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NEURAL PLASTICITY
Part 1. Plasticity in the Developing Nervous System
Prenatal Maturation
BEVERLY BISHOP
The origin and development of the nervous system is a gradual process of cell
division, migration, and specialization. The establishment of neural circuits
requires cell-to-cell recognition. Despite an unceasing search, the mechanisms
accounting for this cell-to-cell recognition remain unknown. In contrast, the
stages in prenatal development from conception to birth and the sequence of
events in the formation of the nervous system are known in considerable detail.
The major purpose of Part 1 is to review the ontogeny of the spinal nervous
system, with emphasis on the continuous remodeling phenomena that occur as
a result of changes in neuronal activity or in the biochemical milieu. The
underlying rationale for focusing on the details of prenatal maturation is to
identify and analyze cell-to-cell interactions and to define their critical periods.
This type of information is expected to provide explanations for previously
unexplained developmental phenomena, to improve ability to diagnose and
prognosticate in newborns with congenital anomalies of the nervous system,
and to provide therapists with insights for improving treatment techniques for
neonates with neurological deficits.
Key Words: Nerve growth factors, Nerve tissue, Nervous system, Neuronal plasticity.
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CELLULAR DIFFERENTIATION
In April 1981, the US Senate held hearings on a
bill to marshal "scientific" evidence as to the moment
when human life begins. Geneticists Leon Rosenberg
forcefully argued that there is "no scientific evidence
which bears on the question of when actual human
life begins."4 He pointed out that a biologist asks the
question differently: rather than asking about when
life starts, he asks about when cellular differentiation
starts. When do cells become irreversibly committed
to their fates? Where, when, and how do neurons
evolve?5, 6 A central question in the analysis of embryonic development is how a collection of cells that
seems to have equal potential for diversifying along
multiple pathways do so in a precisely timed and
patterned sequence to give rise to the complex CNS.7
Biologists discovered nearly a century ago that a
young embryo of the sea urchin, when separated into
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two parts at an early stage, would survive and develop
into two normal embryos. This observation suggested
that at the outset, all cells have equal potential to
develop in a variety of ways. This concept became
dogma until it was shown that the separation of the
egg had to be in a particular plane of the embryo for
two embryos to develop.8 This finding generated important questions concerning mechanisms of cellular
specialization, and the answers awaited discoveries in
molecular biology.
It is now known that cellular determination begins
before fertilization and is mediated through molecular
substances inhomogeneously distributed in the cell's
cytoplasm.8 That is, copies of certain of the mother's
genesmaternal messenger RNAs (mRNAs)exemplify such substances. They function as morphogenetic determinants, become activated after fertilization, and, presumably, alter gene expression. These
substances direct the synthesis of a class of proteins,
called histories, that bind to DNA. Once synthesized,
the histones move to the cell nucleus where sections
of DNA wrap around them to form a structure resembling a string of beads. This process of cell determination starts with the first cell divisions, a time when
there is an enormous burst of histone synthesis. Differentiation of cell types is thought to be selective
suppression of gene activity. Although these discoveries by the molecular biologists are surprising and
exciting, grave difficulties still face the biologist in his
attempts to unravel the developmental secrets of
higher organisms.
ONTOGENY OF THE
SPINAL CORD
After the ova is fertilized, cell division begins. By
the end of one week, there are 100 cells, some of
which already display some specialization. All of the
nervous system evolves from a special sheet of cells,
the neural plate, which is a thickening of the dorsal
ectoderm of the blastula (Fig. 1). Formation of the
neuroectoderm depends on the underlying mesoderm.
If the mesoderm is transplanted to another region of
the embryo, it induces neuralization at the new site.
Presumably, the mesoderm releases some inducing
factor that directs the neuronal specificity. Furthermore, as gastrulation proceeds, the underlying mesoderm exerts its inductive effects in a posterior-anterior
direction so that regions giving rise to the spinal cord
develop earlier than the forebrain. Neural plate cells
are sufficiently specified to have already lost their
ability to become other than neural cells. Cell division
within the neural plate is sufficiently rapid to cause
an upward expansion of the neural plate forming the
neural folds, followed by a progressive invagination,
which forms the neural groove. Ultimately, the neural
folds fuse to form the neural tube, the primordium of
the spinal cord.9"11
1123
TRANSIENT SYNAPSES
SPECIFICATION OF NEUROTRANSMITTER
1124
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phenomena are essential for the formation and maintenance of neural connections and are involved in the
regulation of structural, metabolic, functional, and
reparative properties of both the presynaptic and
postsynaptic elements. In fact, these cell-to-cell interactions are what endow the nervous system with its
plasticity.
Neuron-target cell interactions. Early in embryonic
development, ventral horn neurons and neural crest
neurons undergo migration and formation of their
peripheral processes before establishing contact with
other cells.9 Yet, cell-to-cell interaction is required for
their complete differentiation. A neural crest sensory
neuron must establish contact with appropriate receptor cells in the periphery before its central process,
directed toward the spinal cord, can establish connections with second-order neurons. The ventral motoneuron must establish contact with the developing
muscle cells in the periphery before dendritic formation is triggered.37 Again, only those neurons that
establish contact with their target cells in the periphery survive and undergo further differentiation. The
motoneuron provides an excellent example of these
cellular interactions. The arrival of a motor axon to
a muscle cell triggers many changes in the neuron
that are thought to be signaled by retrograde axonal
transport.30
Dendritic formation. Once the motoneuron receives
a signal from the periphery that contact with the
target cell is established, dendritic processes begin to
appear.37 First an apical dendrite appears on the soma
opposite the axon, then basal dendrites appear, and
soon the entire cell body is covered with these cellular
extensions that provide an expanded surface area for
synaptic formation. This great dendritic expansion is
as if the neuron were stretching out myriad of fingers
1125
Fig. 4. Stages in end-piate formation. Upper leftsmall portion of a skeletal muscle cell shown before motor
innervation. Middle leftgrowth cone on a terminal branch of a motor axon arrives at its target, the muscle cell.
Lower leftsynapse formation. Note the absence of extrajunctional acetylcholine receptors but the dense sequestration and synthesis of them at the end-plate. Rightcross-section of mature neuromuscular junction showing
anatomical intimacy of the presynaptic ending, the postsynaptic membrane, and the Schwann cell.
acetylcholinesterase synthesis.36, 40 This enzyme rapidly hydrolyzes acetylcholine into acetate and choline
and thereby terminates transmitter action. Innervation of the muscle is essential not only for this enzyme
induction but also for the maintenance of the enzyme's activity throughout life. One of the first events
to follow denervation of a muscle is a rapid decline
and eventual disappearance of acetylcholinesterase
activity.41
End-plate formation. A terminal branch of an axon
terminates on the skeletal muscle cell near the middle
of the fiber, on a site of acetylcholine receptor clusters.42 It has been suggested that this clustering of
acetylcholine receptors on the primitive muscle cells
acts like a target for the outgrowing growth cone.
Once the nerve has made functional contact with the
muscle fiber, the density of acetylcholine receptors
under the nerve terminal rapidly increases as newly
synthesized receptors are inserted into the membrane
(Fig. 4). At the same time, the density of extrajunctional receptors decreases.36 Ultimately, the muscle
membrane lying under the nerve terminal, the motor
end-plate, becomes very specialized structurally and
functionally.35, 36 The motor end-plate undergoes a
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massive infolding that increases the surface area
fivefold or tenfold, permitting a tremendous accumulation of acetylcholine receptors. In fact, end-plate
sensitivity to acetylcholine becomes a thousandfold
greater than that of extrajunctional membrane because of this dense packing of the acetylcholine receptors.43 Unlike extrajunctional membrane, the endplate region is electrically inexcitable.44-46 Its depolarization results from channels opening in response to
acetylcholine or acetylcholine agonists. The integrity
of the end-plate depends on intact innervation. Denervation causes a marked decrease in acetylcholine
receptors at the end-plate zone and an increase in
extrajunctional receptors, making the entire surface
of the muscle cell once again chemically excitable.47, 48
It remains so until innervation is reestablished.
Polyneuronal innervation. When the outgrowing axons originally arrive at the muscle, more than one
may adhere to the muscle and initiate synaptogenesis.
Yet, in the adult mammalian neuromuscular system,
each muscle fiber has one, and only one, end-plate.
Polyneuronal innervation has been documented histologically and physiologically in the immature neuromuscular system,49-51 but the mechanisms underlying the postnatal retraction of the superfluous endings
remain to be elucidated.52, 53
Myelination of peripheral axons. Initially, all outgrowing axon processes are without myelin. It is not
until growth cones arrive at target cells that
"nonneural" Schwann cells start synthesizing the
myelin sheath.54 Because no myelin-stimulating factor
has yet been identified, it is hypothesized that myelinreceptive axons serve as the trigger for myelin formation.55, 56 As shown in Figure 5A and B, one
Schwann cell contributes one segment of the myelin
sheath, which is a multilayered spiral wrapping
around the axon.57 Gaps between these myelin segments are the nodes of Ranvier and are the only sites
where the axonal membrane is exposed to extracellular fluid. The myelin sheath has a high lipid-toprotein ratio, making it an excellent electrical insulator and endowing the internodal segments with high
electrical resistance.
Nodes of Ranvier. Before myelination, the voltagesensitive sodium channels essential for the action
potential are distributed all along the axon.58 The
consequence is that impulse propagation is the slow,
continuous type in which an action potential moves
along the axon like a wave (Fig. 6A). (In mammals,
the conduction velocity might be as low as 1 m/sec.)
With the development of the myelin sheath, the sodium channels become concentrated at the nodes.59 It
is not known whether this remodeling of the nodes is
an increased synthesis of sodium channels at the
nodes, or a redistribution of existing channels, or
both.52 Thus, the internodal segments lose their elec-
Fig. 5A and B. Formation of myelin sheath on a peripheral nerve. A. End view of a cut axon showing how
processes of one Schwann cell envelop the axon. B. With
development, the Schwann cell adds successive spiral
layers of myelin to the axon at any given internode. The
layers become more and more compacted.
trical excitability at the same time the density of
sodium channels is increasing at the nodal regions.
By the time the axon is fully myelinated, local circuit
current in advance of an action potential flows
through the axonal membrane only at the nodes,
where it causes excitation60 (Fig. 6B). Hence, impulse
Fig. 6A and B. A. Continuous conduction before myelination. Note that local circuit current involves the entire
length of the axon. Hence, conduction velocity is very
slow. B. Saltatory conduction in a fully myelinated axon.
Na+ channels cluster at the nodes of Ranvier, and internodes become devoid of Na+ channels. Hence, local
circuit current flows through the membrane only at the
nodes. Since only the nodes undergo the time-consuming
action potential process, conduction velocity is rapid.
1127
Specification of spinal connections. The development of the spinal cord is characterized by the formation of appropriate synaptic connections among
Changes in conduction velocity. Axonal conduction neurons. These connections are established in a spevelocity increases with time in both cutaneous and cific sequence and provide the neural substrate for
that make their appearance in the premuscle fibers. At least two factors contribute to this the reflexes 64,
65
natal
period.
Spinal reflexes, once established, are
increase. One is the transition from continuous to
66
58, 61
permanent
and
inflexible.
Spinal cord development
saltatory conduction as just described.
The second
characterized by increments in
factor is the increase in fiber diameter with age. This occurs in stages, each 64,
65, 67-69
increase in fiber diameter causes a decrease in the synaptic development.
The differentiation of motoneurons precedes that
internal longitudinal resistance of the axon and an
of
sensory neurons.67, 68 Therefore, the efferent limb
increase in the spatial spread of local circuit current.
Hence, the rate of impulse propagation is increased. of the reflex arc develops before it receives synaptic
During development of the myelin sheath, succes- connections (Fig. 7). However, there is no unanimous
sive layers of myelin are added to the axon (Fig. 5B). agreement as to whether synaptic connections are
At the same time, the axon grows in diameter, causing formed first between motoneurons and interneurons
the myelin membrane to become more and more or between sensory fibers and interneurons. Bodian,
compacted.62 This compaction, added to its high lipid studying the spinal cord of fetal monkeys, found that
content, accounts for myelin's excellent insulating the first central synapses to be formed were those
inputs and small excitproperties. Furthermore, myelin lacks machinery for between the primary64,afferent
65
Subsequently, these inneractive transport and has a very low turnover rate, atory interneurons.
making it one of the body's more stable tissues. vated interneurons made synaptic connections on the
Formation of the myelin sheath in peripheral nerves dendrites of ipsilateral flexor motoneurons. Hence,
is largely complete at birth. Myelination within the the reflex arc subserving the withdrawal or flexion
CNS is far from complete at birth (as will be discussed reflex is among the first spinal reflexes to be established. Consequently, this reflex is primitive, inin Part 2).
grained, and powerful in both prenatal and postnatal
life. Because development of reflex connections proESTABLISHMENT OF NEURAL
ceeds in a rostral-to-caudal direction, arm withdrawal
CIRCUITRY
occurs earlier than leg withdrawal in the fetus.
The central processes of the primary afferent fibers
During CNS development, complex but extraordi- innervating muscle spindles grow into the ventral
narily specific anatomical and functional connections gray to establish synapses directly on those motoneuare established among neurons. Just as the ventral rons innervating the homonymous muscle. The
horn neurons send out axons to make connections monosynaptic reflex can be elicited in kittens even
with the muscles, other immature neurons are sending before birth,30 but it differs from that of the adult cat
out axons to make specific connections with other because maturation of gamma motoneurons occurs
neurons, often in distant parts of the nervous system. after maturation of alpha motoneurons.
How the developing neurites find their way to the
Descending fibers from the higher segments of the
correct synaptic targets is not known. If these neurons cord and brain terminate on interneurons and project
are subjected to abnormal conditions, such as lesions, toward the motoneurons. At about the same time,
viruses, drugs, or altered neural inputs, the patterns inhibitory interneurons in the spinal gray are evolvof their connections may be drastically altered, re- ing. As they mature, their axons make synaptic convealing their high degree of plasticity at this stage of nections on the soma of motoneurons. In addition,
development. These plastic responses to experimental axon collaterals of interneurons begin to grow across
manipulation, however, can be evoked only over a the midline to establish connections in the contralatlimited period. This critical period, during which eral ventral horn. Hence, the neural substrate for
extragenetic factors may alter the development of reciprocal inhibition, crossed extension, and intersegneurons, is unique for each subpopulation of neu- mental reflexes is established early. Connections from
rons.1 The visual system has lent itself very well to descending fibers and interneurons become increasthe study of the critical periods of its various com- ingly more complex. From this complexity emerges
ponents,63 and examples of experiments revealing progressively greater motor capability and increasevidence about them will be described in a later part ingly more versatile patterns of motility.
of this series. Once the critical period for a population
This developmental sequence in the spinal cord has
of neurons has past, these neurons have become served as a model for the development of other CNS
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Fig. 7. Sequential stages (1 through 4) in the formation of spinal neural circuits in the developing spinal cord. The
insets at left show that a sensory neuron of the dorsal root ganglion starts out as a bipolar cell. As it matures, the
peripheral and central processes come closer and closer until the mature primary sensory neuron is a pseudounipolar
cell. (Adapted from Bodian.64)
1129
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38. Rees RP: The morphology of interneuronal synaptogenesis:
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Enzyme Induction
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40. Rubin LL, Schuetze SM, Weill CL, et al: Regulation of acetylcholinesterase appearance at neuromuscular junctions in
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41. Lmo T, Slater CR: Control of junctional acetylcholinesterase
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SUGGESTED READINGS
Reviews under References Cited
Trends in Neuroscience, August 1981
AUDIOVISUAL MEDIA
Illustrated Lectures in Neurophysiology. By B. Bishop
(Available from Audio Visual Medical Marketing, Inc,
404 Park Ave S, New York, NY 10016). Course 706
or Book 6.
Lecture No.
31. Morphogenesis: Origin and Development of Body
Organs
32. Neurogenesis: Origin and Development of the Nervous System
33. Myogenesis: Origin, Differentiation, and Development of Skeletal Muscle
34. Synaptogenesis: Formation of Synapses
35. Development of Nerve Circuits
36. Neurotrophism: Neuron-Target Cell Interactions
1131
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