Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
MDB 3073
8 - 14
3
Introduction
Fundamental of materials:
Behaviour and manufacturing
properties
WEEK 1: 16-21 /05/16
Manufacturing Operation
Manufacturing industries
and products
Product / production
Surface Technology
relationships
Surface Roughness
Strengthening
and
Surface Coating
Production
concepts
and
WEEK 7: 27/0601/07/16
mathematical models
Cellular Manufacturing
WEEK 8-14: 04/07
18/08/16
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What is a Polymer?
Poly
mer
many
repeat unit
repeat
unit
repeat
unit
H H H H H H
C C C C C C
H H H H H H
H H H H H H
C C C C C C
H Cl H Cl H Cl
Polyethylene (PE)
repeat
unit
H
C
H
H H
C C
CH3 H
H H
C C
CH3 H
H
C
CH3
Polypropylene (PP)
Polymer Composition
Most polymers are hydrocarbons
i.e., made up of H and C
Saturated hydrocarbons
Each carbon singly bonded to four other atoms
Example:
Ethane, C2H6
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MOLECULAR WEIGHT
Molecular weight, M: Mass of a mole of chains.
Not all chains in a polymer are of the same length i.e., there is a distribution of molecular weights
Low M
high M
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CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMER
Thermoplastic
Polymer
Thermosetting
Elastomers
Polyesters
Polyurethanes
Rubbers (Natural)
Phenolic
Acrylics
Silicones (Synthetic)
Nylons
Epoxy resins
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CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMER
Thermoplastic
Polymer
Thermosetting
Elastomers
Polyesters
Polyurethanes
Acrylics
Rubbers
High Extensibility
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Properties of Polymer
Thermoplastic
Polymer
Thermosetting
Acrylics
Elastomers
Polyesters
Polyurethanes
Rubbers
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Polymer Additives
Improve mechanical properties, processability, durability, etc.
Fillers
Added to improve tensile strength & abrasion resistance, toughness & decrease cost
ex: carbon black, silica gel, wood flour, glass, limestone, talc, etc.
Plasticizers
Added to reduce the glass transition temperature Tg below room temperature
Presence of plasticizer transforms brittle polymer to a ductile one
Commonly added to PVC - otherwise it is brittle
Stabilizers
Antioxidants
UV protectants
Lubricants
Added to allow easier processing
polymer slides through dies easier
ex: sodium stearate
Colorants
Dyes and pigments
Flame Retardants
Substances containing chlorine, fluorine, and boron
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Less energy is required than for metals because processing temperatures are
much lower
Handling of product is simplified during production because of lower
temperatures
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Typical cycle time 10 to 30 sec, but cycles of one minute or more are not uncommon
Mold may contain multiple cavities, so multiple moldings are produced each cycle
Complex and intricate shapes are possible
Shape limitations:
Capability to fabricate a mold whose cavity is the same geometry as part
Shape must allow for part removal from mold
Part size from 50 g (2 oz) up to 25 kg (more than 50 lb), e.g., automobile bumpers
Injection molding is economical only for large production quantities due to high cost of
mold
Injection molding is the most widely used molding process for thermoplastics
Some thermosets, elastomers, metals and ceramics are also injection molded
Modifications in equipment and operating parameters must be made
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1.
2.
3.
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In extrusion, which constitutes the largest volume of plastics produced, raw materials in the form of thermoplastic
pellets, granules, or powder are placed into a hopper and fed into the barrel of a screw extruder.
Fig 19.2(a) shows the schematic illustration of a typical screw extruder. (b) Geometry of an extruder screw. Complex
shapes can be extruded with relatively simple and inexpensive dies.
1.
Feed section: Conveys the material from the hopper into the central region of the barrel.
2.
Melt section (also called compression or transition section): Where the heat generated by the
viscous shearing of the plastic pellets and by the external heaters causes melting to begin.
3.
Metering or pumping section: Where additional shearing (at a high rate) and melting occur
with pressure building up at the die.
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The control of processing parameters such as extruder-screw rotational speed, barrel-wall temperatures,
die design, and rate of cooling and drawing speeds are important in order to ensure product integrity and
uniform dimensional accuracy.
Die shape is important, as it can induce high stresses in the product, causing it to develop surface
fractures (as also occur in metals).
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plastic pellets melt as the turning screw pushes them forward by the heaters
molten polymer is forced under pressure through the shaping die to form the final product (extrudate)
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The shape of the die orifice determines the cross-sectional shape of the extrudate
Fig 19.3 shows the common extrusion die geometries: (a) coathanger die for extruding sheet; (b) round die for producing rods;
and (c) and (d) nonuniform recovery of the part after it exits the
die.
The control of processing parameters such as extruder-screw rotational
speed, barrel-wall temperatures, die design, and rate of cooling and
drawing speeds are important in order to ensure product integrity and
uniform dimensional accuracy.
Die shape is important, as it can induce high stresses in the product,
causing it to develop surface fractures (as also occur in metals).
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Electrical wire cable, and strips also are extruded and coated
with plastic by this process.
The wire is fed into the die opening at a controlled rate with the
extruded plastic in order to produce a uniform coating.
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Thermoforming is a process for forming thermoplastic sheets or films over a mold by means of the application of heat and
pressure.
In this process, a sheet is (a) clamped and heated to the sag point (above the glass-transition temperature, of the polymer),
usually by radiant heating, and (b) forced against the mold surfaces through the application of a vacuum or air pressure.
Fig 19.18 shows the various thermoforming processes for a thermoplastic sheet. These processes commonly are used in
making advertising signs, cookie and candy trays, panels for shower stalls, and packaging.
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vacuum
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Compression molding is used mainly with thermosetting plastics with the original material being in a
partially polymerized state
Process Capabilities
Three types of compression molds are available:
1. Flash type: for shallow or flat parts
2. Positive type: for high-density parts
3. Semipositive type: for quality production
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Fig 19.19 shows the types of compression moldinga process similar to forging: (a) positive, (b) semipositive, and (c) flash, which is
later trimmed off. (d) Die design for making a compression-molded part with external undercuts.
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The uncured thermosetting resin is placed in a heated transfer pot or chamber and after the material is heated, it is injected
into heated closed molds.
Fig 19.20 shows the sequence of operations in transfer molding for thermosetting plastics. This process is suitable particularly
for intricate parts with varying wall thickness.
Transfer molding is a similar to
compression molding process, but the
charge is placed not in the die cavity but
into a chamber next to the die cavity.
Pressure is then applied to force the
material to flow into the heated mold
where curing occurs.
Process capabilities
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Terminology/Classification of Composites
Composite:
Multiphase material that is artificially made.
Phase types:
-- Matrix - is continuous
-- Dispersed - is discontinuous and surrounded
by matrix
Matrix phase:
-- Purposes are to:
- transfer stress to dispersed phase
- protect dispersed phase from
environment
-- Types: MMC, CMC, PMC
metal
ceramic
polymer
Dispersed phase:
-- Purpose:
MMC: increase sy, TS, creep resist.
CMC: increase KIc
PMC: increase E, sy, TS, creep resist.
-- Types: particle, fiber, structural
Reprinted with permission from
D. Hull and T.W. Clyne, An Introduction to
Composite Materials, 2nd ed., Cambridge
University Press, New York, 1996, Fig. 3.6, p. 47.
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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES
Particle-reinforced
Composites
Structural
Fibre reinforced
Spheroidite steel
Matrix ferrite
(a) ductile
Continuous
(aligned)
Particle
cementite
(Fe3C)
brittle
Discontinuous
Sandwich panels
Laminates
particles: WC
(brittle, hard)
Aligned
Random
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Composite Benefits
E(GPa)
10
fiber-reinf
ceramics
3
2
PMCs
10
metal/
metal alloys
un-reinf
Bend displacement
0.1
0.01
0.1 0.3
polymers
1
10 30
Density, r [mg/m3]
Adapted from T.G. Nieh, "Creep rupture of a siliconcarbide reinforced aluminum composite", Metall.
Trans. A Vol. 15(1), pp. 139-146, 1984. Used with
permission.
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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES
Composites
Fibre reinforced
Fiber Types
Whiskers - thin single crystals - large length to diameter
ratios
graphite, silicon nitride, silicon carbide
high crystal perfection extremely strong, strongest
known
very expensive and difficult to disperse
Fibers
polycrystalline or amorphous
generally polymers or ceramics
Ex: alumina, aramid, E-glass, boron, UHMWPE
Wires
metals steel, molybdenum, tungsten
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Fibre reinforced
Continuous
(aligned)
Composites
(Mo) (ductile)
(a)
(b)
fracture
surface
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Fibre reinforced
Discontinuous
Composites
(b)
C fibers:
very stiff
very strong
C matrix:
less stiff
view onto plane less strong
500 m
fibers lie
in plane
(a)
Other possibilities:
Aligned
Random
-- Discontinuous, random 3D
-- Discontinuous, aligned
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Composites
sf d
fiber length
2c
Continuous
(aligned)
fiber diameter
shear strength of
fiber-matrix interface
sf d
fiber length
2c
sf d
fiber length
2c
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fiber diameter
s *f d
lc
2 c
s *f
Stress-position profile
where fibre length is
less than critical length.
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Ecl EmVm E f V f
or
Ecl Em (1 V f ) E f V f
Because the composite consists of only matrix and fibre
phases: that is
m
f
V V 1
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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES
Composites
Sandwich panels
Structural
Sandwich panels
Laminates
face sheet
adhesive layer
honeycomb
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Hand lay up
Pultrusion
Automated lay up
Prepreg
Fibre preform
Tape lay up
Spray Moulding
Filament Winding
Transfer
Moulding
Structural reaction
injection moulding
Sheet Moulding
Compound
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Hand Lay-Up: The resin and fiber (or pieces cut from prepreg) are placed manually, air is expelled with squeegees and if
necessary, multiple layers are built up.
Foam cores may be incorporated (and left in the part) for greater shape complexity. Thus essentially all shapes can
be produced.
Extensively used for products such as airframe components, boats, truck bodies, tanks, swimming pools, and
ducts.
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SPRAY-UP MOLDING
A spray gun supplying resin in two converging streams into which roving is chopped
Automation with robots results in highly reproducible production
Labor costs are lower
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Filament Winding
Continuous reinforcing fibers are accurately positioned in a predetermined pattern to form a
hollow (usually cylindrical) shape
Fibers are fed through a resin bath to impregnate with thermosetting resin
Impregnated fibers are continuously wound (typically automatically) onto a mandrel
After appropriate number of layers added, curing is carried out either in an oven or at room
temperature
The mandrel is removed to give the final product
Filament Winding Characteristics
or is drawn
Adapted from Fig. 16.15, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. [Fig. 16.15 is from
N. L. Hancox, (Editor), Fibre Composite Hybrid Materials, The
Macmillan Company, New York, 1981.]
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Vacuum-Bag Molding
The vacuumbag process was developed for making a variety of
components, including relatively large parts with complex shapes.
Applications are large cruising boats, racecar components, etc.
Pressure-Bag Molding
Pressurebag process is virtually a mirror image of vacuumbag
molding. Applications are sonar domes, antenna housings, aircraft
fairings, etc.
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Pultrusion
Continuous fibers pulled through resin tank, then preforming die & oven to cure
Continuous fibers pulled through resin tank to impregnate fibers with thermosetting resin
Impregnated fibers pass through steel die that preforms to the desired shape
Preformed stock passes through a curing die that is
precision machined to impart final shape
heated to initiate curing of the resin matrix
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Prepreg is the composite industrys term for continuous fiber reinforcement pre-impregnated with a polymer resin that is
only partially cured.
Prepreg is delivered in tape form to the manufacturer who then molds and fully cures the product without having to add any
resin.
This is the composite form most widely used for structural applications
Manufacturing begins
continuous fiber tows.
Tows are then sandwiched and pressed between sheets of release and
carrier paper using heated rollers (calendering).
The release paper sheet has been coated with a thin film of heated
resin solution to provide for its thorough impregnation of the fibers.
by collimating
series
of
spool-wound
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The prepreg is stored at 0C (32 F) or lower because thermoset matrix undergoes curing reactions at room
temperature. Also the time in use at room temperature must be minimized. Life time is about 6 months if properly
handled.
Both thermoplastic and thermosetting resins are utilized: carbon, glass, and aramid fibers are the common
reinforcements.
Actual fabrication begins with the lay-up. Normally a number of plies are laid up to provide the desired thickness.
The lay-up can be by hand or automated.
3. Forming and Shaping of Plastics and Composite Materials
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