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P1.1 Motion
1 Define speed and calculate speed from:
Speed = Distance/Time
The speed of an object is the distance it travels per unit time. We
quantify this as the ratio of the distance it travels to the time taken to
travel that distance.
The formula for speed is above and the units are ms-1 or m/s.
Ex. Michael runs a marathon. He runs 40km in 2 hours. What is his
average speed?
Well, the distance Michael travels is 40km. He does this in 2 hours.
Therefore, using the formula Speed= Distance/Time, we get:
Speed = 40km/2hours
= 20km/ hour
2 Distinguish between speed and velocity.
We dont really touch upon this during GCSE, but it doesnt hurt to get
some additional knowledge.
Basically, speed and velocity are both different type of quantities. The
two types of quantities are:
Vector
Scalar
Vector quantities have both a magnitude and direction. Scalar
quantities only have a magnitude but no direction. That is the
fundamental difference between velocity and speed. Velocity is a
vector whilst speed is a scalar. Velocity not only measures how
Distance/Time Graph
Notes:
Green line: Speed of the object is constant, and can be found by
dividing Distance by Time. We can tell speed is positive as both time
and distance travelled are also both positive.
Orange line: Distance is not changing so object remains stationary
with no movement.
Blue line: Steady speed returning to the start.
The red line is steeper than the green line, so therefore it is travelling
at a faster speed. Steepness is basically a measure of the gradient of
the Distance/Time graph, which is also the speed of an object. The
steeper the graph, the higher the gradient, and therefore the faster
the speed.
4 Recognize linear motion for which the acceleration is constant
and calculate the acceleration.
The situation above mainly shows cases where the acceleration is
constant. We can test that this is true by finding the gradient of the
line. We can find the distance simply by dividing Change in speed by
Time, which if you look carefully enough, is the formula for
Using the given information above, you can easily calculate the
distance travelled.
Remember the formula Speed= Distance/Time
If we re-arrange the formula, we get Distance = Speed x Time.
Notice here, Speed x Time is equivalent to the area of the graph.
Lets calculate the distance travelled. Its simply the area under the
shaded orange triangle.
Now, we simply have to apply some simple mathematical skills.
Whats the area of a triangle?
m x g (N) = (kg)
(m/s)
P2.1 Density
1 Describe an experiment to determine the density of a liquid
and of a regularly shaped solid and make the necessary
calculation using the equation:
Density = Mass/Volume or D = m/v.
Dead simple. Simply find the mass by weighing the thing on a scale
and then use a measuring cylinder to find the volume. Then divide the
mass by the volume to get the density in (g/cm)
2 Describe the determination of the density of an irregularly
shaped solid by the method of displacement, and make the
necessary calculation.
If you want to find the density of an irregular solid, the volume can be
found using a displacement (Eureka) can. First the can is filled to the
level of the spout, then the solid is lowered into the water. The water
collected out of the spout is poured into a measuring cylinder and that
is the volume of the solid. Then, you just have weigh the mass and
then apply the density formula to get the answer.
Procedure
http://www.4physics.com/phy_demo/HookesLaw/HookesLawLab.html
4 Interpret extension/load graphs.
Refer back to the graph above. Extension is on the X-axis and Load
is on the Y-axis. What the graph is ultimately suggesting is that as
you increase Extension, the load increases proportionally. However,
at the curved bit, the spring has reached its limit of proportionality,
which we will discuss in a second.
If you dont get a nice straight line when plotting results in an
extension/load graph, prepare to accept that you blundered and be
sure to go back to check that you plotted the points correctly.
5. State and use Hookes Law and recall and use the
expression Force = constant x extension (F = k x).
Basically, the graph above follows something called Hookes Law,
which basically states that the force is proportional to the extension.
The equation for Force is therefore F = kx where k = constant and x=
extension.
F= Force (N)
m = mass
a= acceleration
8. Find the resultant of two or more forces acting along the same
line.
Force is assigned a magnitude with value x Newtons, x being the
actual magnitude. We often see two forces acting against each
other. We want to find the Resultant Force of these two forces
acting together, and we can simply do this by subtracting the
smaller force by the larger one.
Here is an example below:
The force on the left = force on right, so if you were to subtract the
two vectors to find a resultant force, as they are both 350N, you will
get:
Resultant Force = 350N-350N
=0N
Which basically means the system is in equilibrium and there is no
resultant/overall force and both the vectors cancel each other out.
P2.4 Pressure
1 Relate (without calculation) pressure to force and area.
Pressure is simply the force exerted divided by the area the pressure
is exerted on.
2 Recall and use the equation P = F/A.
Im just going to do some GCSE style questions which I will update
quite regularly.
P3.1 Energy
1 Know that energy and work are measured in joules (J), and
power in watts (W).
The energy of an object is measured in Joules (J). 1000 Joules =
1kilojoule (kJ)
The power of an object is measured in Watts (W). 1000 Watts=1kilo
Watt (kW)
2 Demonstrate understanding that an object may have energy
due to its motion (kinetic) or its position (potential), and that
energy may be transferred and stored.
All objects have what we call, internal energy in its molecules.
Internal energy is made out of Kinetic Energy (due to the motion of
the molecules), and Potential Energy(due to the position of the
object).
You cant create or destroy energy, energy is conserved. However,
energy can be transferred and stored. For example, when you jump
of a cliff (god forbid), the Potential Energy will slowly be converted to
Kinetic Energy. The NET Energy remains the same, but you see a
transfer of energy from one form to another.
3 Recall and use the expressions: K.E. = mv2 and P.E. = mgh
Kinetic Energy (J) = 1/2 x Mass x Velocity Squared
Potential Energy (J) = Mass x Gravitational Force x Height
Electrical Energy
Turning on your TV requires electrical energy.
Sound
Sound from microphones can be passed off as sound energy.
Light
Turning on a lightbulb.
5 Give and identify examples of the conversion of energy from
one form to another, and of its transfer from one place to
another.
In a battery, chemical energy changes into electrical energy.
In a wind turbine, wind is transformed into mechanical energy .
Then attached to a transformer where energy is then
transformed into electrical energy.
Nuclear energy is transferred into heat and electrical energy in a
nuclear plant.
When a ball falls off a cliff, gravitational potential energy is being
transferred into kinetic energy.
6 Apply the principle of energy conservation to simple examples
We discussed this briefly just now. The Principle of energy
conservation states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed.
A really good example can be seen when we throw a ball of a cliff.
When the ball is at the top of the cliff, its Gravitational Potential
Energy is at its highest, as GPE = mgh and h is at its maximum at
the top of the cliff. However, when you throw the ball off the cliff, you
may think that as height is decreasing, the GPE of the ball is also
decreasing. As a result, the total energy of the ball must be
decreasing as well right?
Wrong.
As the ball falls, the energy it loses as Gravitational Potential Energy
is being transferred into another form of energy, kinetic energy, and
the amount transferred is the exact same as the amount lost via
Gravitational Potential Energy.
Relatively cheap
Cons:
Gives off pollutants which can be damaging to the environment.
Non-renewable.
Tidal
Pros:
Has potential to generate alot of energy
Very reliable as it is quite easy to predict when is there going to be
a low and high tide.
Renewable, so can be continued to be used for a long time.
Little environmental impact.
Cons:
Initial costs of building dams are extremely high.
Affects transportation system in the water.
Affect ecosystem surrounding the dam.
Wave
Pros:
Clean
Renewable energy source
Does not have damaging effects on environment
Doesnt need fuel so more cost-effective.
Few safety risks
There is a lot available.
You can potentially generate alot of energy.
Cons:
Getting alot of power is often difficult.
Not a very popular method at the moment, so may be very
expensive.
Waves vary in size so you may not always to be able to generate
electricity.
Geothermal
Pros:
Potentially unlimited supply of energy.
Little impact on the environment.
Renewablecan be reused.
Cons:
Can be expensive
P3.3 Work
P1 Relate (without calculation) work done to the magnitude of a
force and the distance moved.
If a constant force of lets say, magnitude F, acts on a point that
moves distance s,in the same direction of the force, then the Work is
simply the force multiplied by the distance s.
P2 Describe energy changes in terms of work done.
Work is the amount of energy transferred into or out of a system, not
counting energy transferred by heat conduction.
Needs expanding.
P3 Recall and use W = F d.
This is just the formula Work = Force x Distance.
Particles are also quite close together, but the forces are not as
strong as that of those in solids.
The liquid takes the shape of its container.
Gases
Particles are far apart from each other and bounce around
randomly in the container.
Intermolecular forces between particles are pretty weak.
2 Relate the properties of solids, liquids and gases to the forces
and distances between molecules and to the motion of the
molecules
Solid
Distance between particles are very close together, as witnessed by
the diagram above.
Liquid
The distance here is not as close as that of the solids, but the
particles are still quite close together, and the forces between the
particles are still quite strong.
A liquid, because the particles can move and slide over each other,
liquids fill the shape of its container.
Gas
Particles are very far apart here. Again, this can be seen through the
diagram.
Because particles are not in place, gases can flow like a liquid.
3 Interpret the temperature of a gas in termsof the motion of its
molecules.
Volume is constant
So as we can see from this formula, Pressure and Temperature are
proportional.
The particles are hitting the containers randomly. And you have to
admit, there is quite alot of wall-space for the particles to hit at. The
Pressure here is quite low as we can see that the number of particles
that will hit the walls of container each second will not be too high
(low frequency), and that is how we determine pressure. However,
what happens when we decrease the volume by half?
The particles are definitely going to hit the walls of the container more
frequently, so the pressure is going to increase.
P4.3 Evaporation
Evaporation mostly occurs at the surface of a liquid, and for
evaporation to occur, the molecules must have enough kinetic energy.
First, lets define the word Evaporation. Evaporation is basically the
change of state of a substance from liquid to gas. If you look back
into the Topic States of Matter, you will notice that the particles in a
liquid are stuck quite close together, wheres the particles in a gas is
scattered all over the place. Evaporation makes the particles in a
liquid behave like the particles in a gas.
However, in order to break the relatively strong bonds holding the
particles together in a liquid, energy is required to allow the molecules
to become more energetic, and allow some particles to overcome the
bonds holding the liquid particles together and become a gas. Some
molecules have more energy than others, so become a gas more
quickly.
2 Demonstrate understanding of how temperature, surface area
and air flow over a surface influence evaporation.
Flow rate of air: This is in part related to the concentration points
above. If fresh air is moving over the substance all the time, then the
concentration of the substance in the air is less likely to go up with
V = c/p
This is the rearrangment of what we call Boyles Law, and notice
that Pressure is inversely proportation to Volume. Basically what that
means is that as Volume increases, the pressure tends to decrease.
Alternatively, you can rearrange the original equation to arrive at:
p=c/V
Basically, here as pressure increases, volume decreases at a
proportional rate.
The qualitative description can be seen through the diagram above.
As you increase the volume, the particles in the container will have a
larger volume to collide against, so therefore the overall concentration
(P1*V1) / T1 = (P2*V2) / T2
In essence, the pressure and volume of a fixed mass of gas is
proportional to its temperature in Kelvin
However, if P is kept constant, then our equation becomes:
V1 / T1 = V2 / T2
Where the volume of the gas is directly proportional to its
temperature in Kelvin.
This is known as Charles Law.
E = m x c x T
we can rearrange the equation to get
c=E/ m x T
We want to find the Specific Heat capacity of water, which we know
to be around 4200Jg-1C-1
Steps
Set up a circuit with a heater, voltmeter, ammeter, and variable
power supply.
Measure a quantity of water that you are going to use and weigh to
get the mass
Measure the amount of energy required to raise temperature of
water by a certain amount of degrees using the circuit.
Do the appropriate calculations.
Please Note: Energy efficiency here is 100%.
Sources: http://www.saburchill.com/physics/practicals/adobe/HG1a.p
df
3 Recall and use the equation for Specific Heat Capacity
c=E/ m x T
and this can be re-arranged to give:
E = m x c x T
Units in Joules.
kinetic energy.
The kinetic energy is what defines the temperature of the substance.
When the temperature of a substance reaches a state where it is
ready to go through boiling/melting, energy is still being transferred
but the temperature is still constant.
In this process, bonds are being broken/formed, so energy transfer is
definitely required for this change in state. However, if the kinetic
energy doesnt change here, what changes? The potential energy
increases.
2 Distinguish between boiling and evaporation.
One difference between boiling and evaporation is that evaporation
happens at the surface of a liquid where boiling occurs inside the
body of the liquid.
Additionally, evaporation can literally happen at any temperature, as
long there is enough Kinetic Energy to break bonds, but boiling can
only happen at certain temperatures, e.g. 100C for water.
3 Describe condensation and solidification.
Condensation: This is the change of the physical state of matter
from a gas into a liquid.
Basically, condensation starts by the formation of atomic clusters of
the substance in its gaseous (gas) state, like the formation of a rain
drop in the clouds.
Solidification: This is the change of the physical state of matter from
a liquid to a solid.
A good example is changing water into ice cubes. You put the water
into the fridge, and it freezes to become ice.
4 Use the terms latent heat of vaporisation and latent heat of
fusion and give a molecular interpretation of latent heat.
Latent Heat of Vaporisation: The change of phase from liquid to
gas
Latent heat of fusion: The change of phase from solid to liquid.
Latent Heat: Amount of energy associated with phase change.
The molecules in a liquid are nicely packed together, not as packed
as the solids, but packed enough so they dont have complete
freedom as in where to move around. However, if you apply some
energy into the liquid, the molecules inside (internal energy) starts
to become more energetic and move around more often. As you heat
it for a longer period of time, some of its molecules will have enough
energy to overcome the forces of attraction holding the liquid together,
hence evaporating and changing phase to a gas.
The concept is similar in the change of phase from solid to liquid.
Lets say you have an ice cube. As we all know, the particles in the
solid have little freedom to move around and can only vibrate around
a fixed position. If you heat the ice cube, the particles will vibrate
more rapidly, and as you heat it for a longer period of time, naturally,
some of the molecules in the ice cube will have enough energy to
overcome the forces of attraction holding the solid together, hence
melting into a liquid. Obviously, this doesnt happen all at once, its a
gradual process where more and more molecules have enough
energy to overcome the forces of attraction between molecules.
P6.1 Conduction
1 Describe experiments to demonstrate the properties of good
and bad conductors of heat.
A simple experiment can be conducted to find out whether something
is a good or bad conductor of heat!
Prepare a few rods made from different materials. Use wax to attach
small pins to their ends and then heat the other end of the rods. The
thermal energy will be transferred by conduction, from one end to the
other. Eventually the wax will melt (due to the heat from the rod) and
the pin falls off. The best conducting rod will have its pin dropped off
fastest because it transfers the thermal energy the fastest!
P6.2 Convection
1 Recognise convection as the main method of heat transfer in
fluids.
Fluids are often very poor conductors, but if they are free to circulate
Credit:Eyrian
Convection doesnt only occur in liquids, they can also occur in gases.
An example is the Convection Current in air.
Heated by the sun, the warm air rises above the equator and cool air
displaces the warm air. This results in a convection current in the
earths atmosphere.
Room Heating
Warm air rises above the heater or radiator, and it is displaced by
cool air.
P6.3 Radiation
1 Recognise radiation as the method of heat transfer that does
not require a medium to travel through.
Radiation (unlike conduction and convection) does not require a
medium to travel through. This means they can travel through
anything and even empty space (vaccum). The best example would
be radiation from Sun. Earth receives heat from the sun through
radiation. The heat is transferred through Space (which we know is a
huge vacuum) by radiation!
2 Describe experiments to show the properties of good and bad
emitters and good and bad absorbers of infra-red radiation.
Dark or black surfaces tend to be good emitters and absorbers of
heat
White or light-coloured surfaces tend to be poor emitters and
absorbers of heat. Reflective surfaces will reflect the radiation and
heat.
down motions.
3 State the meaning of and use the terms speed, frequency,
wavelength and amplitude.
Amplitude
The maximum displacement a point moves from its rest position
when the wave passes. Since this is displacement, we usually give
amplitude the same units as we would for distance/displacement. E.g.
metre, kilometre
Frequency
The number of waves passing any given point each second,
measured in Hertz (Hz).
CC Attribution: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sine_wavelength.svg
Speed:
Speed at which a wavefront passes through a medium, relative to the
speed of light. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_propagation_speed)
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/File:Introductory_Physics_fig_3.1.png
Reflection: If a wave hits a mirror plane, and the plane is nice and
smooth, the wave will be directly bounced off and reflected.
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Waves/Reflection_and_Refraction
Refraction: If the surface of the mirror/medium has interference and
is not completely smooth, the wave is partially reflected but most of
the wave will be refracted instead. Refraction means that the wave
passes through the interface, and in the process acquiring a different
direction from the trajectory of the wave that first hit the
interface/medium.
During refraction, because the wave travels through a medium,
naturally, its speed will also decrease. Most electromagnetic waves
travel through the medium at the speed of light, but when they are
refracted, they travel at a slower speed.
When the Angle of Incidence (i) is equal to or more than the Critical
Angle (c), total internal reflection is achieved and the ray of light is
completely internally reflected.
X-rays
Gamma rays
Radio waves
The first type of wave observed by Heinrich Hertz, radio waves are
often used for AM/FM Radio transmissions as well as TV
broadcasting. Radio waves are produced as a result of accelerating
electrons within a circuit.
Microwaves
Microwaves are used extensively in communications as well. Radar
allows ships and planes to detect remote objects using microwave
radiation. Many forms of wireless also rely on microwaves to
communicate between one and another, although not at a level which
can cause thermal heating. Lastly, microwaves are used in the aptly
named microwave oven to heat food.
Infra-red (IR)
Infrared waves is commonly associated with thermal radiation. A vast
majority of hot objects emit IR radiation, including ourselves, hot
pieces of coal, heaters, and the sun. Hence, modern military and
security often employ equipment capable of detecting IR radiation
(Thermal goggles etc.) as a means to spot humans within a difficult to
see environment.
Visible Light
Occupying a small window in the electromagnetic spectrum is the allimportant visible light. The human eye is capable of detecting this
part of the spectrum and it gives us an image of our surroundings.
Thankfully, light comes in seven main flavours, giving life as we know
it colour.
Wavelength Range
/nm
390 455
659 769
Violet
455 492
610 659
Blue
492 577
520 610
Green
577 597
503 520
Yellow
597 622
482 503
Orange
622 780
384 482
Red
As with all ionising radiation, gamma rays can have severe health
effects. Long-term exposure can lead to increased incidences of
cancer. However, despite their cancer-causing properties, they still
are used in medicine for the purpose of radiotherapy, which involves
killing cancer cells with focused beams of gamma radiation. In
addition, gamma radiation can be used to sterilize equipment and
food before it is used/consumed by killing bacteria through irradiation.
4. Demonstrate understanding of safety issues regarding the use of
microwaves and X-rays.
The higher the frequency of the wave, the more energy it carries as it
travels.
When a wave hits an object, the energy it carries is transferred to the
object as kinetic energy. This is why when we microwave water, it
gets warmer. The kinetic energy transferred is making the particles of
the water vibrate faster, hence its temperature increases. This is the
same with humans. If we are exposed to microwaves for a long
period of time, there is the danger that permanent damage will be
caused to our internal organs as they will warm up when the waves
travel through our body.
Since higher frequency waves carry more energy, x-rays are
more penetrating than microwaves. They can easily penetrate
through most material including our bodies. Brief expose to x-rays
carry the increased risk of cancer, since x-rays are ionizing. There is
a potential that x-rays may cause mutations in living cells when they
pass through the body, hence it is a very good idea that you limit your
exposure to x-rays
P10.1 Sound
1. Describe the production of sound from vibrating sources.
Sound travels through a wave: that is, a periodic disturbance in space
and time. Mechanical vibrations (oscillation pf particles) cause a
periodic disturbance in space and time, producing a wave.
Credits: http://labspace.open.ac.uk/mod/resource/view.php?id=44302
9
These compressions are a periodic disturbance (oscillation) that
travels parallel to the direction of the wave. (longitudinal wave)
The pitch depends on how fast the particles vibrate, and therefore
how often a cycle of compression-rarefraction happens (frequency)
3. State the approximate human range of audible frequencies
20Hz to 20,000 Hz
Remember this as 20-20: 20 Hz to 20 kHz
4. Demonstrate understanding that a medium is needed to
transmit sound waves
From the above explaination of sound waves:
A sound wave is really a bunch of oscillating air particles (particles of
any other medium). When there are no particles to vibrate, there is no
sound wave.
P11.1 Magnetism
For this unit, youll need to:
1. Describe the properties of magnets
A magnet is a material or object that produces a dipole magnetic
field (i.e. one with 2 poles), which pulls on other ferromagnetic
materials and repels other magnets
- has 2 poles, N->S
- Field movement from N->S
- Can be create with an induced electric current
Types of magnetic materials: Ferromagnetic (ferrous metals e.g. steel,
iron strongly attracted); Paramagnetic (e.g. Pt, Al, O2 weakly
4. Distinguish
Voltmeter:
Is a device used to measure the potential difference between two
points in a circuit.
Has to be connected in parallel to the component you want to
measure.
We also have to consider the fact that the water molecules have a
negative pole as well, so shouldnt it repel each other as well?
The negative poles of the water molecule are repelled by the
negatively charged ions of the balloon.
However, the water molecules still bend towards the stream. Much
like a magnet, since the positive poles of the water molecules are
closer to the balloon since they are attracted to it, the force of
attraction between the positive ends is stronger than the repulsion
between the negative ends.
4. State that unlike charges attract and that like charges repel
In essence, in the above experiment we can see that:
Unlike (opposite) charges attract. ( + ) ( )
Like (same) charges repel. ( ) ( )
A good analogy would be magnets. Think of magnets.
5 Distinguish between electrical conductors and insulators and
give typical examples
Conductors are materials in which an electric current can flow freely.
Examples include metals such as steel and copper. Metals have the
property of being conductors of electric. They generally have a low
resistance.
Conversely, insulators are materials in which an electric current
cannot/will have a hard time flowing through. Examples include
materials such as wood, plastic, and glass. You should notice that
electric circuits are never built entirely from these materials. They
generally have a high resistance.
P12.4 Resistance
1.State that resistance = p.d. / current and understand
qualitatively how changes in p.d. or resistance affect current.
Since resistance = potential difference / current:
in Voltage = in resistance
in Current = in resistance
2.Recall and use the equation R = V/I
When you need to calculate resistance, Ohms law states that:
R = V/I
Resistance () = Voltage (V) / Current (I)
For example, a light bulb has a potential resistance of 3 volts. If a
current of 0.6 amps is flowing through the lightbulb, what is the
resistance?
R = V/I
R = 3 / 0.6
Resistance = 5
3.Describe an experiment to determine resistance using a
voltmeter and an ammeter.
A simple experiment can be performed to find out the resistance
across an object:
Set up an ammeter somewhere in the series circuit: this will give you
the amount of current flowing in the circuit.
Now, set up a voltmeter in parallel to the object, in this case a light
bulb, to find the potential difference across it.
Using theequation R = V/I , we can find the resistance.
If the light bulb has a potential difference of 4V, and the circuit has a
current of 2A, then the resistance is: 4/2 = 2 Ohms ()
E= I V t (Units: Joules)
E= Energy
I= Electric Current
t= time (sec)
Symbols:
Transformers
Coil
Bell
Relay
Why?
In order to for electricity to flow through multiple branches in a parallel
circuit, the current has to split up. This means that the current is
weaker in each branch compared to the source. Imagine a river when
it splits. The amount of water flowing in each river branch is less than
the original, larger river.
5. Recall and use the fact that the current from the source is the
sum of the currents in the separate branches of a parallel circuit
When circuit splits up into parallel so does the current. However,
remember that the current at the beginning and at the end of the
circuit is constant.
When the circuit rejoins again, the current at the before and after is
the same.
Therefore, we can say that the sum of the currents in the separate
channels of the circuit is equal to the current from the source.
the circuit, the total current flowing in the circuit increases. This is
because the adding another branch gives the current another path
which it could flow through.
Using the equation:
R = V/I
V (Voltage) remains the same since our power source does not
change in a parallel circuit.
However, by adding more branches, our total current (I) increases in
the circuit.
And if current increases, our R (Resistance) then therefore decreases.
7. Calculate the effective resistance of two resistors in parallel
Total Resistance in a parallel circuit is given by the equation:
1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 +
For example:
P14.1 Electromagnetic
Induction
1. Describe an experiment that shows that a changing magnetic
field can induce an e.m.f. in a circuit
The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction can be investigated
through a simple experiment using a voltmeter, a coil of wire and a
magnet:
CC Attribution: http://sub.allaboutcircuits.com/images/05071.png
voltage.
Using Flemings left hand rule, we can understand why does the
direction of the current induced alternate. In one half-turn, one end of
the coil cuts through the magnetic field travelling upwards and then in
the next half-turn, it cuts through the magnetic field downwards.
Hence, as the coil is rotating in a magnetic field, the current
generated alternates direction and polarity every 180o or half-turn.
The slip rings in an A.C generator provide an unbroken connection
between the coil and circuit as it spins around, meaning that the
current generated is always alternating. If another type, called a splitring commutator is used instead, it will provide a D.C current
P14.3 Transformer
1. Describe the construction of a basic iron-cored transformer as
used for voltage transformations.
Transformers are electrical components used to change the voltage
supplied by an A.C generator.
Diagram of a step-up transformer:
B = magnetic field
I = current
The magnitude of the magnetic field generated by a straight wire
carrying current is dependent on two factors:
The strength of current. The stronger the current, the stronger the
magnetic field is.
The distance from the wire. The further you are from the center of
The wire moves upwards instead of down, due to the fact that the
current is flowing in the opposite direction now.
Likewise, if we reverse the direction of the magnetic field:
2. State and use the relative directions of force, field and current.
We can deduce the direction in which the wire moves by using
Flemings left-hand rule:
If you know what direction the current is flowing and what direction
the magnetic field is aligned, then you can work out the direction in
which the wire moves.
Simply align your fingers according to the direction of the magnetic
field and the flow of current to find out the thrust of motion.
When the one part of the coil reaches the top, it will cease to turn.
The force moving the coil upwards is balanced with force moving the
coil downwards.
This is why you have the split-ring commutator at the end of the coil.
The split-ring commutator reverses the current every half-turn to
so that the force generated by the current keeps turning the coil in
same direction.
P15.2 Detection of
Radioactivity
1 Demonstrate understanding of background radiation
Photographic Film
Scientists discovered that Uranium compounds would darken a
photographic plate, even if the plates were wrapped up so no
light could penetrate it.
Workers in the nuclear industry will wear film badges. These are
sent to the labs each month to be developed. This allows
scientists to measure the dose that each worker has received.
The badges also have windows made out of different materials, so
we can see how much of the radiation was alpha, beta and gamma.
Releases an electron
the Ve is actually an anti-neutrino, but dont worry about this just yet.
At GCSE, just learn to take a deep breath.
TIME
(YEARS
)
0
28
56
84
112
140
168
%
STRONTIUM90
REMAINING
100
50
25
12.5
6.25
3.125
1.5625
%
STRONTIUM90 THAT HAS
DECAYED
0
50
75
87.5
93.75
96.875
98.4375
From here, we can see that we start off with 100% of Strontium-90.
After 20 years, the number falls down to 50. Then after another 20
years, the number halves again. This continues and continues and
continues, until the percentage slopes down to zero (or something
very close to zero).
In this process, the useful thing comes from the fact that living
organisms take up carbon throughout their lives . The percentage of
the isotope Carbon 14 is fairly constant in our atmosphere.
This means that the percentage of carbon 14 contained by all living
organisms is also constant. However, when a living organism dies it
stops taking up carbon 14. The isotope decays naturally with a half
life of about 5,600 years. So a simple procedure involving counting
the radioemissions due tocarbon 14 from a sample of material that
was once alive, can be used to estimate its date.
Cobalt 60 is used in hospitals as a beta emission source in the
treatment of cancer
-Can be focused on Cancerous tissues to destroy them.
-Known as radiotherapy