The Phase-Shift Oscillator:

The following figure shows the circuit diagram of the phase-shift oscillator. Oscillation occurs at
the frequency where the total phase shift through the three RC feedback circuits is 180. The
inversion of the op-amp itself provides the another 180 phase shift to meet the requirement for
oscillation of a 360 (or 0) phase shift around the feedback loop.
Rf

+V
C1

C2

C3

0V

Vo
R1

-V

R2

R3

The feedback circuit in the phase-shift oscillator is shown in the following figure. In the
derivation we assume,
R1 = R2 = R3 = R and C1 = C2 = C3 = C
C

Vi

R I2

I1

Using mesh analysis we have,

(R 1 / jC)I1 RI 2 Vi
RI1 (2R 1 / jC)I 2 RI 3 0

... ... (1)

... ... (2)

RI 2 (2R 1 / jC)I 3

... ... (3)

I3

In order to get V0, we must solve for I3 using determinants:

I3

( R 1 / jC )
R
Vi
R
( 2 R 1 / j C ) 0
0
R
0
( R 1 / jC)
R
R
( 2 R 1 / j C)
0

0
R
( 2 R 1 / jC )

R Vi
(R 1 / jC) ( 2R 1 / jC) 2 R 2 R 2 (2R 1 / jC)

R Vo

Now,

V0 RI 3
R3

Vi
Vi
(R 1 / jC) ( 2R 1 / jC) 2 R 2 R 2 ( 2R 1 / jC)

R
( R 1 / jC)(2R 1 / jC) R 2 ( R 1 / jC) R 2 ( 2R 1 / jC)
1
2
(1 1 / jRC )(2 1 / jRC) (1 1 / jRC) ( 2 1 / jRC)
1
(1 1 / jRC )( 4 4 / jRC 1 / 2 R 2 C 2 ) (3 2 / jRC )
1
2
2 2
( 4 4 / jRC 1 / R C 4 / jRC 4 / 2 R 2 C 2 1 / j3 R 3 C 3 ) 3 2 / jRC)
1
2
2 2
(1 5 / R C 6 / jRC 1 / j3 R 3 C 3 )
1
... ... (4)
2
2 2
(1 5 / R C ) j(6 / RC 1 / 3 R 3 C 3 )
2

For oscillation in the phase-shift amplifier, the phase shift through the RC circuit must be equal to
180. For this condition to exist, the j term must be 0 at the frequency of oscillation 0.
6 / 0 RC 1 / 30 R 3 C 3 0

6 02 R 2 C 2 1
0
30 R 3 C 3

6 02 R 2 C 2 1 0
02
0
f0

1
6R 2C 2
1
RC 6
1
2RC 6

Now, from the equation (4) we have,

V0
1
1

Vi (1 5x 6)
29
The negative sign results from the 180 inversion by the circuit. Thus, the value of voltage gain by
the RC circuit is,
V0
1

Vi 29
To meet the greater-than-unity loop gain requirement, the closed-loop voltage gain of the op-amp
must be greater than 29.
So, Rf 29 R3

Exercise:

The Colpitts Oscillator:

The following figure shows the circuit diagram of the Colpitts oscillator. Oscillation occurs at the
frequency where the L-C feedback circuits is at resonance.
Rf

+V

R1

L
Vo

V2

C1

C2 V1

-V
L-C feedback circuit
L
C2

C1

Colpitts oscillator
Assuming R1>>XC1 we have the impedance of the L-C circuit,
( jX C 2 )( jX L jX C1 )
Z
( jX C 2 jX L jX C1 )
X C 2 ( X L X C1 )
Z
j(X L X C 2 X C1 )
At parallel resonance the impedance will be maximum and we can write,
X L X C 2 X C1 0
X L X C1 X C 2 ... ... (1)
L 1 / C 1 1 / C 2
1 C1 C 2
L 1 / C 1 1 / C 2
C1C 2
1
1
2
L C1C 2 /(C1 C 2 )
1

LC1C 2 /(C1 C 2 )

where C T

LC T

C1 C 2
C1 C 2

1
2 LC T

Again, the voltage gain of the LC circuit,

jX C1
X C1
V2

V1 jX L jX C1 X L X C1
Here negative sign is for 180 phase shift by the circuit. So magnitude of the voltage gain is,

X C1
X L X C1
X
(from equation (1))
C1
X C2
C
2
C1
For oscillation to sustain, the loop gain must be greater than unity. Therefore, the voltage gain of
the amplifier should be,
1
AV

Rf C1

R1 C 2

Example: Design of OP-AMP Colpitts Oscillator

Design the Colpitts oscillator to produce a 40 kHz output frequency. Use a 100 mH inductor and
an OP-AMP with a 10 V supply.
SOLUTION We know,
CT

1
1

153.8 pF
2
2
4 f L 4 (40 kHz) 2 100 mH
2

For C1 10C 2 , C1 10CT 10 153.8 pF 1538 pF (use 1500 pF standard value)

C2

1
1

(1 CT ) (1 C1 ) (1 153.8 pF) (1 1500 pF)

177 pF (use 180 pF standard value)

1
1
X C2

22 k
2fC 2 2 40 kHz 180 pF
X C2 Z 0 of the amplifier
1
1
X C1

2.65 k
2fC1 2 40 kHz 1500 pF
Since R1 X C1 , we select
R1 10 X C1 10 2.65 k 26.5 k (use 27 k standard value)
C 1500 pF
Now ACL(min) 1
8.33
C2 180 pF
R2 ACL(min) R1 8.33 27 k 225 k (use 270 k standard value)

R3 R1 R2 27 k 270 k 24.5 k (use 27 k standard value)

The OP-AMP full-power bandwidth (fp) must be a minimum of 40 kHz when
V0 9 V and ACL 8.33.
Since f 2 ACL f p , therefore,
f 2 8.33 40 kHz 333 kHz
and
Slew rate, SR 2f pVp 2 40 kHz 9 V 2.262 V/s

The Hartley Oscillator:

The following figure shows the circuit diagram of the Hartley oscillator. Oscillation occurs at the
frequency where the C-L feedback circuits is at resonance.
Rf

+V

R1

Vo

C
L

-V
V2

L1

C
L

M
L2

L1

L2 V1

C-L feedback circuit

M
Hartley oscillator
Assuming R1>>XL1 we have the impedance of the C-L circuit,
( jX L 2 jX M )( jX C jX L1 jX M )
Z
( jX L 2 jX M jX C jX L1 jX M )
(X L 2 X M )( X C X L1 X M )
Z
j(X L 2 X C X L1 2X M )
At parallel resonance the impedance will be maximum and we can write,
X L 2 X C X L1 2X M 0
X L1 X M X C (X L 2 X M ) ... ... (1)
L 1 2 M 1 / C L 2
L1 L 2 2M 1 / C
1
1
2
C (L 1 L 2 2M )
1

C( L1 L 2 2 M )
1
where L T L1 L 2 2M

CL T
1
f
2 CL T
Again, the voltage gain of the C-L circuit,
V2
jX L1 jX M
X L1 X M

V1 jX L1 jX M jX C X L1 X M X C
X L1 X M

X L1 X M X C
X XM
(from equation (1))
L1
X L2 X M

Here negative sign is for 180 phase shift by the circuit. So magnitude of the voltage gain is,
X L1 X M
X L2 X M
L M
1
L2 M
For oscillation to sustain, the loop gain must be greater than unity. Therefore, the voltage gain of
the amplifier should be,
1
AV

Rf L 2 M

R1 L1 M
If the inductors are wound on separate core, then mutual inductance M = 0 and we can write,
Rf L 2

R1 L1

Example: Design of OP-AMP Hartley Oscillator

Design the Hartley oscillator to produce a 100 kHz output frequency with an amplitude of 8 V.
For simplicity, assume that there is no mutual inductance between L1 and L2.
SOLUTION VCC = (V0 + 1 V) = (8 V + 1 V) = 9 V
X L2 Z 0 of the amplifier
Select X L2 1 k
X
1 k
X L2 L2
1.59 mH (use 1.5 mH standard value)
2f 2 100 kHz
L2 1.5 mH

150 H (standard value)

10
10
LT L1 L2 1.5 mH 150 H 1.65 mH

Select L1
Now,
C

1
1

4 2 f 2 LT 4 2 (100 kHz) 2 1.65 mH

1535 pF (use 1500 pF with additional parallel capacitanc e, if necessary)

C stray capacitance

X L1 2fL1 2 100 kHz 150 H 94.2

R1 X L1
Select R1 1 k (standard value)
Therefore,
ACL(min)

L2 1.5 mH

10
L1 150 H

R2 ACL(min) R1 10 1 k 10 k (standard value)

R3 R1 R2 1 k 10 k 909 (use 1 k standard value)

The OP-AMP full-power bandwidth (fp) must be a minimum of 100 kHz when
V0 8 V and ACL 10.
Since f 2 ACL f p , therefore,
and

f 2 10 100 kHz 1 MHz

Slew rate, SR 2f pVp 2 100 kHz 8 V 5 V/s

Wein Bridge Oscillator:

The following figures show the circuit diagram of the Wein Bridge oscillator. Oscillation occurs
at the particular frequency when ac balance is obtained in the Wein Bride. At the balanced
condition of the bridge we can write,
Z 2 V0
Z 4 V0

Z1 Z 2 Z 3 Z 4
Z2
Z4

Z1 Z 2 Z 3 Z 4
( R 2 )(1 / jC 2 ) /( R 2 1 / jC 2 )
R4

( R 1 1 / jC1 ) (R 2 )(1 / jC 2 ) /( R 2 1 / jC 2 ) R 3 R 4
( R 2 )(1 / jC 2 )
R4

( R 1 1 / jC1 )(R 2 1 / jC 2 ) (R 2 )(1 / jC 2 ) R 3 R 4

jR 2 C1
R4

(1 jR 1C1 )(1 jR 2 C 2 ) jR 2 C1 R 3 R 4
jR 2 C1
R4

(1 jR 1C1 )(1 jR 2 C 2 ) jR 2 C1 R 3 R 4
jR 2 C1
R4

2
(1 jR 1C1 jR 2 C 2 R 1C1 R 2 C 2 ) jR 2 C1 R 3 R 4
jR 2 C1
R4

... ... (1)

2
(1 R 1C1 R 2 C 2 ) j( R 1C1 R 2 C 2 R 2 C1 ) R 3 R 4
Since, the right hand side of the above equation is a real term, the left hand side must also be a
real term. So, we can write,
1 2 R 1 C1 R 2 C 2 0
1

... ... (2)
R 1C1 R 2 C 2

From equation (1) we have,

R 2 C1
R4

( R 1 C 1 R 2 C 2 R 2 C1 ) R 3 R 4
R 2 C1
R

4
R 1C1 R 2 C 2 R 3

R 3 R 1C1 R 2 C 2 R 1 C 2

R4
R 2 C1
R 2 C1

... ... (3)

The op-amp along with the two resistors R3 and R4 constitutes a non-inverting amplifier whos
voltage gain is,
R
AV 1 3
R4
Using the of R3/R4 obtained in equation (3) we have,
R1 C2

R 2 C1
This corresponds that the attenuation of the feedback network is,
AV 1

R
C
1 / 1 1 2
R 2 C1

R
C
Therefore, AV must be equal to or greater than 1 1 2 to sustain oscillation.
R 2 C1
Mathematically,

R
C
A V 1 1 2
R 2 C1

R
R
1 3 1 1
R4 R 2

... ... (4)

C
2
C1

R 3 R1 C2

R 4 R 2 C1
For R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C we have,

R3
2
R4
R 3 2R 4
Also from equation (4) we have,
AV 3

From equation (2) we have,

1

RC
1
f
2RC

+V
V0
-V
R1

R3

R2
R4

C2

Feedback network

C1
C1
R1

+V

V0
-V

Wein Bridge

C2

R3

R2
R4

Noninverting
amplifier

Example: Design of Wein Bridge Oscillator

Design the Wein bridge oscillator to produce a 100 kHz output frequency with an amplitude of
9 V. Design the amplifier to have a closed-loop gain of 3.
SOLUTION VCC = (V0 + 1 V) = (9 V + 1 V) = 10 V
For ACL = 3,
Also,
Select,

R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C
R3 =2R4
C1 = 1000 pF (standard value)
C2 = C1 = 1000 pF
1
1

2fC 2 100 kHz 1000 pF

1.59 k (use 1.5 k standard value)
R4 R2 1.5 k (standard value)

Therefore, R

Select,

R3 R4 2 1.5 k 3 k (use 3.3 k standard value)

The OP-AMP full-power bandwidth (fp) must be a minimum of 100 kHz when
V0 9 V and ACL 3.
Since f 2 ACL f p , therefore,

f 2 3 100 kHz 300 kHz

and
Slew rate, SR 2f pVp 2 100 kHz 9 V 5.7 V/s

Reactance
(inductive)

p
C/

R
C

Reactance
(capacitive)

Z
(b)

(a)

(c)

Figure 9.25 A piezoelectric crystal: (a) Symbol, (b) electrical model, and
(c) the reactance function (if R = 0).

9.12 CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS

If a piezoelectric crystal, usually quartz, has electrodes plated on opposite faces and if a potential
is applied between these electrodes, forces will be exerted on the bound charges within the crystal.
If this device is properly mounted, deformations take place within the crystal, and an
electromechanical system is formed which will vibrate when properly excited. The resonant
frequency and the Q depend upon the crystal dimensions, how the surfaces are oriented with
respect to its axes, and how the device is mounted. Frequencies ranging from a few kilohertz to a
few megahertz, and Qs in the range from several thousand to several hundred thousand, are
commercially available. These extraordinarily high values of Q and the fact that the
characteristics of quartz are extremely stable with respect to time and temperature account for the
exceptional frequency stability of oscillators incorporating crystals. Crystal oscillators are used
whenever great stability is required, for example, in communication transmitters and receivers.
The electrical equivalent circuit of a crystal is indicated in Figure 9.25. The inductor L,
capacitor C, and resistor R are the analogs of the mass, the compliance (the reciprocal of the
spring constant), and the viscous-damping factor of the mechanical system. The typical values for
a 90-kHz crystal are L = 137 H, C = 0.0235 pF, and R = 15 k, corresponding to Q = 5,500. The
dimensions of such a crystal are 30 by 4 by 1.5 mm. Since C / represents the electrostatic
capacitance between electrodes with the crystal as a dielectric, its magnitude (~3.5 pF) is very
much larger than C.
If we neglect the resistance R, the impedance of the crystal (Z in Figure 9.25(b)) is given by,
Z Z1 Z 2

Z1 Z 2
Z1 Z 2

( j 1 C / )( jL j 1 C )
jL j 1 C j 1 C /

j
L( 1 LC )
/
C L( 1 LC 1 LC / )

j
2 1 LC
C / 2 1 (1 C 1 C / )
L

j 2 s2
C / 2 p2

(9.64)

11
1
1
= series resonant frequency and p
/ = parallel resonant
LC C
LC
frequency. Equation (9.64) can be written, in terms of reactance, as

Where s

Z jX

j 2 s2
C / 2 p2

(9.65)

Therefore, reactance of the crystal is

X

1 2 s2
C / 2 p2

(9.66)

The plot of Equation (9.66) is shown in Figure 9.25(c). Since C / >> C, p s . For the crystal
whose parameters are specified above, the parallel frequency is only three-tenths of 1 percent
higher than the series frequency. For s p , the reactance is inductive, and outside this
range it is capacitive, as indicated in Figure 9.25(c). In order to use the crystal properly it must be
connected in a circuit so that its low impedance in the series resonant operating mode or high
impedance in the parallel resonant operating mode is selected.
VCC

VCC

RFC

RFC

R1

XTAL

CC
V0

V0
XTAL CC
Q1

Figure 9.26
Crystal-controlled
oscillator using crystal
in series feedback path:
(a) BJT circuit, and (b)
FET circuit.

R2

RE

(a)

CE

RG

(b)

Series Resonant Circuits

To excite a crystal for operation in the series resonant mode it may be connected as a series
element in a feedback path. At the series resonant frequency of the crystal its impedance is
smallest and the amount of (positive) feedback is largest. A typical transistor circuit is shown in
Figure 9.26. Resistors R1, R2, and RE provide a voltage divider stabilized dc bias circuit.
Capacitor CE provides ac bypass of the emitter resistor and the RFC coil provides for dc
bias while decoupling any ac signal on the power lines from affecting the output signal. The
voltage feedback from collector to base is a maximum when the crystal (XTAL) impedance is
minimum (in series resonant mode). The coupling capacitor CC has negligible impedance at the
circuit operating frequency but blocks ant dc between collector and base.

The resulting circuit frequency of oscillation is set by the series resonant frequency of the
crystal. Changes in supply voltage, transistor device parameters, and so on, have no effect on the
circuit operating frequency which is held stabilized by the crystal. The circuit frequency stability
is set by the crystal frequency stability, which is good.
VCC

VCC

RFC

R1

V0

L C

V0
Q1

Figure 9.27
Crystal-controlled
oscillators in parallel
resonant operating
mode: (a) BJT circuit,
and (b) FET circuit.

C1
CB

R2

RE

RG

XTAL

C2

RFC

XTAL

RS

CS

(b)

(a)

Parallel Resonant Circuits

Since the parallel resonant impedance of a crystal is a maximum value, it is connected in
parallel/shunt. At the parallel resonant operating frequency a crystal appears as an inductive
reactance of largest value. Figure 9.27(a) shows a crystal connected as the inductor connected in a
modified Colpitts circuit. The basic dc bias circuit should be evident. Maximum voltage is
developed across the crystal at its parallel resonant frequency. The voltage is coupled to the
emitter by a capacitor voltage divider capacitors C1 and C2.
A Miller crystal-controlled oscillator circuit is shown in Figure 9.27(b). A tuned LC
circuit in the drain section is adjusted near the crystal parallel resonant frequency. The maximum
gate-source signal occurs at the crystal parallel resonant frequency controlling the circuit
operating frequency.
OP-AMP Crystal Oscillator
An OP-AMP can be used in a crystal oscillator as shown in Figure 9.28. The crystal is connected
in the series resonant path and operates at the crystal series resonant frequency. The present
circuit has a high gain so that an output square-wave signal results as shown in the figure. A pair
of Zener diodes is shown at the output to provide output amplitude at exactly the Zener voltage
(VZ).
Rf

V0

100 k
+VCC

R1

VZ

V0

1 k

+
VEE

100 k

VZ

XTAL 0.1 F

Figure 9.28 Crystal oscillator using OP-AMP.