04 Compression

Compression
Chapter 9
Based on presentation by Prof. Art Kidnay
John Jechura jjechura@mines.edu
Updated: February 9, 2016
Topics
Introduction
Fundamentals
Thermodynamics of compression
Multistaging
Compressor Efficiencies
Drivers
Compressor Types
Positive displacement compressors
Dynamic Compressors
Capacity and Power Calculations

Capacity
Power Requirements
Comparison of Reciprocating and Centrifugal Compressors

Plant Block Schematic

Topics
Introduction
Fundamentals
Multistaging
Drivers
Compressor Types
Dynamic Compressors

Capacity
Power Requirements

Review of Thermodynamic Principals

1st Law of Thermodynamics Energy is conserved
(Change in systems energy) = (Rate of heat added) (Rate of work performed)
Systems energy contributions
Kinetic energy related to velocity of system
Potential energy related to positon in a field (e.g., gravity)

Internal energy related to systems temperature
o
Internal energy, U, convenient for systems at constant volume
Define Enthalpy, H = U +PV, to describe systems at constant pressure
2nd Law of Thermodynamics

In a cyclic process entropy will either stay the same (reversible process) or will increase
Relationship between work & heat

All work can be converted to heat, but
Not all heat can be converted to work
Common Paths for Heat and Work

Isothermal constant temperature, T = 0
Isobaric constant pressure, P = 0
Isochoric constant volume, V = 0
Isenthalpic no heat or heat, constant enthalpy, H = 0
Adiabatic no heat transferred, Q = 0
Isentropic (ideal reversible) no increase in entropy, S = 0

1st Law for steady state flow

Equation 1.19a (H U for flowing systems)
u 2 g
H
z Q W
2gc gc
For adiabatic, steady-state, ideal (reversible) flow (using WS as positive value)
u 2 g
Ws H
z
2gc gc
P2
u 2 g
VdP
z
2gc gc
P1
P2
Ws VdP
P1

Thermodynamics of Compression
Work depends on path commonly assume adiabatic or polytropic compression
Calculations done with:
PH diagram for H
Evaluate integral using equation of state
Simplest EOS is the ideal gas law
P2
Ws VdP H
P1

PH Diagrams
Ref: GPSA Data Book, 13th ed.

TS Diagram

10

11

12

13
Assume ideal gas: PV = RT
Choices of path for calculating work:
Isothermal (T = 0)
P2
P
dP
RT ln 2
P
P1
P1
P2
Ws VdP RT
P1
Minimum work required but unrealistic
Isentropic (S = 0)
Maximum ideal work but more realistic
Polytropic - empirical
Considers some heat loss and gas nonideality

Work equations
Isentropic (PVg = constant) where g = CP/CV

g1 / g
RT1 g P2

Ws
1
M g 1 P1
Polytropic (PVk= constant) where k is empirical constant > g

k1 / k
RT1 k
P2

Ws
1
M k 1 P1

15
Calculation of g for gas mixture
xC
g
x C
i
p ,i
i V ,i
xC
x C R
i
p ,i
p ,i
Use the ideal gas heat capacities, not the real gas heat capacities
Heat capacities are functions of temperature. Use the average value over the
temperature range

16
Example compression calculation

Example
Have sales gas (assume pure methane)

Initial conditions: 40oF & 100 psig
Desired outlet pressure: 400 psig
Compute work of compression on mass basis
Using PH diagram
Assuming ideal gas and adiabatic compression

17
Example Calculation PH Diagram
H2 = 462 Btu/lb
H1 = 370 Btu/lb
WS = (H2 H1) = 92 Btu/lb

18
Example Calculation Ideal Gas Compression

For methane:
g = 1.3
M = 16
T1 = 40F= 499.67oR
P1 = 100 psig = 114.7 psia

P2 = 1000 psig = 1014.7 psia
R = 1.986 Btu/lb.mol oR
g1 / g
1.3 1.986 499.67 414.7 1.31/1.3
gRT1 P2

Ws
1
1 93 Btu/lb
M g 1 P1
16
1.3
1
114.7


19
Discharge temperature
For ideal gas compression
P
T2 T1 2
P1
g1 / g
For the example problem:

414.7
T2 499.67
114.7

1.31 /1.3
672.19R 212.5F
20
If customer wants 1000 psig
Then pressure ratio of (1015/115) = 8.8
Discharge temperature for this ratio is ~360oF
For reciprocating compressors the GPSA Engineering Data Book recommends

Maximum discharge temperature of 250 to 275oF for high pressure systems AND
Pressure ratios of 3:1 to 5:1
To obtain overall high pressure ratio must use multistage compression with
interstage cooling

21
Multistaging
To minimize work need good interstage cooling and equal pressure ratios in stages.
The number of stages is calculated using

1/ m
P
RP 2
T1
ln P2 / P1
m
ln R P
To go from 100 to 1000 psig with a single-stage pressure ratio of 3 takes 2 (1.98)
stages & the stage exit temp ~183oF (starting @ 100oF)
1014.7
ln
114.7 ln 8.8
1.98
ln 3
ln 3
P 1/ m
T2 T1 2
P1
g1 / g
1014.7 1/2
499.67

114.7
1.31 /1.3
642.59R 182.9F
22
Topics
Introduction
Fundamentals
Multistaging
Drivers
Compressor Types
Dynamic Compressors

Capacity
Power Requirements

23
Number of definitions for compressor efficiencies
Two major definitions
Adiabatic efficiency (also known as the isentropic efficiency):
IS
H S0
H actual
WS0
Wactual
Polytropic efficiency:
g 1 / g
k 1 / k
Polytropic efficiency not necessarily 100% at reversible conditions

24
Why use polytropic efficiency?

More closely follows the actual pressure-temperature path during the
compression
In general P > IS
Can use this to estimate the actual discharge temperature
P2
T2 T1
P1
1 g1

P g

25
Compressor efficiency example

Continuation of example given in the beginning of this section
Actual work required is:
Wactual
WS 0
IS
Assume IS = 80% then:

Wactual
93 Btu/lb
116 Btu/lb
0.80

26
Compressor efficiency discharge temperature

GPSA Engineering Data Book suggests the isentropic temperature change should
be divided by the isentropic efficiency to get the actual discharge temperature
T2,S 0
P
T1 2
P1
g1 / g
P2
P
T2,act T1 T1 1

P g1/ g
T2,S 0 T1 T1 2
1
P
1
g1 / g
1
IS
T2,act
P g1/ g
2

1
P
T1 1 1
IS
27
Topics
Introduction
Fundamentals
Multistaging
Drivers
Compressor Types
Dynamic Compressors

Capacity
Power Requirements

28
Compressor Drivers
Internal combustion engines
Industry mainstay from beginning
Emissions constraints
Availability is 90 to 95%
Electric motors
Good in remote areas
Availability is > 99.9%
Gas turbines
Availability is > 99%
Lower emissions than IC engine
Steam turbines
Uncommon in gas plants on compressors
Used in combined cycle and Claus units
29
Topics
Introduction
Fundamentals
Multistaging
Drivers
Compressor Types
Dynamic Compressors

Capacity
Power Requirements

30
Compressor Types
Two basic types:
Positive displacement compress by changing volume

Reciprocating, Rotary screw, Diaphragm, Rotary vane
Dynamic compress by converting kinetic energy into pressure

Centrifugal, Axial

31
Compressor Pressure and Volume Ranges

Reciprocating Compressors
Workhorse of industry since 1920s
Capable of high volumes and discharge pressures
High efficiency up to 85%
Performance independent of gas MW
Good for intermittent service

Drawbacks
Availability ~90 to 95% vs 99+% for others, spare compressor needed in critical
service
Pulsed flow
Pressure ratio limited, typically 3:1 to 4:1

Emissions control can be problem (IC drivers)
Relatively large footprint
Throughput adjusted by variable speed drive, valve unloading or recycle unless

electrically driven

Reciprocating Compressors - Principle of Operation
Double Acting Crosshead
Single Acting - Trunk Piston
Typical applications:
Typical Applications:
All process services, with any gas and up

to the highest pressures and power
Small size standard compressors for air

and non dangerous gases
Courtesy of Nuovo Pignone Spa, Italy

35
Reciprocating Compressors - Compression Cycle

5
Pressure
p0
Volume
Suction
Discharge

36

Propane Refrigeration Compressors

Propane Compressors with Air-cooled Heat Exchangers

Reciprocating Compressor at Gas Well

2 stage 2,000 HP Reciprocating Compressor
Courtesy of Ariel Corp

Reciprocating Compressors - Main Components

Pulsation Bottles
Crankcase
Cast Iron
Crankshaft
Counterweight
Forged Steel for balancing
Crosshead
Cast Steel
Ballast for
balancing of
inertia forces
Slide Body
Distance Pieces
Pneumatic
Valve
Unloaders
for capacity
control
Forged
Cylinder
Main Oil Pump
Connecting Rod
(die forged steel)

Rod Packing
Oil Wiper
Packing Piston Rod
Piston
Cast
Cylinder
Cylinder Valve
42
Rotary Screw Compressor
Left rotor turns clockwise, right rotor counterclockwise

Gas becomes trapped in the central cavity
The Process Technology Handbook Charles E. Thomas,
UHAI Publishing, Berne, NY, 1997.
Rotary Screw Compressors

Oil-free
Oil-injected
First used in steel mills because handles
Higher throughput and discharge pressures
dirty gases
Max pressure ratio of 8:1 if liquid injected

with gas
High availability (> 99%)

Leads to low maintenance cost
Volumetric efficiency of ~100%
Has two exit ports

Axial, like oil-free
Radial, which permits 70 to 90% turndown
without significant efficiency decrease
Pressure ratios to 23:1
Small footprint (~ of recip)
Tight tolerances can limit quick restarts
Relatively quiet and vibration-free
Requires oil system which filters and cools
Relatively low efficiency

70 85% adiabatic efficiencies
Relatively low throughput and discharge

pressure

oil to 140oF
Oil removal from gas

Oil compatibility is critical
Widely used in propane refrigeration systems,
low pressure systems, e.g., vapor recovery,
instrument air
Rotary Screw Compressor

Oil-Injected Rotary Screw Compressor

Two-stage screw compressor
Courtesy of MYCOM / Mayekawa Mfg

Dynamic Compressors
Two types
Centrifugal
High volumes, high discharge pressures
Axial
Very high volumes, low discharge pressures
Use together in gas processing

Centrifugal for compressing natural gas
Axial for compressing air for gas turbine driving centrifugal compressor

48
Centrifugal compressors
Single stage (diffuser)
Multi-stage
Bett,K.E., et al Thermodynamics for

Chemical Engineers Page 226

49
Two-stage compressor

Centrifugal Compressor

Centrifugal Compressors Issues

Surge
Changes in the suction or outlet pressures can cause backflow; this can become
cyclic as the compressor tries to adjust. The resulting pressure oscillations are
called SURGE
Stonewall
When gas flow reaches sonic velocity flow cannot be increased.

52
Axial
Centrifugal
Reciprocating
Inlet Volume Flow

Rate
Stonewall Line
Surg
e Lin
e
Pressure Head
Surge
Gas Turbine Centrifugal Compressor

Axial
Compressor
Centrifugal
Compressor
Exhaust
Gas
Low Pressure
Gas
Air
Fuel Gas
Combustion
Turbine
High Pressure
Gas
Industrial Gas Turbines
Ref: GPSA Data Book, 13th ed.

59
What is heat rate?

Heat rate is the amount of fuel gas needed (expressed heating value) to produce
a given amount of power
Normally LHV, but you need to make sure of the basis
Essentially the reciprocal of the thermal efficiency

Thermal efficiency
2544
Btu LHV
Heat rate,
hp hr
Example: Dresser-Rand VECTRA 30G heat rate is 6816 Btu/hphr
Thermal efficiency
2544
0.3732
6816
Includes effects of adiabatic & mechanical efficiencies

60
Gas Turbine

Gas Turbine Engine

Gas Turbine Engine
From: F.W.Schmuidt, R.E. Henderson, and C.H. Wolgemuth,
Introduction to Thermal Sciences, second edition Wiley, 1993
Fuel
P2
P1
Compressor
Combustion
chamber
shaft
P3
shaft
Turbine
P4
Atmospheric air
Load
Combustion
products
Assumptions
To apply basic thermodynamics to the process above, it is necessary to make a number of
assumptions, some rather extreme.
1) All gases are ideal, and compression processes are reversible and adiabatic (isentropic)
2) the combustion process is constant pressure, resulting only in a change of temperature
3) negligible potential and kinetic energy changes in overall process
4) Values of Cp are constant

Gas Turbine Engine

P2 = P3
T
Temperature
Patm = P1 = P4
2
4
1
Entropy
wS = -h = -CPT
(9.1 and 1.18)
Note the equations apply to both the compressor and the turbine,since
thermodynamically the turbine is a compressor running backwards
Neglecting the differences in mass flow rates between the compressor and
the turbine, the net work is:
wnet = wt wc = CP(T3 T4) (T2 -T1)
Since (T3 T4) > (T2 T1)
(see T S diagram)
Since wnet is positive work flows to the load

Air & Hot Gas Paths

Gas Turbine has 3 main sections:
A compressor that takes in clean outside air and then compresses it through a series of rotating and
stationary compressor blades
FRESH AIR
EXHAUST
COMPRESSION
MECHANICAL
ENERGY

64
Air & Hot Gas Paths

A combustion section where fuel is added to the pressurized air and ignited. The hot pressurized
combustion gas expands and moves at high velocity into the turbine section.
FRESH AIR
EXHAUST
COMBUSTION
COMPRESSION
MECHANICAL
ENERGY

65
Air & Hot Gas Paths

A turbine that converts the energy from the hot/high velocity gas flowing from the combustion
chamber into useful rotational power through expansion over a series of turbine rotor blades
FRESH AIR
EXHAUST
COMBUSTION
EXPANSION
COMPRESSION
TURBINE
MECHANICAL
ENERGY

66
GT - Principle of Operation
Theoretical Cycle
Fuel Gas
Combustion
Chamber
~650 - 950F
3
2
1
Air
~1800 2300F
Axial
Compressor
Exhaust
Gas (~950F)
Temperature
F
3
Real Cycle
2
Centrifugal
Compressor
H.P./L.P. Turbine
Simple Cycle Gas Turbine
Entropy
Ideal Cycle Efficiency

id= 1- (T4-T1)/(T3-T2)
= 1 (P1/P2)(g-1)/ g
Modeling Gas Turbine with Aspen Plus
Basics to tune model

Combine heat rate & power output to determine the fuel required
Determine the air rate from the exhaust rate
Adjust adiabatic efficiencies to match the exhaust temperature
Adjust the mechanical efficiencies to match the power output
68
Topics
Introduction
Fundamentals
Multistaging
Drivers
Compressor Types
Dynamic Compressors

Capacity
Power Requirements

69
Centrifugal Compressors vs. Reciprocating Compressors

Centrifugal
Reciprocating
Constant head, variable volume
Constant volume, variable pressure
Ideal for variable flow
Ideal for constant flow
- MW affects capacity
+ MW makes no difference
++Availability > 99%
- Availability 90 to 95%
+ Smaller footprint
- Larger footprint
- IS = 70 75%
+ IS = 75 92%
CO & NOx emissions low
Catalytic converters needed
- Surge control required
++ No surge problems
++Lower CAPEX and maint.
++Fast startup & shutdown
(maint cost ~1/4 of recip)

70
Topics
Introduction
Fundamentals
Multistaging
Drivers
Compressor Types
Dynamic Compressors

Capacity
Power Requirements

71

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Compression

Capacity and Power Calculations

Comparison of Reciprocating and Centrifugal Compressors

Plant Block Schematic

John Jechura jjechura@mines.edu

Capacity and Power Calculations

Comparison of Reciprocating and Centrifugal Compressors

Review of Thermodynamic Principals

Potential energy related to positon in a field (e.g., gravity)

Internal energy, U, convenient for systems at constant volume

Define Enthalpy, H = U +PV, to describe systems at constant pressure

2nd Law of Thermodynamics

Relationship between work & heat

Common Paths for Heat and Work

John Jechura jjechura@mines.edu

1st Law for steady state flow

John Jechura jjechura@mines.edu

John Jechura jjechura@mines.edu

Ref: GPSA Data Book, 13th ed.

John Jechura jjechura@mines.edu

John Jechura jjechura@mines.edu

John Jechura jjechura@mines.edu

John Jechura jjechura@mines.edu

Minimum work required but unrealistic

John Jechura jjechura@mines.edu

Isentropic (PVg = constant) where g = CP/CV

Polytropic (PVk= constant) where k is empirical constant > g

John Jechura jjechura@mines.edu

John Jechura jjechura@mines.edu

Example compression calculation

Have sales gas (assume pure methane)

John Jechura jjechura@mines.edu

Example Calculation PH Diagram

WS = (H2 H1) = 92 Btu/lb

John Jechura jjechura@mines.edu

Example Calculation Ideal Gas Compression

P1 = 100 psig = 114.7 psia

John Jechura jjechura@mines.edu

For the example problem:

John Jechura jjechura@mines.edu

For reciprocating compressors the GPSA Engineering Data Book recommends

John Jechura jjechura@mines.edu

The number of stages is calculated using

Capacity and Power Calculations

Comparison of Reciprocating and Centrifugal Compressors

Polytropic efficiency not necessarily 100% at reversible conditions

John Jechura jjechura@mines.edu

Why use polytropic efficiency?

John Jechura jjechura@mines.edu

Compressor efficiency example

Assume IS = 80% then:

John Jechura jjechura@mines.edu

Compressor efficiency discharge temperature

John Jechura jjechura@mines.edu

Capacity and Power Calculations

Comparison of Reciprocating and Centrifugal Compressors

Capacity and Power Calculations

Comparison of Reciprocating and Centrifugal Compressors

Positive displacement compress by changing volume

Dynamic compress by converting kinetic energy into pressure

John Jechura jjechura@mines.edu

Compressor Pressure and Volume Ranges

John Jechura jjechura@mines.edu

John Jechura jjechura@mines.edu