1.

AXIAL STRESS
What is known as Axial (or Normal) Stress, is defined as the force perpendicular to the cross sectional
area of the member divided by the cross sectional area. Or

So axial stress is really the 'pressure' in a solid member. Now the question becomes, how much 'pressure' can a
material bear before it fails.

2. BENDING STRESS
Stress developed by the dead weight (pipe, insulation, fluid, fittings, valves, and other component) &
external loading such as wind, earthquake etc.
Sb = I (Mb / Z)
Sb = Bending stress
I = SIF
Mb = Resultant bending moment
Z = Section modulus
Since the Axial Stress (tension and compression) and the Shear Stress (vertical and horizontal), which
develop in a loaded beam, depend on the values of the Bending Moments and the Shear Forces in the
beam. Determining the axial stress - which is often known as the Bending Stress in a beam; and
determining the shear stress - often called the Horizontal Shear Stress
In Diagram 1 we have shown a simply supported beam loaded at the center. It deflects (or bends) under
the load.

In Diagram 2, we have shown the left end section of the beam. As discussed previously, when examining bending
moments, horizontal forces act on the cross sectional face of the beam section. We have shown only the
horizontal forces along the top and bottom in Diagram 2a, but the forces act across the whole cross section as
shown in the side view in Diagram 2b. The horizontal forces decrease from maximum at the outer edges to zero

at the neutral axis (an axis running through the centroid of beam cross section).

While the formula above was derived for the maximum stress, it actually holds for the stress at any point in the
beam cross section and is known as the Flexure Formula.
Flexure Formula:

My/I

Stress, Strain & Hooke's Law - II

In our first topic, Static Equilibrium, we examined structures in which we assumed
the members were rigid - rigid in the sense that we assumed that the member did
not deform due to the applied loads and resulting forces. In real members, of
course, we have deformation. That is, the length (and other dimensions) change
due to applied loads and forces. In fact, if we look at a metal rod in simple tension
as shown in diagram 1, we see that there will be an elongation (or deformation)
due to the tension. If we then graph the tension (force) verses the deformation we
obtain a result as shown in diagram 2.

In diagram 2, we see that, if our metal rod is tested by increasing the tension in the rod, the deformation
increases. In the first region the deformation increases in proportion to the force. That is, if the amount of force
is doubled, the amount of deformation is doubled. This is a form of Hooke's Law and could be written this way: F
= k (deformation), where k is a constant depending on the material (and is sometimes called the spring
constant). After enough force has been applied the material enters the elastic region - where the force and the
deformation are not proportional, but rather a small amount of increase in force produces a large amount of

deformation. In this region, the rod often begins to 'neck down', that is, the diameter becomes smaller as the rod
is about to fail. Finally the rod actually breaks.
The point at which the Elastic Region ends is called the elastic limit, or the proportional limit. In actuality, these
two points are not quite the same. The Elastic Limit is the point at which permanent deformation occurs, that is,
after the elastic limit, if the force is taken off the sample, it will not return to its original size and shape,
permanent deformation has occurred. The Proportional Limit is the point at which the deformation is no longer
directly proportional to the applied force (Hooke's Law no longer holds). Although these two points are slightly
different, we will treat them as the same in this course.
Next, rather than examining the applied force and resulting deformation, we will instead graph the axial stress
verses the axial strain (diagram 3). We have defined the axial stress earlier. The axial strain is defined as the
fractional change in length or Strain = (deformation of member) divided by the (original length of member) ,
Strain is often represented by the Greek symbol epsilon(), and the deformation is often represented by the
Greek symbol delta(), so we may write: Strain
(where Lo is the original length of the member)
Strain has no units - since its length divided by length, however it is sometimes expressed as 'in./in.' in some
texts.
As we see from diagram 3, the Stress verses Strain graph has the same shape and regions as the force verses
deformation graph in diagram 2. In the elastic (linear) region, since stress is directly proportional to strain, the
ratio of stress/strain will be a constant (and actually equal to the slope of the linear portion of the graph). This
constant is known as Young's Modulus, and is usually symbolized by an E or Y. We will use E for Young's modulus.
We may now write Young's Modulus = Stress/Strain, or:

. (This is another form of Hooke's Law.)

The value of Young's modulus - which is a measure of the amount of force needed to produce a unit deformation depends on the material. Young's Modulus for Steel is 30 x 106 lb/in2, for Aluminum E = 10 x 106 lb/in2, and for
Brass E = 15 x 106 lb/in2. For more values, select: Young's Modulus - Table.
To summarize our stress/strain/Hooke's Law relationships up to this point, we have:

The last relationship is just a combination of the first three, and says simply that the amount of deformation
which occurs in a member is equal to the product of the force in the member and the length of the member
(usually in inches) divided by Young's Modulus for the material, and divided by the cross sectional area of the
member. To see applications of these relationships, we now will look at several examples.
3. TORSIONAL STRESS
Stress developed due to the twisting of a piping component is torsional stress.
Mt = Mt / 2Z
Mt = Torsional stress.
Mt = Torsional movement
Z = Section modulus

Z = Section modulus
I = Moment of Inertia
4. Longitudinal stress or Principal stress?
Longitudinal Stress (SL) developed due to pressure, weight, and other sustained loads, or Caused by axial force
loading, longitudinal bending and pressure. Which shall not exceed Sh (Hot allowable stress)
SL = (PDi / 4t)
SL = Longitudinal stress
P = Internal pressure
Di = Internal diameter
t = Thickness of pipe

The longitudinal stress may be found by equating the force due to internal gas/fluid pressure
with the force due to the longitudinal stress as follows:
P(A) =
(A'); or P(3.1416 * R2) =
(2 * 3.1416 * R * t), then canceling terms and
solving for the longitudinal stress, we have:
= P D / 4 t ; where
P = internal pressure in cylinder; D = dia of cylinder, t = wall thickness

5. Circumferential stress or Hoop stress?

Circumferential Stress acts on aline perpendicular to the longitudinal and radial stress. This stress tends to
separate the pipe wall in circumferential direction, caused by internal pressure
S = (PDi / 2t)
S = Circumferential stress
P = Internal pressure
Di = Internal diameter
t = Thickness of pipe
the transverse stress, often called the hoop stress, we use the same approach, but first cut
the cylinder lengthwise as shown in Diagram 2.

We once again equate the force on the cylinder section wall due to the internal pressure with
the resistive force which develops in walls and may be expressed in terms of the hoop stress,
. The effective area the internal pressure acts on may be consider to be the flat cross
section given by (2*R*L). So we may write:
P(A) =
(A'); or P(2*R*L) =
(2*t*L), then canceling terms and solving for the hoop
stress, we have:
= P D / 2t ; where
P = internal pressure in cylinder; D = dia of cylinder, t = wall thickness
6. What is meant by radial stress?
Acts on a line from the center of pipe radially through the pipe wall. This stress is compressive stress
acting on the pipe id, caused by internal pressure or tensile stress caused by vacuum pressure.
7. What is meant by expansion stress?
Stresses developed due to displacement.
8. What is Youngs modulus of elasticity?
E = stress / strain
So E - decreases with increase in temp.
Lower the value of E higher the system flexibility, & lower the stress
9. What is meant by allowable stress?
As per ANSI B 31.3
Allowable stress = Tensile strength / 3
Allowable stress = 2 / 3(Yield strength)
Plants designed to B31.3 generally have a life of 20 to 30 years.
As per ANSI B 31.1
Allowable stress = Tensile strength / 4
Plants designed to B31.1 generally have a life of 40 years. This is due to the difference in FOS used in
these codes. B 31.3 uses a 3 to 1 FOS, where as in B 31.1 uses a 4 to 1 FOS.

10. What is meant by allowable stress range?

SA = f (1.25SC + 0.25Sh)

when SL > Sh

&
SA = f [1.25(SC + Sh)-SL] when SE > SA
SA = Allowable stress range
SE = Computed displacement stress range
f = Cyclic factor up to 7000 cycles, f = 1, also known as stress range reduction factor, which decreases as no. Of
cycle increases.
SC = Allowable stress at cold condition

Sh = Allowable stress at hot condition

11. What is liberal allowable stress?

It is the submission of allowable expansion stress range and the difference between hot allowable stress
& highest sustained stress at each point,
SA = f [1.25(SC + Sh)-SL]

12. What are the formulae for code stress (calculated) for sustained condition?
As per B31.3
SL = PD / 4tM + [{(Ii Mi) 2 + (IO MO) 2} 0.5] / Z < = Sh
P = Max. Internal pressure
D = Outside diameter
tM = Minimum wall thickness.
Ii = In plane SIF
IO = Out plane SIF
Mi = In plane Bending Moment
MO = Out plane Bending Moment
Z = Section modulus.
Sh = Hot allowable stress.
As per B31.1
SL = PD / 4t + (0.75 I Mb) / Z <= Sh
P = Max. Internal pressure
D = Outside diameter
t = Nominal wall thickness.
I = SIF
Mb = Resultant Bending Moment due to sustained load
Z = Section modulus
Sh = Hot allowable stress.
13. What are the formulae for code stress (calculated) for thermal condition?
As per B31.3
SE = {(Sb) 2 + 4(St) 2} 0.5 < = SA
As per B31.1
SE = I MC / Z <= SA
Sb = Resultant Bending stress = [{(Ii Mi) 2 + (IO MO) 2} 0.5] / Z
St = Resultant torsional stress = Mt / 2Z
Mt = Torsional moment
Mc = Resultant moment due to thermal expansion
Z = Uncorroded Section modulus
SA = Allowable stress range = f (1.25SC + 0.25Sh)
14. What is meant by SIF?
This is the factor by which circumferential stress exceeds longitudinal stress in any component.
It is of two type:- 1) In-plane, 2) Out-plane
SIF of some most commonly used components..
1) Weld neck flange
1.0,
2) Slip-on flange
3) Socket weld flange
1.3,
4) Lap-joint flange
5) Threaded flange
2.3,
6) Corrugated pipe
7) Reducer
1.0,
8) Butt weld joint
9).
0.0,
10)..
0.0,
11)..
0.0,
12).
0.0,
13).
0.0,
14)..
0.0,

1.2,
1.6,
2.5,
1.0,

15. Compare SIF for various Tees & Elbows?

1) Elbow
2) Mitre bends
3) Tees
4) Branch welded
to fittings

16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

What
What
What
What
What

Out-plane
In-plane
0.75 / h 2/3
0.9 / h 2/3
2/3
2/3
0.9 / h
0.9 / h
0.9 / h 2/3
I + 1/4
0.9 / h 2/3

0.9 / h 2/3

is meant by flexibility factor?

is meant by flexibility characteristics?
are the advantages & disadvantages of flexibility method of stress analysis?
are the advantages & disadvantages of stiffness method of stress analysis?
temperature is the basis of stress analysis?
21 O C / 70 O F

21. What are the formulae for skirt expansion?

l = L T
l displacement,
L Length of skirt
co-efficient of thermal expansion
T temperature difference
For every one meter there is a drop of 180 OC approximately.
22. What does frictional load mean?
Load developed due to friction between pipe and support.

The force of friction is a common but complex force. The exact method by which friction works is still a topic of great
scientific interest but we can make some general statements about it. We do know that it arises from the electromagnetic
forces between atoms and molecules at the surfaces of objects.

We can build a simple model of the friction force that is useful in many situations. The model friction force has the
following properties:

There are two types of frictional force. The force of static friction and the force of kinetic friction.
The direction of the static frictional force is along the contact surface and opposite in direction of any applied
force.

The magnitude of the static friction force is given by

The direction of the kinetic frictional force is opposite the direction of motion of the object it acts on.
The magnitude of the kinetic friction force is given by

The coefficients of friction depend on the nature of the surface.

The frictional force is nearly independent of the contact area between the objects.
The kinetic friction force is usually less than the maximum static friction force.

The plot below of the frictional force vs. the applied force illustrates some of the features of the frictional force.

Note that the frictional force equals the applied force (in magnitude) until it reaches the
maximum possible value sN. Then the object begins to move as the applied force exceeds
the maximum frictional force. When the object is moving the frictional force is kinetic and
roughly constant at the value kN, which is below the maximum static friction force.
The table below summarizes the main characteristics of the frictional force.
Static Friction

Kinetic Friction

Symbol

fs

fk

Direction

opposite direction of applied force

opposite direction of object's motion

Magnitude

< sN

kN

23. What are the factors depending upon frictional factor?

Frictional factor depends upon,
Material of support
Nature of contact surface

Independent of contact area

24. What are the friction factors values of following cases?

1) PTFE to steel: = 0.1
2) Steel to steel: = 0.3
3) Steel to concrete: = 0.4
25. Why the allowable loads and moments on fired heaters are less?
The cross section of a fired heater is a square. The load bearing capacity of a square c/s is always less
than the circular c/s since the stress are not distributed uniformly.

26. What are all the factors depending loop dimensioning?

Loop provides the necessary leg of a piping in a perpendicular direction to absorb the thermal
expansion. It is safer than expansion joint but takes more space.
Material of pipe
Temperature of line
Expansion co-efficient
Modulus of elasticity
Allowable stress range
Diameter of line
Thickness of pipe
27. Rotating & static equipment standard?
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)

Heater
C. COMPRESSOR
R. COMPRESSOR
STEAM TURBINE
AIR-FIN COOLER
C. PUMP
R. PUMP
LARGE OD TANK

: API 560, NEMA SM-23

: API 617 (1 X ALLOWABLE)
: API 618 (1 X ALLOWABLE)
: NEMA SM-23 (1 X ALLOWABLE)
: API 661 (3 X ALLOWABLE)
: API 610
: API 676
: API 650

28. What is the difference between variable & constant spring hanger?
Spring hangers: Set of reactions as required to check for piping reaction to imposed stresses due to static and
dynamic loads.
Selection of spring hanger should be done at operating condition only.
Variable spring hangers:
Recommended for vertical deflection up to 4 for non-critical system, & up to 2 for critical system.
Cold load = Hot load (vertical movt. x Spring rate)
% Variability = (Hot load Cold load) x 100 / Hot load
Constant spring hangers:
Recommended for vertical deflection greater than 4 & used in case of critical system.
Travel should be equal to actual travel + 20% excess, but should not be less than 25mm.

29. What are all the factors required to specify variable spring hanger?
Hot load, Cold load, Vertical movement & its direction, Horizontal movement, Spring rate, Load
variation, Hanger basic model,
30. What are all the factors required to specify constant spring hanger?

Hot load, actual travel, total travel, Hydro-test load, direction of travel, Pre-set pin locking position,
Hanger basic model.
31. What are all the metals used to manufacture springs?
50 Cr. V4, DIN 17221 / 735 A or En 47, BS 970 part V of 1972
32. How to decide without analysis a line can be safe?
Without analyzing the less critical system, checking can be done with empirical formulae, known as
simplified method
i.e.
DY / (L-U) 2 208. 3
D= Pipe OD in mm,
Y= Total expansion to be absorbed by pipe
L= Actual Pipe running between two anchors.
U= Imaginary straight line connecting anchors. [(X 2 + Y 2 + Z 2) 0.5]
But this cannot be used for jacketed piping, in case of change in pipe diameter, other than steel lines,
When numbers of cycle more than 7000.
33. What is the expansion rate of steel?
For CS = 0.0115 mm / m / OC
For SS = 0.0165 mm / m / OC
34. What is Thermal Bowing?
It is the temp difference, which exists between top of pipe & bottom of the pipe.
Likely to happen in LP steam, Vapour line prone to condense, etc.
dT= T PIPE TOP T PIPE BOTTOM
35. What is the formula for calculating thermal force?

Fthermal = E Ametal area

36. What is Bourdon- effect?
Expansion of a pipe due to internal pressure is known as Bourdon-effect. Bourdon effect causes
straight pipe to elongate and bends to open up translationally along a line connecting the curvature end
points.
It is of two type: a) Translational & b) Rotational
Translational & Rotational effect on bend may apply for bends that are formed or rolled from straight
pipe, where the bend c/s will be slightly oval due to the bending process.
For forged and welded fittings, where the bend c/s can be considered essentially circular, only
Tranlational bourdon shall apply.
For FRP pipe Translational bourdon effect is considered.
37. What are Codes?
Codes are the minimum requirements for design materials, fabrication, erection, testing & inspection
of a piping system.
38. What are standards?
Standards are the design & construction rules, and requirement of individual piping element
(component).
39. What is Basic engineering?
Are the
40. What is Detail engineering?
To achieve process.

41. What are IBR rules?

Boilers > any vessel known as Boiler if having capacity more than 22.7 ltrs and used for generating
steam.
IBR line > 3.54 kg/cm 2.
ID size > 254 mm.
42. How SIF relates with thickness of fittings?
SIF depends upon the Flexibility factor (k) & Flexibility characteristic (h)
For elbow:- h= T R1/ (r2) 2
43. What are Live load, Dead load and Dynamic loadings?
Live load: consists of weight effect, and includes weight of content like snow-loads, ice-loads, or any
other occasional / temporary loads
Dead load: consists of weight of Piping, valves,
Dynamic loads: Includes Impact forces, wind forces, seismic vibrations, discharge loads.
44. Why stresses are not checked in operating condition?
B 31.3 uses stress to evaluate two distinct and separate modes of failure Collapse & Fatigue.
Operating stress does not measure either of these two. So stresses are not checked in operating conditions.
45. Mention limitation of Caesar II?
Caesar II cant analyze duct line or very low thickness line if D/t ratio is more than 100

46. What is WRC 107 & limitation of WRC 107?

WRC 107 only computes local stresses around attachments to cylinders & spheres (vessel).
Dv/dn = 2 to 20 &
Dv/tn 50
47.

What is WRC 297 & limitation of WRC 297?

WRC 297 calculates flexibility of cylinder-to-cylinder intersections & also computes the stresses in the
nozzle and the vessel.
& is used for cylindrical nozzle on cylindrical vessel, strictly not for spheres.
dn/Dv 0. 5
20 < Dv/Tv 2500
20 dn / tn 100
d\T >5

48. Thrust force calculation of PSV & flow Orifice?

F thrust = (K+0.2) x P x A
K = cp/ cv; constant, P = Set pressure + 1 bar, A = orifice\ opening c\s area
49. Thrust force calculation of expansion bellow?
Boilers >
50. How do you calculate support stiffness?

51. What are the different types of Air fin cooler?

Forced draft type: tube bundles located on the discharge side of fan
Induced draft type: tube bundles located on the suction side of fan

52. Explain Column piping with its different support arrangement?

Forced draft type: tube
53. Difference between partial & full jacketing?
Partial jacketing: - When a line is jacketed only in straight run of pipe except its fittings & components.
Where-as in Full jacketed line jacketing is being done in straight pipe as well as its fittings &
components.
54. How do u provide loops in jacketed pipe?

Forced draft type: tube bundles located on the discharge side of fan

55. Draw a layout for compressor piping system? Single stage as well as two-stage compressor?

56. What is the latest version of B31.3?

Edition 2004

57. What is to be checked in Flange leakage/stress calculation & what r the different factors involved in it?
Checking is done against which code?
There are mainly two ways of checking Flange leakage/stress.
1) Equivalent pressure method: - Flange allowable pressure rating as per B16.5 / equivalent
pressure,
Which much be greater than one,
2) As per ASME SECT VIII DIV 1 (According to A93 APPENDIX S)
58. Which is the weakest point in flange joint? Define different points of flange failure?

59. WRC-107 checks against which code?

Forced draft type: tube bundles located on the discharge side of fan

60. WRC-107 checks against which code?

Forced draft type: tube bundles located on the discharge side of fan

61. What do you do to check an equipment nozzle?

Forced draft type: tube bundles located on the discharge side of fan

62. How do you go for pump analysis? How many cases will be there in case of two pumps?

Forced draft type: tube bundles located on the discharge side of fan

63. Flow of information from / to stress?

Forced draft type: tube bundles located on the discharge side of fan

64. How many options are there to make any pump safe?

Forced draft type: tube bundles located on the discharge side of fan

65. Different types of modeling Expansion bellows?

Forced draft type: tube bundles located on the discharge side of fan