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Psychological Research
Author(s): Lawrence D. Bobo and Cybelle Fox
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Source: Social Psychology Quarterly, Vol. 66, No. 4, Special Issue: Race, Racism, and
Discrimination (Dec., 2003), pp. 319-332
Published by: American Sociological Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1519832 .
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Social PsychologyQuarterly
2003,Vol. 66,No. 4,319-332
Race,Racism,andDiscrimination:
Bridging
Problems,
Research*
Methods,andTheoryin SocialPsychological
LAWRENCE D. BOBO
CYBELLE FOX
HarvardUniversity
social,political,
opportunities particular groups" (Fredricksonand Knobel 1982:31).
Discriminationmay be eitherdirector indirect,and
may have both short-and long-termconsequences
(Pettigrewand Taylor1990).
319
320
advancethe impetustoward
To further
For thesereasons,sociologistsand social
devoted
have
stripes
several
of
thisspecialissuenowunitesthree
"bridging,"
psychologists
"the problemof goals in seekingto increasesocial psychologreatenergyto unraveling
generaltheo- gy's understandingof processes of race,
race."4Yet broadand powerful
still racism,and discrimination.
ries of race,racism,and discrimination
One keygoal of
eludeus (See andWilson1989;Winant2000). thisvolumehas been to encouragebridges
some argue,have been acrossmajorsubareas,methods,
Social psychologists,
and theories.
distinctions The challengeofbuildingmoregeneraltheoslowto examinehowethnoracial
mayinfluencewhathave been regardedas rywillbe metonlyinsofaras studiesacross
otherwise general social psychological an array of "middle range" theories are
thelit- broughtintodirectdialogueon the various
processes(Huntet al. 2000).Certainly
eraturecontainsa numberof distinctand problems,
questions,and methodsofanalysis
vital clustersof intellectualactivity:some
that typically distinguish and organize
statusand
focuson problems(e.g.,minority
domainsofsocialresearch.
performancein school), some on method
A second goal has been to encourage
(e.g.,surveysof racialattitudes),and others
scope. More and more
of multiethnic
work
on theory(e.g.,statusexpectationstatesthereachingbeyond the
not
only
is
research
ory).One consequenceis thatthefieldis not
also adoptinga stratebut
divide
black-white
so muchbalkanizedas composedof several
comrichmultigroup
and
of
simultaneous
gy
disparate,mutuallyinsularintellectualcomparisons.
munities.
workthat
Our thirdgoal is to highlight
As a result,a keychallengeforscholarship in this area is to reach beyond the adopts a target-groupor minority-group
For too long,social psyboundaries of customary and specific frameof reference.
and theo- chological researchhas tended to assume
methodologies,
researchproblems,
or disadries.Theoreticaladvancesoftenemergefrom thattheviewsof thosein minority
especiallythose vantaged positions were derived entirely
innovations,
methodological
methodsof investiga- from,or simplya maladaptiveresponseto,
whichbridgedifferent
tion.The domainofrace,racism,and discrim- perspectivesand impositionson the partof
ination,forexample,has taken important thedominantgroup.
stepsto addressthe influenceof contextual
variablessuch as groupsize and degree of
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL
economic inequality (Kinder and PROCESSES OF RACE IN MAJOR LIFE
Mendelberg 1995; Quillian 1995) and to
DOMAINS
modeling(Quillian
make use of hierarchical
Even thoughwe lackbroad,generalthe1996; Taylor 1998), and of survey-based
how race,racism,and dis(Bobo andKluegel1993;Kinder ories specifying
experiments
we
operate,at least,fortunately,
and Sanders1990;Schumanand Bobo 1988; crimination
Snidermanand Carmines1977), as well as possessmajortheoretical
approachesinvarilinkingin-depthinterviewswith surveys ous domainsofsociallife.Strongresearchlit(Krysan1999).Each ofthesestepshas deep- eratures exist in these domains. The
ened ourknowledgesignificantly.
to thisspecialissue offercriticontributions
schooling,
ofideas on identity,
extensions
cal
4 A numberof recentreviewsfromdistincttradiorganizations,
and
achievement
processes;
tions,coveringfargreaterterrainthanwe may hope
interpersonal
and workplaces;
to addresshere,deservenote.Criticalassessmentsof labormarkets,
the survey-basedliteraturecan be found in Sears, interaction
acrossthecolorline;socialstrucHetts et al. (2000), Bobo (2001), and Krysan(2000).
theoriesofprejudice;
turaland psychological
Assessmentsofimportantstrandsin theexperimental
ofthenew
effects
and
the
social
and
political
literaturecan be foundin Banaji and Hardin (1996),
Blair and Banaji (1996), Dovidio (2001), and Fazio
We examine brieflyeach of
immigration.
and Olson (2003). Relevant qualitative studies are
these domains and discuss how the new
reviewedby Bonilla-Silva(2001), while Dawson and
researchreportedherehelpsto advanceour
Cohen (2002) provide a cogent assessment of
knowledge.
researchon race in politicalscience.
321
322
actuallevelsof prejudice(Bonilla-Silvaand
Forman2000).Furthermore,
researchdating
back to the 1950shas demonstrated
a raceof-interviewereffect:respondentsadjust
theirresponseson questionsconcerning
race
race (Hyman
accordingto the interviewer's
1954).In partthismaybe the resultof concerns about social desirability:individuals
attemptto minimizetensionduringan interaction,and therebyavoidtopicsor responses
thatmightoffendanotherparty(Hatchett
and Schuman1975). In day-to-dayinteractions,Cose (1993) suggestedthatblackmiddle-class professionals were not always
completelycandid withwhitesabout their
rage regardingracism and discrimination
because theyunderstoodthatvoicingthose
feelingswouldangeror alienatewhites.
It is a mistake,however,to assumethat
the "truth" will be revealed only when
respondents
speakwitha personofthesame
race.Researchindicatesthatblacksmayface
opposingpressuresto declaregreaterattachmentto theirracial group or supportfor
race-based social policies when speaking
Contactand Interpersonal
Interactions
witha black interviewer
(Anderson,Silver,
A thirdbodyof researchhas focusedon and Abramson 1988). Furthermore,the
the degree of contactand interpersonalor "merepresence"of a blackinterviewer
may
intimaterelationsbetweendominant-and trigger
theoppositeeffect,
whites'
increasing
members(Allport1954; reported racial resentmentor negative
subordinate-group
Pettigrew 1998). Fertile and powerfully stereotypes(Devine 1989; Dovidio et al.
cumulativeworkhas examined,forinstance, 1997;Wittenbrink,
Juddand Park1997).
theindividual-level
(Meyer2000) and social
In thisvolume,Krysanand Couper use
psychological
processesinvolvedin creating innovative experimental simulations to
and maintaining
patternsofracialresidential understandmore clearly the mechanisms
segregation (Bobo and Zubrinsky 1996; behindrace-of-interviewer
effects.
BymanipCharles2003;Farleyet al 1994;Quillianand ulatingan interviewer's
race in botha "live"
Pager2001).Thisresearchis especiallynote- and a "virtual" interviewwith black and
worthyforits multiethnicscope (Charles whiterespondents,the authorscan distinwith- guishbetween(on one hand)effects
2000),itsuse ofsystematic
experiments
on racial
in surveys(Emerson et al 2001; Zubrinsky attitudesand social policypreferences
that
and Bobo 1996), and its linkingof open- resultfromthe"merepresence"ofa member
ended responsesor qualitativeinterviewing ofa different
racialgroupand (on theother)
withtraditionalsurveydata (Krysan2002a, thosewhichderivefromthe social interac2002b;Krysanand Farley2002).
tionitself.
Much attentionhas been givento the
are candidabout TheoriesofWhites'RacialAttitudes
degreeto whichindividuals
their opinions on racial matters.Recent
researchhas shownthatwhites'survey-based
Despite whites'tendencyto avoid makresponsesto attitudesabout issues such as ingovertly
raciststatements
(especiallyinthe
affirmative
intermarriage,
action,or the sig- companyof AfricanAmericans),it would
be a mistaketo assumethatwhites'
nificanceof discriminationin blacks' life certainly
chances sometimesmay understatetheir racialattitudeshave not changedin thelast
on the content or impact of employers'
stereotypes,but ratheron how students'
stereotypesof theirprofessorsaffectthe
demands of the job. Using in-depthinterviewswithblackand whitefaculty
members,
Harlow examineshow racial stigmaaffects
blackprofessors'
"emotionwork."In particular she considershow students'assumptions
about competencycan create the need for
workor,
additionalimpression
management
emotionallaborthatshieldsproconversely,
fessors'self-concepts
fromnegativepercepHarlowpushestheanalysis
tionsbystudents.
thewaysin whichdouble
further,
examining
blackfemaleprofessors'
jeopardyinfluences
experiences and demands. Her research
pointsto dynamics
thatmayoperatein many
organizationalsettingsor contextswhere
blacks(or membersof otherhistorically
disadvantagedminority
groups)occupyhigherstatus positions than consumersor other
employees who belong to the dominant
group.
323
324
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