Comparison of reproductive strategies of alien invasive

D. innoxia and D. strammonium in selected areas of the

city of Windhoek
By: Lepaleni E.
200404202

A dissertation submitted to the department of Biological sciences in

partial fulfillment of the requirement of the Bachelor of Science degrees

Faculty of Science
Department of Biological sciences
November 2008
Supervisor: Dr J.K. Mfune

Table of contents
Acknowledgement................................................................................................................. 2
Abstract................................................................................................................................. 3
1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 4
2. Literature review ............................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Descriptions of the Datura strammonium and Datura innoxia ..................................... 8
2.2.1 D. strammonium ....................................................................................................... 8
2.2.2 D. innoxia ................................................................................................................. 8
2.3 Factors that influence or encourage the invasion of the alien invasive species ............ 8
2.4 Problems or concerns of the Datura alien invasive species ......................................... 9
2.5 Preventative measures and eradication of alien invasive species................................ 9
3. Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 10
4. Key questions ................................................................................................................. 10
5. Hypothesis ...................................................................................................................... 10
6. Methodology ................................................................................................................... 11
6.1 Study sites ................................................................................................................ 11
6.2 Data collection and records ....................................................................................... 11
6.3 Data analysis............................................................................................................. 11
7. Results ............................................................................................................................ 12
8. Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 16
Site 1............................................................................................................................... 16
Site two ........................................................................................................................... 17
Relationship between crown width and reproductive structures....................................... 18
Ecological importance of different flowering patterns ....................................................... 18
9. Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 19
10. References.................................................................................................................... 20
11. Appendix ....................................................................................................................... 21

Acknowledgement
Firstly, thanks to the Almighty God for all his guidance and protection during the field work
up to the point of completing the report. Secondly, I would like to thank Dr J.K. Mfune my
supervisor for all the sacrifices and for always being so helpful in all times of need.
Thirdly, a warm thank you to UNAM students Atshikoto Eliaser and Haihambo Isai, for their
accompany and assistance during the field work. Last but not least, thanks to the statistic
department and all colleagues. Finally, more thanks to my family and friends for the words of
courage and motivation during the course of my project. May you all be blessed today and
forever! Thank you so very much

Abstract
D. innoxia and D. strammonium are some of the invasive alien species found in Namibia and belong
to family Solanaceae. Alien species refer to species which are introduced into a new geographical
area where it did not evolve. These species become invasive if they start spreading in ways that are
destructive to human interest and other native fauna and flora. They have different survival strategies
such as the ability to produce vast number and long-lived seeds, fast germination, rapid maturation,
growth and reproduction. The main objective of the study was to determine and compare the density
of reproductive structures of D. innoxia and D. strammonium, and determine their flowering patterns.
Two study sites along the Gammams river in Hochland Park in the Windhoek city were selected
based on the presence of D. innoxia and D. strammonium. Two quadrats, each 10m x 20m were laid
down, and data were collected during three occasions at the interval of two weeks between AprilJune 2008. Total number of buds, flowers, capsules (green and brown intact, green and brown
exploded) on each D. innoxia and D. strammonium, in each quadrat were recorded.
For normality test, Kolmogorov-Smirrnov test was used for buds, flowers, green intact capsules,
green exploded capsules, brown intact and brown exploded capsules (all t=0.00, p<0.05 values) were
obtained. T-test revealed that there was a significant difference between the following at site 1: buds
(t=7.7, df= 264, P < 0.05), flowers (t=8.66, df= 264, P < 0.05), green intact capsules (t=-4.18 df= 264,
P < 0.05), green exploded capsules (t=3.02 df= 264, P < 0.05) and brown exploded capsules (t= df=
264, P < 0.05 4.53). Except for brown intact pods where t=-1.37 P > 0.05, and df=264. This area was
0

located across the tarred road at 22 3415.4S, and 017 0413.7E and Alt: 1663 m ab.s.l) and water
0

was blocked from flowing across. At study site 2 (22 3425.8S and 017 0428.1E and Alt: 1666 m
ab.s.l) the t-test revealed that there was no significant difference between the buds (t = 0.99 df = 338
and P < 0.05.), flowers, (t = 0.23, df = 338 and P < 0.05), green intact capsules (t=0.77 df = 338 and
P < 0.05.), green exploded capsules (t = 2.65 df = 338 and P = 0.05.) and brown intact capsules (t = 1
df = 338 and P < 0.05.). Except only green exploded capsules where t = 3.09, df = 338 and P < 0.05.
There was no correlation between the crown width and the following: buds (r =0.321), flowers (r =
0.239454), green exploded capsules (r = 0.07644656), brown intact capsules (r = 0.178087), and
brown exploded capsules (r = 0.39382), except green intact pods (r = 0.567661) for D. innoxia. For D.
strammonium buds (r = 0.322336995), flowers (r = 0.278430477), green intact capsules (r =
0.267823), green exploded capsules (r = 0.09746044), brown intact capsules (r = 0.349538) and
brown exploded capsules (r = 0.373589).
The study concluded that two species have different densities of reproductive structures produced at
different time intervals which may probably depend on the physical structure and characteristics of
the habitat. On the basis of producing both reproductive structures at the same time and at different
time interval and still contained green leaves and branches, it was concluded that D. innoxia has a

continuous flowering pattern which was not the case with D. strammonium which reproduce, explode
once and dies, while D. innoxia is still flowering.

1. Introduction
Every species has its natural geographical range, some are cosmopolitan and some may be
endemic to specific locations (Brown and Gibson, 1983). Krebs (1994) indicated that,
transplant experiments are carried out to analyze whether the absence of some species at
particular areas is due to poor dispersal ability or other factors such as the failure of the
species to recognize the area as suitable or whether existence of certain efficient predators
or parasites in that area are responsible. During the transplant experiments, individuals are
moved from their native habitats to other areas, where they can be determined if they can
establish there or not.
Humans are responsible for introduction of various species from one areas of their natural
geographic range to new habitats for various reasons including agricultural, scientific, as
well as purely aesthetic beauty or for ornamental purposes. Henderson and Wells (2001)
defined alien species as the species with the ability and potential to establish in new
environments outside its natural distributions, were it occurs as a foreigner species. Alien
invasive are therefore species that human move intentionally or accidentally from their
native locations on to new geographical region and spread in ways that are destructive to
human interest and other native floral and fauna (Campell and Reece, 2005). But, which
areas are more prone to exotic invasions? Bullock et al., (2001) indicated that most studies
have concluded that the cultivated land, land much modified by human practices, protected
national parks, urban industrial areas, and habitats suffering from periodic disturbances are
more at risk. For example, Henderson and Wells (2001) stated that D. innoxia and D.
strammonium are mainly found at the edges of dams, invade riverbeds and mostly disturbed
areas.
Invasive alien species have affected native biota in almost every ecosystem type on earth
because of some unique characteristics they posses, and this became one of the worldwide
concerns. For instance, Bromilow (2001) indicated that D. strammonium produce poisonous
seedlings and human fatalities have been in cases where people have eaten it deliberately
or accidentally. There are three Datura species recorded in Namibia Datura innoxia (the
downy thorny apple), Datura strammonium (Common thorn apple) and Datura ferox. D.
innoxia is the most invasive although D. ferox and D. strammonium are also widespread.

These alien invasive plants belong to the same Solanaceae family and genus Datura, and
little information are known about them (Macdonald et al. 1986). High infestation of D.
innoxia was recorded from Avis dam, section of the Kuiseb river and rivers in the Hoanib
river flood plain (Macdonald et al. 1986). They originated from the south and Central
America and were introduced and dispersed unintentionally in different regions, including
Namibia (Cowling, Pierce and Richard, 1997).
About 40 species of alien invasive plants have been identified in Namibia such as Nicotiana
glauca, Opuntia species, Lantaria camara, Eucalyptus species and Datura species to
mention a few. Datura species show a world wide distribution, and their infestations are
widespread over the entire Namibia. Datura species are mostly prone to river washes areas
associated with perennial river systems e.g. the Okavango and Caprivi areas as shown by
Macdonald et al (1985). All of the Datura species are non-woody herbaceous plants, with
leafy green and bright pink to white flowers. Their seeds are found in small fruit which is
completely covered with short sharp spines. Their stalks are bristle, leaves are flat and can
either be multi - edged or ovoid (Thomson, 1978). D. innoxia and D. strammonium are
cultivated to obtain leaves and seeds. These plants contain poisonous substances, yet are
used in cigarettes and as smoke candles for asthmatics.
Brown et al. (1985) indicated that the greatest threat of alien invasive species in a given
area is posed by species, which originate from similar habitats in other parts of the world.
Generally, the smaller the number of individuals of alien species introduced into a country,
the smaller are its chances of becoming established as an invasive problem. Therefore, all
efforts at reducing the number of alien species should be regarded as worthwhile even if
total eradication of the species seems impossible Brown et al. (1985).
However, alien invasive species have general special characteristics which make them to
have a world wide distribution. They possess early sexual maturity due to rapid growth and
maturity, high reproductive output such as the production of many pods with vast seeds
even under harsh climatic conditions and other unfavorable conditions (Henderson and
Wells, 1987). Long life of their seeds, high ability to retrieve nutrients and water (H 2O), high
photosynthetic rate, lack of natural predators, pathogens and parasites contributes as well,
thus out-competing the indigenous competitors (Henderson and Wells, 1987). This may
eradicate the indigenous species such as the vegetations in their surrounding which may
change the ecosystem structure. Predators to the eradicated species can migrate to other

areas with no invasions, and humans may also be affected if the floral and fauna species in
their surrounding happens to be disturbed.
Recent studies have shown that Datura species begin reproducing at a very early vegetative
state, independent of the height or width. They begin to produce a bud, which develops into
the flower, beginning at the branch node which later develops into the spine fruit (Jansen,
2001). Some of the Datura species are self fertile (fertilization takes place using its own
pollen) and some are cross pollinated (fertilization of the flower by a pollen from a different
plant of the same species) (Jansen, 2001). Brown et al. (1985) stated that very little is
known about the reproductive strategies of the Datura species. It is important to know more
about the reproductive mechanism of the species, if one is to plan for the proper and
effective eradication strategies.
Greater understanding of their flowering patterns may allow one to determine if it is possible
for species that belong to the same genus and family to have similar or different flowering
strategies. This will help the conservationists, agriculturalists and even the systematists
formulate and initiate possible effective means that will lead to their eradication and or
prevent their manifestation. Again, one may determine not to eradicate it, provided they are
of some economic importance. One may desire to know conditions under which its negative
effects at a given site can be minimized. It is necessary for one to fully understand the
reproductive strategies of the invasive alien species for conservation of biotic diversity which
is one of the main aims of nature conservation authorities (Boyer and Boyer 1988).
The study by Katjirua (2008) indicated that D. innoxia was widely distributed in riverbanks,
disturbed areas and around human settlements in Namibia. Katjirua also indicated that
Datura innoxia is a perennial bushy herbaceous plant with a floral development but
mentioned nothing about the D. strammonium as the study was more on the distribution and
abundance of D. innoxia specifically. Therefore, the project mainly focused on the
reproductive strategies of the invasive alien D. innoxia and D. strammonium, but specifically
on the flowering patterns.

2. Literature review
Human migration has been occurring on large scales for several tens of thousands of years
and they have promoted processes of species transfer within continents, between
continents and nearby islands and between the continents themselves (Brown and Gibson
1983). Leveque and Mounolovu (2003) added that the voluntary or accidental migration of
individuals from one ecosystem to another is relatively a frequent phenomenon. Alien
invasive species can be determined by their biological and attributes to the dispersal
capabilities with the indigenous flora and fauna as shown by Venter (2002).
2.1 Types of Datura species and other alien invasive species in Namibia
Avery et al (1950) indicated that there are about eleven known Datura species such as D.
ferox, D. querlifolic, D. pruinosa, D. leichhardtii, D. meteloides, D. discolor, D. metel, D.
ceratocaule, D. wrightii, D. innoxia and D. strammonium. D. innoxia and D. strammonium
are widely found in Namibia. However, it was again recently found that there are actually
more than 11 Datura species described. These include the D. brugmansia, D. arbovea, D.
aurea, D. candida, D. dolichocarpa, D. fatuosa, D. indica, D. sanguinea, D. suaveolens, D.
vulcanicola, and D. willemsi in addition to the above.
Apart from the Datura innoxia and Datura strammonium, other examples of alien invasive
found in Namibia include the Nicotiana glauca, Opuntia species, Salvinia molest, Prosopis
species, Eucalyptus species. Opuntia ficus indica is the most important Opuntia species
which was introduced as a fodder plant for its edible fruit. Prosopis species were introduced
in Namibia in 1912 as fodder as well as shade trees. High infestation of Prosopis species
occur on municipal land near Windhoek, near Rehoboth, in Swakop river in the NamibNaukluft Park and in the vicinity of the Orange river. Moreover, Nicotiana glauca is one of
the most widespread species in the drier western regions of Namibia and along the length of
the Orange river. It has entered Namibia in horse fodder imported from South America
(Macdonald et al. 1986). Apart from D. innoxia and D. strammonium which are used to
obtain poisonous substances, other types of Datura species have several chemicals which
can be used as drugs in hospitals such as astropine (Thomson, 1978). Astropine is used by
opticians to dilate pupils and by doctors to treat heart and urinary problems. Some herbalists
use it to treat birth and menstrual pains

2.2 Descriptions of the Datura strammonium and Datura innoxia

2.2.1 D. strammonium
The common thorn apple (D. strammonium) is a member of the nightshade family and
sometimes grows wild and in field, and waste places. Its tap root produces a freely
branching, firm round stem 40-100cm in height, thus making it successful in absorption of
water. Moreover, the dark green simple leaves are oval, often triangular and quite large with
deeply incurving toothed margins. They produce unpleasant smell when crushed. From the
leaf axils grow the single flowers, white trumpets 6-10cm in length, opening above a green
calyx. The leaves of D. strammonium produce a repellent smell. Not only that, the fruit is a
spiny capsule, brownish seeds about 3mm long, kidney-shaped and with finely pitted testas,
Thomson (1978). When ripe it opens up to reveal its small black seeds (explodes).
2.2.2 D. innoxia
Datura innoxia (downy thorn apple) is a velvetry-pubescent, grayish shrub up to 2m high
with leaves almost entire margins. The flowers are white and up to 200 mm long, funnelshaped with a diameter up to 120mm. Additionally, the fruits are more than globose, 30 mm
long, densely covered with slender spines less than 10mm long. Apart from that, it has the
similar poisonous properties as D. strammonium and D. ferox, and are easily rooted out or
controlled agronomically when they occur as crop weeds. However, long-lived seeds ensure
problems in subsequent years (Henderson and Wells, 1987).
2.3 Factors that influence or encourage the invasion of the alien invasive species
Many factors influence invasion and spread of alien invasive species. These include
absence of natural enemies, human activities, susceptibility of habitats, lack of awareness
and vigilance and the ability to colonise new areas. Most plants have natural predators that
feed on them. When plants are translocated from their natural habitats to new habitats,
natural enemies are often left behind and there is nothing in their new ecological niche that
can feed on them. This will give opportunity for the alien invasive plants to establish and
reproduce quickly.
Factors such as the broad native ranges promote as well the invasion of alien plants. This
is because species with wide distribution are logically more likely to colonise a wide variety
of habitats with different environmental conditions. Other factors such as the alteration of
habitats by human beings and translocation of plants to new areas as already mentioned
contribute. Increased pollution and clearing create also ideal conditions for aliens to invade.
8

2.4 Problems or concerns of the Datura alien invasive species

Since the Datura species are mainly distributed along rivers, dams, flood plains and human
settlements, their dispersal is mainly by means of waterborne seeds which make control in
the lower reaches of the rivers almost impossible without coordinated action upstream. Alien
invasive species have the ability to re-invade once completely cleared floodplains, and this
still limits the germination of the indigenous species (Macdonald et al. 1986). Again, they
produce vast numbers of seeds as indicated earlier of which 87% germinate, and its seeds
may remain viable in the soil for up to about 20 years Landshell (1927) cited in (Macdonald
et al. 1986). It was indicated that the seeds of D. innoxia have been fatal to young ostriches
Struthio camelus in South Africa, and over 1000 seeds were found in the crop and stomach
of a double banded sandgrouse Pterocles bicinctus Brown et al. (1984) cited in ( Macdonald
1986).
2.5 Preventative measures and eradication of alien invasive species
According to Hunderson and Wells (1987), it is importance for one to note that it is better to
study and eliminate as far as possible the causes of high infestations of alien invasive
invaders if they are to be controlled. However, D. innoxia and D. strammonium alien invasive
species can be prevented from manifestation but, it requires cooperation and collaboration
among governments, economic sectors, and non-governmental organizations. Venter
(2005) showed that prevention, early detection, eradication and control are the major four
steps in fighting against the invasive alien species, as prevention is always better than cure.
Henderson and Wells (1987) further mentioned that possible preventative methods may
include the following: Upgrading soil fertility or the use of clean crop seeds, pasture
management aimed at retaining the natural vegetation cover, and the elimination of waste
areas that act as reservoirs of weed seeds, as well as the considered use of mechanical,
chemical and biological control methods to infestations at an early stage. Macdonald and
Jarman (1985) indicated that other control programs such as the use of chemical agents
such as herbicides, physical means such as selective weeding, burning, cutting, reduction of
human introductions and controlling of animal fodder can be useful.
Herbicide control method involves the use of chemicals for spraying alien invasive plants.
But it works better if the plants are still in their vegetative growth form, or spraying directly on
the flowering structures such as buds and flowers to prevent the high number of seed

production. This will eventually reduce the number of alien species establish in a particular
area Macdonald and Jarman (1985).

3. Objectives
1. To determine and compare the density of buds, flowers and pods of D. innoxia and D.
strammonium growing in the selected areas of the city of Windhoek.
2. To determine and compare the flowering patterns of D. innoxia and D. strammonium in
selected areas in the city of Windhoek.

4. Key questions
1. Is there a difference in density of buds, flowers, and pods (green intact, green exploded,
brown intact and brown exploded) of D. innoxia and D. strammonium in selected areas of
Windhoek?
2. Is there a difference in the flowering patterns between the D. innoxia and D. strammonium
species in selected areas of the city of Windhoek?

5. Hypothesis
1. Ho: There is no significant difference in the density of buds, flowers and pods between the
invasive alien D. innoxia and D. strammonium in the selected areas of the city of Windhoek.
H1: There is a significant difference in the density of buds, flowers and pods between the
alien invasive D. innoxia and D. strammonium in the selected areas of the city of Windhoek.
2. Ho: There is no significant difference in the flowering patterns between the alien invasive
D. innoxia and D. strammonium in the selected areas of the city of Windhoek.
H1: There is a significant difference in the flowering patterns between the alien invasive D.
innoxia and the D. strammonium in the selected areas of the city of Windhoek.

10

6. Methodology
6.1 Study sites
Two different sites were chosen for the study in Hochland Park and named as site 1 and site
2, and are along the Gammams River. Site 1 was opposite the tarred road (2203415.4S,
01700413.7E and Alt: = 1663 m ab.s.l), located at a rocky area which was dry. Site 2 was
situated next to the river which was still containing water (at 2203425.8 S and
01700428.1E at the altitude of 1666 m above sea level) and habitat soil was gray and
limited rocks were available. These sites were chosen because of the presence of both D.
innoxia and D. strammonium growing at the same areas (sites) together. Two quadrats of 20
x 10 m each were laid down along side the river bed at each site.
6.2 Data collection and records
In each quadrat, at each site the following were counted and recorded about the D. innoxia
and D. strammonium. Total number of buds, flowers, capsules (green intact, green
exploded, brown intact, and brown exploded). Selections of quadrats were based on the
presence of D. innoxia and D. strammonium on each site. These data in each quadrat were
recorded three times at an interval of two weeks. Each of the three recording sessions was
done within two days. Sampling was carried out between April and June 2008.
6.3 Data analysis
The Kolmogorov-Smirrnov test was used to test whether all the data (of buds, flowers, green
intact capsules, green exploded capsules, brown intact and brown intact capsules) collected
for D. innoxia and D. strammonium were normally distributed. The descriptive statistics were
done to obtain the summary statistics of the mean density of all buds, flowers, capsules
(green intact, green exploded, brown intact and brown exploded) on each D. innoxia and D.
strammonium in each quadrat and at each habitat. The independent two sample t-test was
used to determine whether there was a significant difference in the mean density of the
buds, flowers, and capsules (green intact, green exploded ,brown intact and brown
exploded) of D. innoxia and the D. strammonium in the selected areas of Windhoek.

11

7. Results
The mean density of the reproductive structures of D. innoxia and D. strammonium during
the three sampling times in Hochland park site 1 are represented in figure 1 below.

Figure 1: Mean density (no/plant) of the reproductive structures of the alien invasive D.
innoxia and D. strammonium species in Hochland park (site 1) all three sampling times. The
reproductive structures are represented by the mean number of buds, flowers, green intact

12

and green exploded capsules, brown intact and brown exploded capsules respectively. Bar
on each histogram indicates the standard error of the mean.
Figure.1. A represents first sampling time, Figure 1.B, second sampling time after two weeks
and Figure 1.C, third sampling time after two weeks. D. innoxia has a high density of buds
and flowers but D. strammonium has a high density of green intact, green exploded and
brown exploded capsules during all the three sampling times. There was no any bud and
flower on D. strammonium and has a very low density of green intact and brown intact pods
compared to a high density of brown exploded pods at the same sampling time (C).
There was a significant difference between most of the reproductive structures. Buds (t=7.7
P < 0 05 and df = 264), flowers (t = 8.66 P < 0 05 and df = 264), green intact pods (t = 4.18
P < 0 05 and df = 264), green exploded pods (t=3.02 P < 0 05 and df = 264) and brown
exploded pods (t= 4.53 P < 0 05 and df = 264) where P < 0 05 and df = 264 for all. Except
for brown intact pods where t=-1.37 P > 0.05, and df = 264.

13

The mean density of the reproductive structures of D. innoxia and D. strammonium during
the three sampling times at site 2 are represented in Figures 2 below.

Figure 2: Mean density (no/plant) of the reproductive structures of the alien invasive D.
innoxia and D. strammonium species in Hochland Park (site 2) for three sampling times. The
reproductive structures are represented by the mean number of buds, flowers, green intact
and green exploded capsules, brown intact and brown exploded capsules respectively. Bar
on each histogram indicates the standard error of the mean.
Figure 2. A represents first sampling time, Figure 2 B second sampling time after two weeks
and Figure 2. C third sampling time after two weeks. D. strammonium has a high density of
14

flowers and green intact capsules compared to D. innoxia, and none of the species has
started producing green intact, brown intact and brown exploded capsules both during the
first and second sampling time. In Figure 2 C, D. strammonium started producing green
exploded and brown exploded capsules.
There was no significant difference between buds (t=0.99, 338 P> 0.05), flowers (t=0.23 df =
338 and P < 0.05), green intact capsules (t=0.77 df = 338 and P < 0.05), green exploded
capsules (t=2.65 df = 338 and P < 0.05) and brown intact capsules (t=1 df = 338 and P <
0.05), where P > 0.05 and df=338. Except only green exploded pods where t= 3.09, df =
338 and P < 0.05. From the graph, there was a high density of buds, flowers up to the brown
exploded capsules on D. strammonium. Extremely low density of green exploded capsules
on D. innoxia and none of the brown intact and brown exploded.
Table1. The correlation coefficient (r) between the reproductive structures and crown width
of alien invasive D. innoxia and D. strammonium in Hochland park
Reproductive

structures Correlation coefficient (r)

Height versus height

D. innoxia

D. strammonium

Buds

0.321240

0.32233699

Flowers

0.239454

0.278430477

Green intact capsules

0.567991

0.267823

Green exploded capsules

0.07644655

0.097462044

Brown intact capsules

0.178087

0.349538

Brown exploded capsules

0.39382

0.373589

There was no correlation between the reproductive structures and the crown width of D.
innoxia and D. strammonium. Except only for the green intact capsules on D. innoxia.

15

8. Discussion
Site 1
Both the D. innoxia and D. strammonium in site 1 have buds, flowers and green intact pods,
where D. innoxia has high density of the buds and flowers as shown in figure 1. This
indicates that the two species do flower at the same time. It can also happen as this might
be the right season where the two species flower, as April is also a rain season in Namibia,
thus providing water and increasing seed germination and plant growth. High density of
green intact, green exploded capsules, brown exploded capsules on D. strammonium as
indicated in figure 1 for site one and two gives an indication that most of the flowers on D.
strammonium grow and mature faster than that of the D. innoxia.
This allows the green intact capsules to mature and develop to green exploded and brown
exploded capsules, and then the plant dies, while the D. innoxia is still alive and has buds
and flowers at the same time. The faster maturity of D. strammonium can be due to the fact
that it may have a high rate of nutrient and water uptake than the D. innoxia which then lead
to the faster growth and early maturity to produce buds, flowers, green intact capsules,
green exploded capsules, brown intact and brown exploded capsule respectively before
drying up as mentioned in literature (Henderson and Wells, 1987). That is why the density of
buds, flowers, green intact and green exploded capsules on D.strammonium at habitat one
decreased so much during the third sampling time (C) compared to the first and second
sampling times, but still remained high on the D.innoxia.
Also, it can be that D. strammonium has a high rate of transpiration and can not tolerate dry
conditions as the third sampling time was collected in June and by that time the rain has
stopped and it was hot. This may lead to most of its green intact pods to dry up, explode and
die earlier than D. innoxia. So, with the high density of buds, flowers and extreme density of
green intact capsules on D. innoxia indicated that the D. innoxia can withstand dry
conditions due to probably deeper penetrating roots that ensure enough water and nutrients
uptake also, but the rate at which its reproductive structures develop and mature might be
slower than D. strammonium.
This indicates that the two species have different flowering patterns where D. innoxia has a
continuous flowering pattern and D. strammonium reproduces, explode and dies. D.
strammonium were observed drying up with only low density of brown intact and high
density of brown exploded pods, but still hold the upright position. This was not the case

16

with D. innoxia as there were times it had all reproductive structures such as in figure 1C,
where buds, flowers, green intact, brown intact and brown exploded capsules were present
at the same time but still had greenish leaves and stems, thus indicating further potential of
continuous flowering (Macdonald et al. 1985).

The t-test revealed that there was a

significant difference between most of the reproductive structures in site one. Buds (t = 7.7
df = 264, P < 0.05), flowers (t = 8.66 df = 264, P < 0.05), green intact capsules (t = -4.18 df =
264, P < 0.05), green exploded capsules (t = 3.02 df = 264, P < 0.05) and brown exploded
capsules (t= 4.53 df = 264, P < 0.05). Except for brown intact pods where t = -1.37 P > 0.05,
and df = 264. This area site 1 (2203415.4S, 01700413.7E) was located across the tarred
road and water was blocked from flowing across. This may reduce the moisture content
necessary for plants.
It can also be that D. innoxia is highly competitive than D. strammonium because within the
vicinity of there were a high species diversity of plants such as common sunflower
(Helianthus annulus) which were abundant and various species of the family Poaceae. This
indicated that the competition between these species for resources such as water, light and
nutrients was high and only the best competitor survived. Furthermore, the area was rocky
and dry by the time of the last sampling mostly, and this might have affected also the faster
drying up of the D. strammonium and its reproductive structures. D. innoxia was subjected to
the same conditions but was able to survive. These features motivate the reason for it being
an invasive species as it can tolerate harsh environmental condition.
Human impacts could have also contributed to the drying up of D. strammonium, because
even though the habitat was located along the river, there were intensive human impacts on
the surrounding as they make use of the habitat as their dumping site. This may limit the
proper growth of the plants as they dump garbage directly on them. There was no significant
difference in the brown intact capsules of the two species (as indicated above for site 1) at
the same site as most of the green intact capsules on D. Innoxia and D. strammonium
mature and explode and straight to brown exploded.
Site two
At site 2, both the two species had buds, flowers and green intact capsules and none
developed any other capsule such as green exploded especially during the first and second
sampling time. This might be so because there was water still in the river and plants had just
then flowered immediately. In figure 2 (B), D. strammonium had an increase in density of
flowers and extreme green intact capsules. This indicates that reproductive structures on D.
17

strammonium grow so fast compared to D. innoxia, that is why the density of buds and
flowers on D. strammonium decreased in figure 2 (B), but accompanied by appearance of
green exploded and brown exploded pods as shown in figure 2 (C).
Figure 2 indicated that the plants at site 2 were still young and greener, but some of the D.
strammonium started producing green intact capsules, brown intact capsules and brown
exploded capsules as they were already drying up earlier than D. innoxia. This happened
within a short time as these plants started reproducing at very young stage, but there were
still some coming up due to the water availability as mentioned in literature (Henderson and
Wells, 1987). The soil appeared also to be rich in nutrients as it was so dark and soft
compared to the rocky soil of habitat 1 as mentioned earlier. The t-test that were again used
to compare the density of reproductive structures of D. innoxia and D. strammonium at site 2
revealed that there was no significant difference between the buds, flowers, green intact,
green exploded, and brown intact capsules, where, buds (t = 0.99 P > 0.05 and df = 338),
flowers (t = 0.23 P > 0.05 and df = 338), green intact capsules (t = 0.77 P > 0.05, df = 338),
green exploded capsules (t=2.65 P > 0.05, df = 338) and brown intact capsules (t = 1 P >
0.05 and df = 338). Except only green exploded capsules where t=3.09, df = 338 and P <
0.05. These differences results because the plants at site 2 were all young when sampling
started, and started growing and flowering at the same time and at very early age. This
could be also due to continuous presence of moisture as mentioned already. Significant
difference in the brown intact pods results because D. strammonium produces green
exploded pods earlier than D. innoxia where some green intact pods develop into brown
intact pods and other develop into brown exploded pods earlier than D. innoxia.
Relationship between crown width and reproductive structures
Table 1 indicated that there was no correlation between the reproductive structures and the
crown width of alien invasive D. innoxia and D. strammonium species. This means that an
increase in width is not accompanied by an increase in reproductive structures. With D.
innoxia there was a positive correlation between its green intact pods and crown width. This
implies that the more the crown width, the more total green pods it has, and this is not the
case to some other reproductive structures.
Ecological importance of different flowering patterns
The density of reproductive structures of the two species changes, and is also affected by
the general characteristics and structure of the habitats, that is why the t-test indicated that

18

there was a significant difference in the buds, flowers, green intact and exploded capsules
and brown exploded capsules, except only for brown intact pods at site 1, while at site 2,
there was no significant difference in the buds, green intact and brown intact capsules. It is
of an outmost importance with D. innoxia to have a continuous flowering pattern as this
gives it a chance to produce vast number of seeds and within a short period of time. This
ensures for more density of D.innoxia to germinate, and occupy large area, thus out
competing the native species as there are limited spaces for them to grow. With D.
strammonium, the fact that it reproduces once and dies encourages its seeds to be
dispersed to different distant sites faster before the next season to germinate. This is
possible as their seeds are long lived and can survive in different climatic conditions as
mentioned in literature (Henderson and Wells, 1987).

9. Conclusions
The densities of the reproductive structures on D. strammonium and D. innoxia are different
at different sites and vary at different time intervals. This allows one to conclude that the two
species have different flowering patterns where D. innoxia reproduces continuously, while D.
strammonium reproduces once, explodes dry up and dies. Therefore, it is possible for
different species that belong to the same genus such as the Datura and family such as
Solanaceae to have different flowering patterns.

19

10. References
Avery, A. G., Satina, S. and V. Rietsema, (1950). The genus Datura. The wait Ronaldo Press
Company, New York.
Boyer, H.J. and D.C. Boyer, (1998). The status of alien invasive plants in the rivers of the Namib
Naukluft Park. Directorate of Nature Conservation and Recreational resorts, Namib
Research Institute.Walvisbay, Namibia. Pg 51-57.
Bromilow, C. (2001). Problem plants of South Africa a guide to the identification and control of
more than 300 invasive plants and other weeds. Briza, pg 124- 174
Brown, C. J., Macdonald, I. A. M. and S. E. Brown, (1985). Invasive Alien organisms in South
West Africa /Namibia. South African National Scientific programme Report # 119.
Foundation of Research Development, South Africa.
Brown, J. H. and A. C. Gibson, (1983). Biogeography. The C. V. Mosby Company, London. Pg
46- 47
Bullock, J. M. Kenward, R. E. and R. S. Hails, (2001). Dispersal Ecology. Blackwell, United
Kingdom. Pg 374- 375.
th

Campell, N. A. and J. B Reece, (2005). Biology. 7 Edition. Pearson Benjamin Cummings, New
York. pg 1213.
Cowling, R. M. Pierce, S. M. and D. M. Richardson, (1997).

Vegetation of Southern Africa.

Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom. Pg 554-564.

Henderson, D. M. C. and F. M. J. Wells (1987). Declared weeds and invader plants in south
Africa. Botanical Research Institute, prentice, Pretoria. Pg 40-41.
Henderson, L. (2001). Alien weeds and invasive plants a complete guide to declared weeds and
invaders in South Africa. ARC. LNR, pg 32-33.
Jansen, H. (2001). Germinating and Growing the herbaceous Datura species II. Http: www.
Brugmansia. Dk / Hovedsider /
th

Krebs, C. J. (1994). Ecology. 4 Edition. Harper Collins College, New York. pg

Leveque, C. and J. C. Mounolou, (2003). Biodiversity. Wiley, England. Pg 154.
Macdonald, I. A. M., Kruger, F. J. and A. A. Ferrar, (1986). The ecology and management of
biological invasions in Southern Africa. Oxford University Press, Cape Town. Pg 33-35.
Macdonald, I. A. W. and M. L. C. Jarman, (1985). Alien Invasive plants in terrestrial ecosystems
of natal, South Africa. South African National Scientific Programme, Report # 118. pg 3550.
Smit, P. (2006). Geo-ecology and Environmental Change: Applied approach to study Prosopis
invaded landscapes in Namibia. PhD dissertation, University of Namibia.
Thomson, W. A. R. (1978). Healing plants: A modern herbal. M. D. M. publisher, United
Kingdom. Pg 60- 61
www.angelfire.com/realm/shades/plants.datura.htm

20

www.drugscope.org.uk/resource/drugsearch/drugsearchpages/datura.htm21/08/08

11. Appendix
Site 1 D. innoxia
Table1. raw data of site one for D. innoxia
Innoxia site 1
1st sampling

Pods
Brown

Buds

flo

grn Int

G.E

BI

E.

h(m)

w(m)

44

11

1.35

2.8

43

1.5

1.42

1.05

0.77

1.2

1.25

1.42

1.05

1.4

0.68

13

1.49

1.56

1.45

1.14

14

10

10

1.2

1.5

1.1

0.6

12

1.5

1.15

0.77

0.4

42

18

25

1.5

0.9

1.4

1.12

21

1.3

1.1

1.5

0.97

1.39

0.3

1.3

0.75

19

1.15

0.63

1.5

0.8

1.4

0.71

10

1.21

1.1

1.32

0.74

1.36

0.54

1.54

1.3

1.42

1.69

1.35

0.75

1.44

0.64

12

1.52

0.85

1.42

0.93

1.36

1.28

1.23

0.52

1.25

0.67

1.15

0.34

1.15

0.45

22

1.42

0.88

1.45

1.3

11

1.29

0.84

1.43

0.93

1.29

0.65

0.89

0.45

1.28

1.34

2nd time innoxia site 1

width
Buds

flw

grn Int

G.E

BI.

B.Ex.

height(m)

(m)

0.5

0.69

0.62

0.65

0.73

0.8

0.72

0.89

15

0.66

0.92

0.69

0.76

19

10

0.62

1.01

14

13

12

0.78

1.02

0.54

0.72

11

16

0.89

0.92

23

0.63

0.17

0.64

0.57

0.65

0.55

0.79

0.86

0.63

0.69

0.74

0.67

10

0.62

0.84

0.62

0.58

0.54

0.53

0.59

0.18

0.63

0.66

0.64

0.17

11

10

0.68

0.17

11

0.59

0.17

0.52

0.43

0.63

0.67

12

10

0.7

0.81

0.67

0.99

0.55

0.16

0.56

0.7

14

11

0.55

1.02

24

0.59

0.61

0.5

0.52

10

0.67

0.83

0.63

0.79

0.58

0.63

10

0.57

0.66

0.68

0.59

0.54

0.63

14

11

0.54

0.72

16

0.65

0.96

10

11

0.55

0.91

14

0.58

0.87

0.44

0.47

0.45

0.62

10

0.58

0.64

23

0.78

0.75

24

0.98

1.1

0.72

0.54

11

0.92

0.84

17

0.98

1.02

34

0.89

0.23

25

24

0.97

0.97

0.85

0.76

0.72

0.57

25

1.07

0.87

15

1.13

0.93

0.45

0.39

0.78

0.73

16

1.06

1.34

18

0.7

0.94

18

10

0.74

0.92

time 3

innoxia

green

green

brown

brown

width

buds

flower

intact

explode

intact

explode

height(m)

(m)

1.1

1.02

10

1.2

1.29

1.05

0.65

1.42

1.1

1.5

0.45

1.23

0.84

22

1.36

1.23

10

1.5

1.17

26

1.48

1.19

22

13

49

1.78

1.9

10

1.55

1.38

11

1.44

1.32

1.55

1.28

1.34

0.72

1.43

1.05

1.25

0.42

1.17

0.75

1.19

0.95

12

11

1.35

1.25

1.24

1.93

1.12

0.84

1.42

0.79

1.2

0.62

0.99

0.53

10

11

1.42

1.73

14

35

1.05

1.23

26

1.25

1.21

1.12

0.31

1.11

0.41

27

Site 1, D. strammonium
Table 2. raw data of D. strammonium site 1
1st time
Grn
Ex

Brwn

Buds

flower

Grn I.

br I.

57

12

21

Ex

h(m)

w(M)

1.44

1.87

1.5

1.12

1.6

1.4

11

1.8

1.3

1.2

1.14

27

1.4

1.34

15

1.36

1.22

1.29

0.82

10

1.44

1.1

1.56

0.62

13

1.55

1.32

1.47

0.65

12

1.54

1.2

1.38

0.84

1.49

1.19

1.6

1.5

28

1.69

1.1

12

1.46

0.92

1.44

0.76

1.62

0.74

13

1.67

1.16

1.45

0.99

1.12

0.75

14

1.43

1.13

Table 3. raw data second sampling time of D. strammonium site 2

2nd

29

tyme
Grn
Ex

Brwn

Buds

flwr

Grn I.

br I.

13

19

Ex

h(m)

w(M)

0.51

0.61

0.64

0.85

0.58

0.62

0.36

0.77

26

0.79

1.3

29

1.28

1.2

12

0.96

0.84

0.89

0.83

11

0.85

0.92

25

1.12

1.08

47

1.34

1.22

3rd
0

24

1.34

1.26

63

1.38

1.45

13

1.26

1.05

39

1.36

1.11

34

1.24

1.33

15

1.56

1.2

30

80

1.41

1.23

39

1.54

0.98

13

1.32

0.89

13

1.34

0.83

1.36

0.45

39

1.43

1.01

17

1.32

1.24

1.33

0.64

12

1.52

0.81

1.42

0.53

16

1.41

0.98

23

1.42

0.98

37

1.55

0.08

17

1.33

1.7

17

1.37

0.84

24

1.5

1.02

11

1.43

0.72

10

1.47

0.62

16

1.3

1.21

12

1.43

0.66

11

1.42

0.6

31

16

1.31

0.86

16

1.57

1.31

24

1.33

1.21

Site 2 D. innoxia
Table 4. raw data of D. innoxia sat site , first sampling time
Pods
width
Buds

flw

G.I

12

G.E

B.I

B. E

height(m)

(m)

0.55

0.91

0.52

0.82

0.35

0.68

15

0.58

1.07

24

0.54

1.03

13

1.1

0.06

0.3

0.6

0.35

0.64

13

0.68

0.74

23

0.9

0.78

0.75

0.8

0.6

0.7

32

0.5

0.7

10

0.66

0.68

0.34

0.51

0.53

0.47

0.34

0.33

0.41

0.49

0.36

0.41

0.27

0.26

0.39

0.45

0.35

0.34

0.33

0.31

0.32

0.32

Table 5. Raw data of D. innoxia at site 2, second sampling time

2nd
innoxia

tyme
Brwn

Buds

flw

G.I

8
11

Grn Ex

Brwn Int

Ex.

width
height(m)

(m)

0.34

0.44

0.45

0.65

0.53

0.88

33

0.33

0.41

0.36

0.53

0.44

0.78

0.41

0.52

14

0.67

0.66

0.41

0.59

10

0.54

0.85

0.37

0.48

0.46

0.49

0.33

0.49

0.33

0.34

0.51

0.59

0.44

0.49

0.47

0.63

10

0.66

0.82

0.58

0.92

0.47

0.48

0.52

0.61

0.54

0.66

0.46

0.16

0.64

0.56

34

0.53

0.72

0.51

0.51

12

10

0.79

0.93

Table 6. raw data of d. innoxia at site 2 third sampling time

3rd
width
Buds

flw

G.I

G.E

B.I

B. E

height(m)

(m)

0.54

0.7

0.47

0.67

0.49

0.48

28

16

30

0.73

1.38

17

14

0.82

1.27

19

18

1.02

1.43

26

10

17

0.86

1.28

13

52

0.8

1.5

12

0.72

0.92

15

26

0.93

1.42

33

0.78

1.45

35

26

0.74

1.12

12

12

0.85

1.23

14

14

0.75

1.29

0.79

0.58

0.64

0.75

0.53

0.62

0.51

0.63

0.52

0.56

0.45

0.48

0.43

0.51

10

10

0.57

0.98

0.48

0.66

10

0.48

0.18

0.59

0.72

12

10

0.73

1.13

14

16

0.67

1.11

0.76

0.79

0.53

0.64

0.54

0.68

0.64

0.65

16

0.65

0.95

36

14

20

0.86

1.2

0.41

0.78

0.66

0.73

14

0.76

0.67

12

0.67

0.72

12

0.76

0.79

0.66

0.53

0.78

0.76

0.75

0.82

20

0.89

1.06

10

0.67

0.93

0.55

0.76

0.54

0.53

11

0.65

0.85

0.47

0.49

0.55

0.64

0.69

0.59

10

0.75

0.65

0.64

0.72

11

0.76

0.74

0.59

0.6

37

12

0.63

0.78

0.75

0.5

0.63

0.67

0.65

0.58

12

0.73

0.88

12

0.72

0.88

29

0.89

1.21

11

0.94

0.88

0.64

0.52

10

0.72

0.67

12

0.72

0.65

28

0.84

1.22

0.39

0.37

0.53

0.54

15

0.74

0.85

0.53

0.55

0.58

0.59

12

0.75

0.68

0.79

0.78

0.58

0.72

0.51

0.55

38

0.54

0.87

0.74

0.91

24

0.77

0.95

10

0.73

0.78

18

0.67

1.15

14

0.74

1.05

23

0.67

1.17

24

0.94

1.13

10

0.67

0.83

0.75

0.7

0.64

0.68

0.56

0.79

0.57

0.72

0.54

0.49

0.49

0.61

22

0.79

1.07

0.55

0.78

0.54

0.69

0.38

0.55

0.5

0.81

0.45

0.59

39

0.53

0.69

0.48

0.55

0.72

0.79

0.46

0.64

0.58

0.84

0.43

0.62

0.53

0.74

31

28

0.99

1.37

0.62

0.68

0.48

0.54

0.54

0.66

0.49

0.78

0.53

0.64

0.76

0.89

14

0.69

1.05

10

19

0.65

1.03

0.55

0.76

0.59

0.73

0.54

0.89

0.68

0.67

0.65

0.77

40

0.67

0.73

10

11

28

0.85

1.43

11

15

0.74

1.08

Site 2 D. strammonium

Table 7. Raw data od D. strammonium site 2 first sampling time

1st tyme 2nd site
2

0.53

0.84

0.25

0.38

10

42

0.9

1.4

35

52

0.85

1.06

0.76

0.67

0.79

0.62

23

100

105

1.45

Table 8. Raw data of D. strammonium second site and second sampling time

2nd
tyme

41

flower
Buds

Grn
Gre.I.

Ex

Brwn
B.I.

Ex

height

width

0.49

0.34

35

0.02

1.25

22

0.75

0.98

12

0.55

0.17

13

0.48

0.69

0.24

0.27

0.34

0.53

0.22

0.27

0.46

0.63

0.45

0.64

0.39

0.48

12

10

0.55

0.17

0.34

0.42

0.38

0.47

0.23

0.24

0.39

0.46

0.27

0.28

0.23

0.29

0.34

0.35

0.26

0.33

42

0.57

0.75

18

26

0.59

1.07

0.46

0.65

0.28

0.38

0.52

0.72

18

18

21

0.17

1.07

10

10

11

0.64

0.93

12

12

0.65

0.98

22

10

0.58

0.92

23

10

0.46

0.46

0.39

0.39

0.36

0.36

14

10

0.46

0.84

26

11

18

0.55

0.76

0.33

0.54

0.33

0.35

0.32

0.43

22

0.44

58

0.38

0.52

10

19

0.59

0.88

0.36

0.51

43

0.28

0.39

0.33

0.64

0.58

0.55

Table 9 raw data of D. strammonium second site and second sampling time

site 3 tyme
0

11

0.23

0.48

25

10

21

0.9

1.32

0.25

0.35

14

15

38

27

1.06

1.33

0.75

0.62

63

1.09

1.72

18

20

59

0.89

1.56

25

10

36

0.73

1.22

0.43

0.36

0.44

0.48

14

0.55

0.67

10

0.52

0.65

10

0.56

0.68

33

15

10

0.62

0.99

15

0.56

0.55

44

21

0.59

0.83

15

0.52

0.51

12

0.52

0.65

0.48

0.58

0.38

0.59

0.36

0.53

27

0.75

0.82

50

0.63

1.25

14

0.53

0.77

0.44

0.66

14

16

15

0.64

1.03

45

0.54

1.18

45

0.83

1.22

16

25

34

0.69

1.18

36

0.63

1.14

0.35

0.64

40

18

0.64

1.24

0.36

0.55

14

0.54

0.83

13

0.53

0.74

20

0.58

0.97

45

0.44

0.55

24

0.63

1.1

39

0.77

1.27

12

0.59

0.94

20

0.77

0.93

10

12

0.75

0.98

16

10

0.84

1.28

0.64

0.74

0.46

0.62

1.22

1.06

14

0.92

0.69

10

1.23

1.9

11

0.88

0.92

13

30

0.56

1.18

34

1.11

1.02

22

15

0.98

0.93

34

1.29

1.59

34

0.81

1.21

Data analysis
Site 1

46

Table 1
buds
Variable

Variable

Mean

4.105263

0.112782

Variance

34.91308

0.615972

Observations

133

133

Pooled Variance

17.76452

Hypothesized Mean Difference

df

264

t Stat

7.724616

P(T<=t) one-tail

1.17E-13

t Critical one-tail

1.650646

P(T<=t) two-tail

2.34E-13

t Critical two-tail

1.96899

Table 2

flower
Variable 1

Variable 2

47

Mean

3.406015038

0.233082707

Variance

14.50056961

3.361927546

Observations

133

133

Pooled Variance

8.931248576

Hypothesized

Mean

Difference

df

264

t Stat

8.657959385

P(T<=t) one-tail

2.42026E-16

t Critical one-tail

1.650645911

P(T<=t) two-tail

4.84052E-16

t Critical two-tail

1.968990438

green intact
Variable 1

Variable 2

Mean

3.428571

7.849624

Variance

70.86797

77.47722

Observations

133

133

Pooled Variance

74.17259

Hypothesized

Mean

Difference

df

264

t Stat

-4.18615

48

P(T<=t) one-tail

1.93E-05

t Critical one-tail

1.650646

P(T<=t) two-tail

3.87E-05

t Critical two-tail

1.96899

green exploded
Variable 1

Variable 2

Mean

0.631579

0.142857

Variance

3.082935

0.396104

Observations

133

133

Pooled Variance

1.739519

Hypothesized

Mean

Difference

df

264

t Stat

3.021746

P(T<=t) one-tail

0.00138

t Critical one-tail

1.650646

P(T<=t) two-tail

0.00276

t Critical two-tail

1.96899

brown intact

Variable 1

Variable 2

Mean

0.090225564

0.157895

Variance

0.113009797

0.209729

Observations

133

133

49

Pooled Variance
Hypothesized

0.161369332
Mean

Difference

df

264

t Stat

-1.37369776

P(T<=t) one-tail

0.085350426

t Critical one-tail

1.650645911

P(T<=t) two-tail

0.170700852

t Critical two-tail

1.968990438

brown exploded
Variable

Variable

Mean

5.571429

0.744361

Variance

146.3528

4.661426

Observations

133

133

Pooled Variance

75.50712

Hypothesized

Mean

Difference

df

264

t Stat

4.530021

P(T<=t) one-tail

4.47E-06

t Critical one-tail

1.650646

P(T<=t) two-tail

8.94E-06

50

t Critical two-tail

1.96899

Data analysis site 2

Table 1
Variable
buds

Variable 1

Mean

4.576471

3.929412

Variance

33.96157

38.62221

Observations

170

170

Pooled Variance

36.29189

Hypothesized Mean Difference

df

338

t Stat

0.990258

P(T<=t) one-tail

0.161378

t Critical one-tail

1.649374

P(T<=t) two-tail

0.322756

t Critical two-tail

1.967007

flowers
Variable
Variable 1

Mean

2.964705882

2.858824

Variance

28.48395405

7.376401

51

Observations

170

Pooled Variance

17.93017751

Hypothesized Mean Difference

df

338

t Stat

0.230537061

P(T<=t) one-tail

0.40890697

t Critical one-tail

1.649374277

P(T<=t) two-tail

0.81781394

t Critical two-tail

1.967007242

170

gren intact
Variable
Variable 1

Mean

7.835294

6.876471

Variance

194.4698

66.07341

Observations

170

170

Pooled Variance

130.2716

Hypothesized Mean Difference

df

338

t Stat

0.774503

P(T<=t) one-tail

0.219587

t Critical one-tail

1.649374

P(T<=t) two-tail

0.439175

52

t Critical two-tail

1.967007

green explode
Variable
Variable 1

Mean

0.564706

0.105882

Variance

3.584546

1.51535

Observations

170

170

Pooled Variance

2.549948

Hypothesized Mean Difference

df

338

t Stat

2.649046

P(T<=t) one-tail

0.004225

t Critical one-tail

1.649374

P(T<=t) two-tail

0.008451

t Critical two-tail

1.967007

brown intac
Variable
Variable 1

Mean

0.082352941

Variance

1.152941176

Observations

170

170

Pooled Variance

0.576470588

53

Hypothesized Mean Difference

df

338

t Stat

P(T<=t) one-tail

0.159012934

t Critical one-tail

1.649374277

P(T<=t) two-tail

0.318025868

t Critical two-tail

1.967007242
Variable

brown exploded

Variable 1

Mean

1.752941

Variance

54.45931

Observations

170

170

Pooled Variance

27.22966

Hypothesized Mean Difference

df

338

t Stat

3.097104

P(T<=t) one-tail

0.001059

t Critical one-tail

1.649374

P(T<=t) two-tail

0.002118

t Critical two-tail

1.967007

54