied for this purpose, and numerous research studies
can be found in the literature for the application of this
approach.
Even though there are dierent methods to determine
the convective heat transfer coecient, it is generally
accepted to be known when the subject is to determine
the thermal diusivity value. Due to this, a general
approach becomes to assume an innite heat transfer
coecient or a constant surface temperature (also result
of the assumption of an innite heat transfer coecient)
to continue with determination of thermal diusivity.
However, the question on that would be whether the
actual value of the thermal diusivity may be obtained
with this assumption. As stated by Verboven et al.
(1997), boundary conditions (convective heat transfer
coecient in this case) need to be well known for heat
transfer calculations to be interpreted correctly. Nicolai
and De Baerdeameker (1996) also showed that small
deviations in heat transfer coecient may result in large
deviations especially when surface heat transfer coecient is small. This especially might be the case when
the air, as a uid medium, was applied in dierent processing conditions. Palazoglu (2006) also gave a discussion on the eects of high and low heat transfer
coecients on heat propagation. He concluded that
speed of heat penetration was a function of thermal diffusivity and heat transfer coecient combination. Therefore, assuming an innite heat transfer coecient without

F. Erdogdu / Journal of Food Engineering 86 (2008) 453459

knowing its actual value might lead to incorrect results

in dierent analysis. Due to the eect of thermal diusivity, determination of thermal conductivity and volumetric
heat capacity (q  cp) has also been investigated (Mendonca et al., 2005). Even the optimal experimental design
techniques have been applied for this purpose (Nahor
et al., 2001; Nahor et al., 2003).
The approach where thermal diusivity is determined
from experimentally obtained timetemperature data
seems, however, to be an easy use of analytical solutions
with assumption of an innite convective heat transfer
coecient in the literature. Larkin and Stee (1982) gave
a detailed error analysis in estimating thermal diusivity
from heat penetration data. One of the parameters investigated, in this study, was assumptions concerning convective heat transfer coecient. They concluded that better
prediction accuracy was obtained at higher Biot numbers
(NBi). Chen et al. (1998) used the higher NBi approach to
determine the thermal diusivity of kiwifruit applying a
modied Fitch method. Marschoun et al. (2001) determined the thermal diusivity of cheddar cheese by applying
Dickerson method (Dickerson, 1965) and a mathematical
method by using the analytical solution for an innite cylinder with experimentally obtained timetemperature data.
Kee et al. (2002) used center temperature data to accomplish the thermal diusivity measurements of a pet food.
Markowski et al. (2004) used analytical solutions with a
constant surface temperature (as a result of innite heat
transfer coecient assumption) to determine the thermal
diusivity of Lyoner type sausages. Bairi et al. (in press)
explained a simple method for determination of thermal
diusivity using one-dimensional Fourier cylindrical solution. They also stated that better results would be obtained
when thermocouple was placed in the farthest point from
the surface subjected to the environment, i.e., at the central
axis of the cylinder to minimize the eects of boundary
condition. Glavina et al. (2006) used transfer functions
methodology to estimate thermal diusivity of foods from
timetemperature histories obtained at their geometric centers. Kumcuoglu and Tavman (2007) applied a simple procedure reported by Bhowmik and Hayakawa (1979), based
on the experimentally obtained timetemperature data, to
determine the thermal diusivity of pizza and pu pastry
doughs. Contrary to this approach, where the requirement
of the knowledge of convective heat transfer coecient is
needed, Monde and Mitsutake (2001) proposed a method
to determine the thermal diusivity value by solving the
unsteady heat conduction equation based on measurements at two points of given solid and semi-solid materials.
Their proposed methodology was really independent of the
boundary conditions or so-called, for the given case, convective heat transfer coecient. Regarding the surface
boundary condition, Hayakawa and Bakal (1973) reported
that there would be no need to determine or have knowledge of NBi when surface temperature change is known
and used as a boundary condition. However, they also
pointed out the diculty in measuring surface tempera-

455

tures. The work by Demirkol et al. (2006) is example of

the use of surface temperature changes to determine the
convective heat transfer coecient.
Chang and Toledo (1990) used a trial and error procedure via a nite dierence numerical approach for simultaneous determination of thermal diusivity and heat
transfer coecient during sterilization of carrot dices.
Palazoglu (2006) investigated the inuence of convective
heat transfer coecient on heating rate of materials with
dierent thermal diusivities and pointed out the signicance of this subject. Erdogdu (2005) also explains the signicance of simultaneous determination of thermal
diusivity and heat transfer coecient with a detailed discussion of the methods based on application of analytical
solutions via the use of timetemperature histories. He also
pointed out that knowledge of location where the time
temperature history obtained plays a crucial rule for the
simultaneous determination, and it might not be an easy
task to determine the precise location. Carcio et al.
(2002), in their study where the thermal diusivity of Mortadella was determined from actual processing data using a
least squares estimation, explains the signicance of the
precise geometric location of the thermocouple placed
inside the sample to measure the temperature change. Gordon and Thorne (1990a) described a methodology for
spherical food products to determine the convective heat
transfer coecient, thermal conductivity and specic heat
using the density and experimental timetemperature data
obtained at two points within the sample (center and halfway between center and surface). Gordon and Thorne
(1990b) described two techniques (called slope and lag
methods) to determine the thermal diusivity from temperature measurements obtained at center and halfway
between center and surface. They also discussed the eects
of position errors of thermocouples. At this point, it is also
important to remind that the precise location might not
even be needed to determine the thermal diusivity or it
can be easily determined if needed when the boundary conditions (convective heat transfer coecient in this case) are
known (Erdogdu, 2005).
As explained, it is important to determine the thermal
diusivity and convective heat transfer coecient simultaneously for designing and analyzing the food processes.
Actually, trying to determine the thermal diusivity and
convective heat transfer coecient from the timetemperature data may also lead this problem to be categorized as
an inverse heat transfer problem, and requirement of the
knowledge of precise location where the experimental
timetemperature data is obtained bring some issues in
the calculations. In the given analysis techniques, knowledge of thermal conductivity is denitely required to determine the heat transfer coecient (Erdogdu, 2005). Hence,
NBi can be preferred to be used in the further analytical
or numerical solutions instead of convective heat transfer
coecient since it already includes the eects of both convective heat transfer coecient and thermal conductivity of
the product. In this case, there must be a small modica-

456

F. Erdogdu / Journal of Food Engineering 86 (2008) 453459

tion made to the third kind boundary equation to use NBi

in various analytical and numerical calculations.
Therefore, the objective of this research was to discuss
the mathematical approaches to solve the given inverse
heat transfer problem to simultaneously determine the
thermal diusivity and NBi from the experimentally
obtained timetemperature data.
2. Mathematical background and methods

ratio ln

Analytical solutions for transient heat transfer in solid

objects are available in the literature when the following
criteria are met:
solid object must be homogeneous and isotropic;
thermophysical properties must be constant;
solid object must have an analytically described geometric shape, e.g., cylinder, slab or sphere;
initial temperature distribution must be uniform
throughout the volume;
cooling or heating medium temperature must be
constant;
heat transfer coecient (or NBi) must be constant and
uniform through the boundary;
there must be no phase change in the product during the
whole process (e.g., drying, freezing, thawing).
Based on these, analytical solution for temperature change
as a function of time and location within a solid material
(slab, sphere or cylinder) can be written as follows in an
innite series solution for one-dimensional heat ow:


1 
T x; t  T 1 X
at

C i x exp l2n 2
1
Ti  T1
L
n1
where ln and Cn(x) are given for sphere, innite cylinder
and innite slab, respectively:
Sphere
l
tanl
2  sinln  ln  cosln  sinln  Lx
C n x

ln  Lx
ln  sinln  cosln

N Bi 1 

2
3

Innite cylinder
J 1 l
J 0 l

2  J l
x

2 1 n 2
  J 0 ln 
C n x
L
li  J 0 ln J 1 ln

N Bi l 

tions since just knowing convective heat transfer coecient

would not be enough to determine the NBi. Thermal conductivity value must also be known for the case to determine
the convective heat transfer coecient, and additional
experimental approaches are needed for this case. Therefore, determination of NBi would be a better choice.
A general use of these solutions, as explained in the literature review,
is
h
i based on the fact that the temperature

4
5

Innite slab
N Bi l  tanl


2  sinln
x
 cos ln 
C n x
ln sinln  cosln
L

These equations show the knowledge of NBi could be the

parameter that should be sought to continue with calcula-

T x;tT 1
T i T 1

becomes linear after a certain time has

elapsed (NFo > 0.2). After this time, the rst term of Eq.
(1) is used to characterize the linear region:




T x; t  T 1
a
ln
lnC 1 x  l21 2  t
8
Ti  T1
L
The l1 value is then needed to determine thermal diusivity
from slope (m) of the temperature ratio change versus time
(t) where the slope (m) is


a
m l21 2
9
L
and l1 can then be calculated to be p for sphere, 2.4048 for
innite cylinder and p2 for innite slab applying a simple
numerical solution technique to Eqs. (2), (4) and (6),
respectively assuming an innite NBi (leading to an innite
heat transfer coecient). As one would realize, this method
does not require the knowledge of location where the time
temperature data is obtained. Regardless of the location,
slope of the temperature ratio curves would be the same
since the slope is not a function of location (Eq. (9)).
Erdogdu (2005) gave a detailed description for the
simultaneous determination of thermal diusivity and convective heat transfer coecient when the precise location
was known. As explained above, thermal diusivity value
was obtained from slope of the temperature ratio change
with a known l1 value. For this, instead of assuming an
innite heat transfer coecient, actual value of l1 can be
determined from intercept of linear portion of the time
temperature ratio. The intercept is given with ln[C1(x)] in
Eq. (8). With the known ln[C1(x)] value, the l1 can be easily determined using Eqs. (2), (4) or (6) for sphere, innite
cylinder or innite slab by applying a numerical procedure.
This methodology is based on the fact that the exact location where time temperature data was obtained is known.
However, when the location was not known, and since it
is reported to be a dicult task by Erdogdu (2005), there
becomes two known (the slope m and intercept C1 of
the linear portion of the experimental temperature ratio
curve) and three unknown (NBi l1 value is assumed to
be known via NBi, location Lx , and thermal diusivity
a) parameters. If the heat transfer coecient is chosen over
NBi, then the number of unknowns becomes four since the
requirement of thermal conductivity will be needed in the
further calculations.
In addition to the two known parameters, experimentally obtained timetemperature data can also be attributed
to be a known parameter. Nahor et al. (2003) advised that

F. Erdogdu / Journal of Food Engineering 86 (2008) 453459

a large quantity of information can be extracted from a single transient test). However, there will be still one less
known parameter than the unknown parameters leading
us to the fact that the number of equations should be equal
to the number of unknowns for exact solution.
Due to this, there cannot be a direct mathematical solution applied to this problem since there should be three
known parameters to determine the three unknown parameters for a simple and direct calculation. Given problem
can therefore be classied into an inverse heat transfer
problem, and with the given diculties, using an inverse
heat transfer minimization (optimization) problem may
be a solution for this dilemma requiring optimization procedures. For optimization solution of this problem, dierent approaches can be given.
3. Optimization approaches
As explained above, the slope (m) and intercept (C1) of
the linearh portioni of the experimental temperature ratio
curve (ln

T x;tT 1
T i T 1

versus time) can be easily obtained from

the experimental data. Fig. 1 shows a simulated temperature ratio, maximum slope and intercept of the linear portion of the temperature ratio curve obtained at the center
for an innite slab of 20 mm in thickness for NBi = 10.67
and a = 1.075  107 m2/s.
Based on given explanations, a minimization of sum of
squares optimization approach can be developed to determine the thermal diusivity and NBi values simultaneously.
The given inverse heat conduction problem can then be
solved using the experimentally obtained timetemperature
data without having a prior knowledge about the location
where the data was obtained. As one will realize, at the end,
the knowledge of thermal conductivity will also be
required, bringing another unknown to the given sets of
the equations, to determine the heat transfer coecient
from NBi. Therefore, determination of NBi and its use in
the solutions instead of heat transfer coecient can be an
approach to simplify the solution.
0
Simulated temp. ratio
Temperature Ratio

-0.5

Linear portion

-1

y = -0.1332x + 0.2336
R2 = 1

-1.5
-2

457

Hence, for the solution of this problem, a constrained

optimization problem where the objective function given
by Eq. (10) can be dened:
N
X

2
hsimulated  hexperimental
10
f min
i1
1
where h T x;tT
.
T i T 1
Then, the simulated h values must be rst determined
using the analytical solutions
 (Eq. (1)). For this calculation,
the l values and location Lx are the required parameters.
Due to that, the optimization procedure might be started
with either calculation of l values or with a guess of Lx .
Since the l1 values will be between 0 and p2 for an innite
slab, 0 and 2.4048 for an innite cylinder and 0 and p for
sphere, and Lx values will be between 0-center and 1-surface,
the given problem can be classied as a constrained optimization problem.
Now, the given situations will be covered one by one
using a suitable iteration procedure to minimize the function given by Eq. (10).

Situation 1. Start with l values:

I. Since l values are function of NBi as given in Eqs. (2),
(4) and (6), iteration procedure can start with a guess
NBi. Depending on the decision of the user, the rst
guess value can be a very high or a very low value.
II. Then, the next would be to determine a certain number of l values using the given equations. To be as
error-free as possible, as high number of roots as possible should be obtained. A typical NewtonRaphson
numerical procedure or a simple Bisection method
can be applied for this purpose.

III. With the known l1 value, location Lx can be determined using the intercept (C1) and Eqs. (3), (5) or
(7) depending on the geometry, then thermal diusivity value using Eq. (9) and experimentally obtained
slope of the linear portion of temperature ratio curve
can be found.
IV. With known l values, location, thermal diusivity
and guessed NBi, temperature change can be simulated using Eq. (1) to determine the f value from
Eq. (10).
V. Then, the NBi would be iterated, for example, dividing by 2 in the next iteration (if the initial start were
very high) until the f value is minimized. At a certain
point, a NBi interval is required and obtained where a
simple Bisection procedure is applied to determine
the minimum f value and resulting l values, location,
thermal diusivity and NBi.

-2.5
-3
0

10

15

20

25

Time (min)

Fig. 1. Simulated temperature ratio, maximum slope and intercept of the

linear portion of the temperature ratio curve obtained at the center for the
innite slab (2L = 20 mm).

At this point, If determining the heat transfer coecient

from the NBi is preferred, thermal conductivity value will
again be the required parameter.
Situation 2. Start with location:
As explained, it is the fact that the Lx value will be
between 0 (center) and 1 (surface). Therefore, for this case,

458

F. Erdogdu / Journal of Food Engineering 86 (2008) 453459

the optimization procedure can start with a guess

between 0 and 1.

x
L

value

I. Based on this fact, the iteration procedure may start

from 1 or 0.
II. Knowledge of Lx value leads to determination of the
rst (l) value using he intercept (C1) and Eqs. (3),
(5) or (7) depending on the geometry.
III. Then, the l1 value can be used to determine thermal
diusivity value using Eq. (9) and slope of the linear
portion
of ithe experimental temperature ratio curve
h
1
(ln T x;tT
versus time).
T i T 1
IV. The rest of this iterative procedure continues with the
IV step of the above described in Situation I.
V. After determination of the f value from Eq. (10), the

iteration procedure continues dividing the given Lx
x
by 2 if the iteration
 x  had started with L 1. At a certain point, an L interval is required and obtained
where a simple Bisection procedure is applied to
determine the minimum f value and resulting l values, location, thermal diusivity and NBi.
Other than application of an iteration procedure, a certain
optimization (e.g., complex method as described by
Erdogdu and Balaban, 2002) can also be applied.
4. Discussion
The required timetemperature data was simulated
using Eq. (1) for an innite slab (20 mm in length). For this
purpose, thermal diusivity (a) value of 1.075  107 m2/s
with NBi of 10.67 was applied to
 obtain
 the transient temperature change at the center Lx 0 . Initial temperature
of the object was 20 C and medium temperature was
90 C in the simulations. Fig. 1 shows the simulated temperature ratio and the maximum slope and intercept of
the linear portion of the temperature ratio curve obtained
at the center.
The maximum slope was 2:22  103

0:1332
1=s  60 , and the intercept was 0.2336.
After obtaining the maximum slope and intercept from
timetemperature data, above given optimization
approaches were applied to re-determine the applied NBi
and thermal diusivity values without knowing the location.
Unfortunately, both situations, explained above in detail,
did not lead to satisfactory results. In either
case, applying

the combination of obtained location Lx , NBi and thermal
diusivity in the analytical solutions resulted in simulation
of given timetemperature data (f ? 0 in Eq. (10)), but Lx ,
NBi and thermal diusivity values diered from initially
applied values to obtain the experimental data. Since there
were three parameters to apply in a single set of solution,
simultaneous determination of NBi and thermal diusivity
values failed. Chang and Toledo (1990) had determined
the thermal diusivity of carrots simultaneously with heat
transfer coecient. In one set of this study, thermal diusivity value was determined to be 1.94  107 m2/s, which was

equivalent to thermal conductivity value of 0.77 W/m K. As

seen, these values were quite high compared to the general
thermal property range of food materials. Especially, given
the thermal conductivity of liquid water is 0.679 W/m K at
100 C (Cengel, 1998), the reported thermal conductivity of
0.77 W/m K was really o its limits. Even though certain
explanations (e.g., increasing temperatures would result in
increase in thermal conductivity or thermal diusivity) can
be given for this situation, it still seems to be a non-precise
determination of heat transfer coecient and thermal diusivity, simultaneously. Erdogdu and Balaban (2003), in
their thermal processing optimization study on uniqueness
and reproducibility of optimization methodologies, had
concluded that additional known-variables would be
needed to force the decision variables (heat transfer coecient, thermal diusivity and location in the current study)
into their original place in a continuous space. Therefore,
a precise determination of thermal diusivity and convective heat transfer coecient, when location of experimentally obtained timetemperature data is not known, does
seem to be a dicult task.
5. Conclusions
As a result of current study, it can be concluded that several combinations of heat transfer coecient and thermal
diusivity (additionally variable of Lx , where timetemperature data was obtained) would lead to a perfect simulation
of experimental data.
Due to this, it might be said that, as concluded by Chang
and Toledo (1990), many sets of heat transfer coecient
and thermal diusivity combinations will denitely predict
the temperature change very close to the experimental data.
An additional location variable in the solutions would
just increase the number of possible sets. Chang and
Toledo (1990) had suggested that a unique set would be
obtained with use of temperature data obtained at dierent
points. As suggested by current study, however, an additional timetemperature set would only increase the number of unknowns in the given equation sets, and this just
results in the same problem obtained here.
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