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G. Shackshaft, B.Eng., Ph.D., Mem. I.E.E.E., C.Eng., F.I.E.E., O.C. Symons, B.Sc.Tech., and J.G. Hadwick, C.Eng., M.I.E.E.
Indexing terms:
Abstract
The paper is concerned with the derivation of a load model for use in studies of power-system dynamics and with
the parameters to be used in such a model. It describes some system tests in which small voltage disturbances were
imposed on a power-station auxiliary system and on consumer loads. The objectives of the tests were to determine
the important factors in the power/voltage response of loads and to explore the possibility of determining the load
composition and characteristics from such tests. The parameters obtained from the analysis of the small-disturbance
tests on the power-station auxiliary system are used in an attempt to simulate a large disturbance to that system.
List of symbols
Introduction
down, so the load becomes remote from the generation and the capability to study the stability of the load itself is required.
The above mentioned factors have caused the CEGB to carry out
several investigations of load behaviour. One such investigation, which
is reported herein, was carried out with the co-operation of the South
Wales Electricity Board and had the declared objectives of determining
the important factors in the power/voltage response of loads and to
explore the possibility of determining the load composition and
characteristics from such tests. The tests involved imposing small
changes of voltage, within the statutory voltage limits (6%), at
various supply points and measuring the changes of active- and
reactive-power demand.
In order to obtain an appreciation of how loads behave under disturbed conditions, some exploratory tests were carried out on the
auxiliary load of one generator at the Rogerstone power station,
where the load composition and some of the motor characteristics
were known. Tests were then carried out at six bulk supply points, two
of which could be generally described as industrial, two as domestic
and two as mixed; the results obtained at one of each of the supply
points covered by these general descriptions are presented and analysed
in this paper. It is emphasised that these are 'general descriptions' and
that they do not influence the analysis presented in this paper; the
results show that these descriptions do not reflect the determined
composition and characteristics of the loads.
2
2.1
J32kV
Llaniarnam
66kV
busbar
coupler
)r
'"genera toFf"|
auxiliary
i
, system'
i
Paper 7904 P, first received 4th November 1976 and in revised form 24th March
1977
Dr. Shackshaft and Mr. Symons are, and Mr. Hadwick was formerly, with the
System Technical Branch, Planning Department, CEGB, Sudbury House,
15 Newgate Street, London EC1A 7AU, England. Mr. Hadwick Is now with the
Generation Development & Construction Division, CEGB, Barnwood, Gloucs.
CL4 7RS, England
66kV
415V
Fig. 1
in the system under test were locked to prevent interference with the
results.
Table 1 gives the main characteristics of the bulk supply points at
which the results of the tests are reported herein. At each supply
point a number of test series (A,B,C etc.) were carried out, and at
each supply point the series were timed to give a comparison between
morning, evening and night loads;at two points the tests were extended
to give a comparison between weekday and weekend loads.
Each test series took about one hour to complete, and, although
each was timed to avoid periods of rapidly changing load, there was
some natural variation of the load during each series; however, this
was not large enough to invalidate any of the tests. Each test series
consisted of several individual tests involving both positive and negative step changes of the supply voltage.
tap 8
2.3
'O 923
IOI7
tap 2
P = I77MW
0=28 4MVAr
33 kV
P=I6 OMW
Q=-l8-4MVAr
V = I-Olp.u.
system
p=33-7MW
0= IO O MVAr
load
Test measurements
P=
Q=
Fig. 2
V=
(vR-vY)iR+(vB-YY)rB
(vRiB-vBiRyj3
[2/3(F
2
y
VRVB)V
(1)
(2)
(3)
2.2
IB '
Test results
3.1
Table 1
MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF BULK SUPPLY POINTS
Type of supply
point and test
series
kV
Industrial
A Friday morning
B Friday evening
C Friday night
D Sunday morning
2x 60
132/33
Mixed
A Sunday morning
B Sunday evening
C Sunday night
D Monday morning
E Monday evening
2 X 45
Domestic
A Wednesday morning
B Wednesday evening
C Wednesday night
2x 60
716
132/33
132/33
Previous
winter
peak
load
Timing of test
series
finish
start
Load
during test
series
(percentage
of previous
winter peak)
1005
17-42
0123
1115
10-56
18-37
01-57
11-45
%
64
63
56
74
11-20
17-27
00-59
11-41
17-50
12-29
1818
01-42
12-32
18-30
56
32
18
69
51
09-39
1716
00-49
11-32
18-12
0202
49
41
23
MW
484
30-4
98-2
3.1.1
The overall response of the auxiliary system, i.e. from the initial
condition to the new steady-state condition, is also shown. It reveals
a negligible overall response of active power and only a small response
of reactive power to changes of voltage magnitude, and zero overall
response of both active and reactive power to changes of voltage phase
angle.
The above step and overall responses are typical of an inductionmotor group and were to be expected, since only about 3% of the
auxiliary load was composed of static load, i.e. lighting, heating,
battery charging etc. Had the load been entirely static load, responsive
to the square of voltage, its response would have been as shown by the
broken lines of Figs. 3,4 and 5. The main differences between motorand static-load responses are as follows:
(a) The overall active power response to voltage-magnitude changes
is significant for static loads but negligible for motor loads.
(b) The step response of reactive power to voltage-magnitude changes
is much greater for motors than it is for static load.
(c) The step response of active power to voltage phase-angle changes
is large for motor load, whereas for static load it is zero.
The average initial conditions, step responses, overall responses and
transient responses for all the tests conducted at Rogerstone power
station are given in Table 2; these parameters described in greater
detail in Section 3.1.2.
>*
O 94-
3.1.2
IO
I-O2-
I-O2-,
i-O-
IO -
O-98-
o 98-
>
O-96-
o 96-
O-94 -
o 94
I
OS
OS
IO
3O
3O
A 2OQ.
6
a
0.
OS
time, s
Fig. 4
IO-
OS
IO
I
l-O
Fig. 5
Response of power-station auxiliaries to step change of phase angle of Response of power-station auxiliaries to step changes of both magnitude and phase angle of voltage
voltage
PROC. IEE, Vol. 124, No. 8, AUGUST 1977
717
Table 2
MEASURED AVERAGE INITIAL CONDITIONS AND RESPONSES
2
4
5
3
1
T/
2-95
1-94
dP
30
dv
4-1
13-9
dp
overall
response
dQ_
dP
step response
initial conditions
Supply point
and test series
10
transient
response
Tn
dV
dV
22-9
1-8
ms
80
Hz
2-5
P.S. auxiliaries
1015
Industrial
A
B
C
D
101
101
101
101
311
306
27-2
360
91
7-5
81
8-5
56
59
52
66
85
80
72
66
129
114
119
119
48
47
45
61
45
40
46
44
180
180
180
160
1-7
1-9
1-7
1-8
Mixed
A
B
C
D
E
101
101
100
101
100
16-9
9-8
5-4
211
15-4
2-7
0-3
0-3
5-9
2-7
45
23
17
53
43
24
5
18
47
27
45
24
21
76
63
30
21
9
35
28
18
12
12
33
18
50
50
80
40
2-7
2-5
2-7
30
Domestic
A
B
C
100
100
100
47-8
401
22-2
7-5
1-6
-1-6
109
98
63
87
79
65
155
102
79
62
64
39
67
43
28
50
50
50
2-3
2-7
2-7
time, s
O-5
-,- O-O6
5.-004
3-O-2
Ci
^002
>-O-4
-O-6
X * "
| I M
X X X X X X X
-2
-4
-2
CL
6 2
-4
O-5
-6
I-O
1-5
Fig. 6
Example of response at bulk supply point to step decrease of voltage
Fig. 7
Example of response at bulk supply point to step increase of voltage
test result
XXX computed result
test result
XXX computed result
to the step change of voltage phase angle that occurs when one transformer is switched out. Thus, the averaging process allows one to
separate the active-power response to voltage-magnitude changes from
its response to voltage phase-angle; this is a key feature of the
analysis.
Table 2 gives the average responses obtained for the individual
test series. Columns 1, 2 and 3 give the initial conditions; columns
4, 5 and 6 give the step responses of the active and reactive powers to
voltage magnitude and phase angle changes (the response of the reactie power to phase angle changes is zero); columns 7 and 8 give the
overall response, i.e. from initial conditions to new steady state, of the
active and reactive powers to voltage-magnitude changes (the overall
response of both to phase angle changes is zero); columns 9 and 10
give the main features of the transient response (see Fig. 6 for
example), Tn is the time constant of decay of the reactive power
transient and / is the oscillation frequency of the active power.
the test series an additional test was carried out in which an approximate 6% voltage depression was imposed on the load, with the above
mentioned automatic tap changers in service.
In all these tests, the load changed to a new level immediately after
the disturbance, stayed at this new level for about one minute, and
then recovered to its initial level in a fairly linear manner during the
next minute.
3.2
4.1
42
6-
Pirt Qm
P,Q
dQ
dP
not from the step response of the reactive power, as is usually done.
The problem with the latter step response is that it is distorted by
saturation effects in motor and transformer steel.
The only main parameter which does not line up with the known
characteristics of the auxiliary system is the inertia constant. The
total inertia calculated from the response tests is 7-5 MWs and is to
be compared with the measured value (obtained from run-down tests)
of about 22'5 MWs. The calculated value is obtained from consideration of the frequency of oscillation of the active power as a
result of the step change, and it is clear that if motors are present that
do not respond at near this 'natural' frequency, their inertia will not
be revealed. Examination of the individual motors shows that there
are two groups of motors (primary-air and induced-draft fans) which
account for two-thirds (15-7 MWs) of the total inertia, but which only
compose about one-quarter of the total motor capacity. The natural
frequency of these two groups is about 1 Hz, and it seems certain that
their inertia has been lost in the calculation; the sum of their inertia
and the calculated value is close to the total measured value of
22-5 MWs. Therefore, it seems that the calculation of the inertia constant will reveal a minimum value for the inertia of a group, but that
some motors, particularly those with large inertia constants, may not
be detected.
4-
PsQs
2-
Xm
Qsot
<
< Re
<
c
<D
dV
dV
<
saturation
characteristic
0-06
-O-O2
O-O6
-002
O-O2/" '
-O-O6-O-O4
0060-04
O-O2O-O4
/o-O4
-2- 7
R.
*\/V\^-
Xs
7 -4
a
-6-
2-1
Q...-
1/
dP
dO
o-c
-O-O2
O-O6-O-O4 /
O-O2 0 0 4
O-O6
O-O2 O-O4
O-O2
dV
-2-
O 9
dV
II
-4
-4-
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Model used to represent load
a Equivalent circuit
b Saturation characteristic for use in a
Table 3
PARAMETERS FOR USE IN EQUIVALENT LOAD MODEL IN FIG. 9
Supply point
and test series
P.S. auxiliaries
Industrial
A
B
C
D
10
1-91
2-95
0-63
10
10
10
10
23-8
23-3
22-3
30-2
8-1
6-5
7-4
7-7
6-9
6-9
4-5
5-2
0-6
0-6
0-3
0-4
29-0
27-4
30-9
28-6
12-8
111
13-4
7-9
10
1-0
1-0
10
10
151
10-4
4-5
17-3
14-0
2-4
01
0-3
5-4
2-6
1-8
-0-8
0-9
3-4
1-4
01
01
0
02
01
131
11-8
11-6
22-2
12-9
10
10
1-0
31-0
320
19-5
4-3
16-8
81
2-7
3-2
0-8
01
64-8
430
316
Qs
Qm
dQsat
dV
0-44
X,
(x 1000)
(X 1000)
523-6
10
Ri
70-4
(x 1000)
5-87
37-7
39-8
40-4
311
11-9
12-6
141
15-4
0170
0-822
0506
0034
10-3
0-9
12-7
16-4
130
64-6
961
211-5
52-7
70-0
32-3
1530
48-0
19-7
29-5
4-4
31-7
31-2
509
11-3
13-9
(X 1000)
11
12
H
(x 1000)
3-23
7-85
0249
0-261
0-287
0-348
97-9
74-8
84-8
70-2
Mixed
A
B
C
D
E
180
2-23
15-6
84-6
18-9
9-9
_
61
14-8
0-89
2-57
24-4
13-7
3-4
3-7
4-5
0-77
0-86
621
102
341
41
Domestic
A
B
C
08
-1-7
0-8
-4-5
100
40-6
719
4.3
66kV
66kV
33kV
132 kV
o.h. line
auxiliary
system
Fig. 10
tests on auxiliaries at
Independently of the tests described above, some large disturbance tests had been conducted previously on the auxiliary system
of one generator at the Rogerstone power station. The tests involved
the application of 3-phase faults on the supply system to the auxiliary
motors, and the main purpose of the tests was to obtain test results
which could be used to check the validity of computer programs for
the analysis of large disturbances. The system configuration, which
was specially arranged for the tests to avoid disturbance to consumer
loads, is shown in Fig. 10. Details of the test system can be found in
Reference 4.
The voltage, current, active and reactive powers (measured at
3-3 kV) supplied to the motors before, during and after a 3-phase fault
of 0 2 2 s duration at the fault point shown in Fig. 10, are shown by
the solid lines in Fig. 11.
In order to investigate the ability of the parameters obtained from
step response tests to simulate large disturbances, and, particularly, in
an attempt to learn more about the significance of the inertia constant, two studies were done using the loading conditions and electrical
parameters obtained from the step response tests. In one study the
inertia constant obtained from these tests was used, and in the other
the known value was used; the results of the studies are shown by the
broken lines in Fig. 11.
Both studies produce results which are of the right order with, it is
considered, the best overall agreement with the test result being given
by the study with the inertia constant obtained from the step response
tests. As in the case of the step response tests, it may be that because
the heavy motors do not swing violently, they do not influence the
overall results much, and that the lighter motors, which constitute
Table 4
Supply point
and test series
Industrial
A Friday morning
B Friday evening
C Friday night
D Sunday morning
Mixed
A Sunday morning
B Sunday evening
C Sunday night
D Monday morning
E Monday evening
Domestic
A Wednesday morning
B Wednesday evening
C Wednesday night
720
Loading
MW
MVA
Inertia
constant on
motor
capacity
base
MWs/MVA
30-7
30-2
26-8
35-4
76
74
83
85
24
26
17
15
21
20
18
16
33
35
25
33
4-7
3-7
4-7
4-4
16-7
20-7
15-4
89
108
83
84
91
11
-8
17
16
9
7
2
5
12
7
26
18
28
20
2-2
2-1
20
2-0
47-8
40-1
22-2
65
80
88
35
20
12
22
20
17
76
42
16
2-8
Total
load at
1 p.u.
voltage
Static
load
9-6
5-5
Motor
load
Motor
capacity
of
motors
20
2-0
The tests to measure the longer term response of the loads through
operation of automatic tap changers are not significant in overall
system response because, normally, the automatic tap changers on the
132/33 kV transformers would be set to operate much more quickly
than those on the lower-voltage transformers. The tests show that it
will not be necessary to lock the tap changers on the lower-voltage
transformers in any future tests.
The attempt to simulate a large disturbance to the auxiliary system,
using the parameters obtained from small disturbances, is inconclusive.
However, the results are such as to encourage further work in this area.
Acknowledgments
References
1 HORE, R.A.: 'Advanced studies in electrical power system design' (Chapman &
Hall, 1966)
2ASHMOLE, P.H., BATTLEBURY, D.R., and BOWDLER, R.K.: 'Powersystem model for large frequency disturbances', Proc. IEE, 1974, 121, (7),
pp. 6 0 1 - 6 0 8
3 DUNLOP, R.D., EWART, D.N., and SCHULZ, R.P.: 'Use of digital computer
simulations to assess long-term power system dynamic response', IEEE Trans.,
PAS-94, pp. 850-857
4 HUMPAGE, D.W., DURRANI, K.E., and CARVALHO, V.F.: 'Dynamicresponse analysis of interconnected synchronous - asynchronous machine
groups', Proc. IEE, 1969, (12), pp. 2015-2027
5 DAVIES, M., MORAN, F., and BIRD, J.I.: 'Power/frequency characteristics
of the British grid system' ibid., 1959, 106A, (26), pp. 154-162
time, s
Concluding remarks
9.1
(4)
Qm =
V Bm-VVmYmsm(<Pm+9)
(5)
Qs = V BS
PQ
(7)
PmQm
G j B
t
Ps Q s
v/e
Fig. 12
9.2
(8)
Y
Q = V2(Bm + BS)- VV
' m Ymi ;in(0 m -f 0 )
(9)
in which
(10)
Ym =
OO
Y8 = (G2S+B2Y
When the transients resulting from the step change have died
away, the load group settles down to a new steady state. The overall
responses of real and reactive power as a function of the voltagemagnitude change are given in Table 2; changes to the phase angle of
the voltage do not influence the final steady state. The static load in
the model of Fig. 12 responds as a function of voltage-magnitude
squared and the active-power demand of the motor is virtually independent of the voltage magnitude. Therefore, from eqn. 6,
(12)
(13)
The active power of the group responds to step changes in both the
magnitude and phase angle of the supply voltage and the following
equations apply:
dP
bP
(14)
=V-d
(15)
0)
(16)
= VVmYm sin (0 m + 0)
(19)
and
P
G8) - Vm Ym cos
(18)
2 dV
(20)
= P P
* m
and
^
dV
hence
in which
bP
- = 2V(G
2P.
V
dV
Yv
+ Bs)-VmYmsin(<t>m
(17)
+ 0)
However, at this point in the analysis, all the parameters on the right
hand side of eqn. 17 are known and the values of dQ/dV obtained by
substitution are given in column 5 of Table 5. These values differ from
the measured values given in Table 2, and thus an error in the linear
circuit of Fig. 12 is indicated; the difference is attributed to the
magnetic saturation of transformer and motor steel and is shown in
column 6 of Table 5.
nSim =
and
(21)
yv 1 y
m
(22)
Qs = Q-Q
The values of Ps, Qs, Pm and Qm obtained from the above are given in
columns 7 to 10, respectively, in Table 5.
The approximate overall response of the reactive power of the
group, using the above parameters and assumptions, is given by
dQ
=
dV
(23)
2(QS-Qm)
and the response of the model for each test series is given in column 11
of Table 5. These responses differ from the measured results and the
differences, which are shown in column 12 of Table 5, are attributed
to magnetic saturation.
Given the parameters in Table 5, purely routine mathematical
manipulation is required to obtain the individual parameters for use
in Fig. 9; these are given in Table 3. The saturation characteristic used
in the model in Fig. 9. is that obtained above from the overall
response.
Table 5
SUPPLY-POINT PARAMETERS OBTAINED FROM STEP AND OVERALL RESPONSES
1
10
dQ
dQsat
dV
step
response
5-4
Ps
Qs
Pm
Qm
1-31
2-95
11
dQ
12
0-63
dV
overall
response
1-36
dQsat
dV
overall
response
0-44
<t>m+6
P.S. auxiliaries
1-70
13-8
1-2
15-4
dV
step
response
17-5
Industrial
A
B
C
D
1-64
1-59
1-60
1-65
84-3
79-2
71-3
65-6
25-0
28-4
24-8
301
92-2
85-8
78-5
73-0
102-2
94-1
87-3
82-2
26-8
19-9
31-7
36-8
24-2
23-7
22-7
30-8
8-5
6-9
7-8
81
6-9
6-9
4-5
5-2
0-6
0-6
0-3
0-4
160
12-6
151
15-4
290
27-4
30-9
28-6
Mixed
A
B
C
D
E
1-12
0-94
1-24
1-33
1-15
26-4
6-2
190
47-9
29-6
28-0
13-2
11-6
31-8
27-6
26-2
5-2
18-3
51-9
29-7
29-1
5-5
18-6
58-2
32-4
15-9
18-5
2-4
17-8
30-6
151
10-6
4-5
17-7
140
2-6
0-2
0-3
5-7
2-6
1-8
-0-8
0-9
3-4
1-4
01
01
0
0-2
01
4-9
0-2
0-4
10-8
51
131
11-8
11-6
22-2
12-9
Domestic
A
B
C
1-42
1-35
1-29
88-0
810
67-6
61-2
57-9
40-8
94-5
80-6
63-4
1020
82-2
61-8
53-0
19-8
3 1 0 4-3
32-0 0-8
19-5 - 1 - 7
16-8
81
2-7
3-2
0-8
2-2
0
-3-6
64-8
430
316
Supply
722
v
V
m YJm
Gm+Gs
Bm+Bs
17-2
01
9.3
(Xm+Xt)
2nf0R2
(24)
/o
4n(Xm+Xf)H
(25)
Errata
BRYCE, G.W., AGNEW, P.W., FOORD, T.R., WINNING, D.J., and
MARSHALL, A.G.: 'On-site investigation of electrohydraulic
governors for water turbines', Proc. IEE, 1977, 124, (2), pp. 147-153:
Aft
AA
(1 -a) -5(1
ot(l-sTE)
-a)TE+saTM-05s2TMTE
ETC34P
1
1 +s!6
0-03 (1 + s ) ( l + s l 6 0
723