Pure Substances and Mixtures

Key Concepts
A pure substance:

cannot be separated into 2 or more substances by physical or mechanical

means

is homogeneous, ie, has uniform composition throughout the whole sample

its properties are constant throughout the whole sample

its properties do not depend on how it is prepared or purified

has constant chemical composition

A mixture:

can be separated into 2 or more substances by physical or mechanical means

displays the properties of the pure substances making it up

its composition can be varied by changing the proportion of pure substances

making it up

heterogeneous substances, ones with non-uniform composition throughout the

sample, are always mixtures

Pure Substances
Elements and compounds are both examples of pure substances.
Pure substances cannot be separated into simpler substances by physical or
mechanical means such as sifting, filtering, crystallization, distillation, etc.
eg, distilling pure water (H2O) does not separate water into hydrogen and oxygen, it
only produces water vapour.
Pure substances display a sharp melting and boiling point.
On a graph of temperature vs time, this is shown as flat line where the temperature
does not change over time until all the pure substance has melted or boiled.
Pure substances will have a constant appearance, colour and density throughout the
sample.
Pure substances have constant chemical composition, eg,

pure water (H2O) is always composed of 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom
chemically bonded.

pure gold (Au) is only made up of gold atoms

Mixtures
Some examples of mixtures are given below:
Type of
Mixture
gas in gas

Example
The atmosphere is a mixture of gases, mostly nitrogen and
oxygen.

liquid in liquid

Wine is a mixture of mostly ethanol and water.

solid in solid

Alloys, such as brass, are made up of a mixture of metals.

gas in liquid

Soft drinks, such as cola, are mixtures of mainly carbon

dioxide gas and water.

solid in liquid

Sea Water is a mixture of salts dissolved in water.

solid in gas

Smoke is mixture of tiny solid particles in atmospheric gases.

Homogeneous mixtures do not display a sharp melting point, they melt over a range
of temperatures.
Sharpness of the melting point is often used to determine whether a substance is
pure or impure (mixture).
On a temperature vs time graph there is no flat line during which the temperature
remains constant over time. Instead, there will be a slope indicating that the
components of the mixture are melting.
Mixtures can be separated into the pure substances making them up by physical or
mechanical means because each pure substance retains its own properties.
Some methods for separating the components of a mixture include:
separation
technique

property used
for separation

Sifting (sieving) particle size

example
alluvial gold is separating from smaller soil
particles using a sieve

Visual Sorting

colour, shape or
size

gold nuggets can be separated from crushed

rock on the basis of colour

Magnetic
Attraction

magnestism

magnetic iron can be separated from nonmagnetic sulfur using a magnet

Decanting

density or
solubility

liquid water can be poured off (decanted)

insoluble sand sediment
less dense oil can be poured off (decanted)
more dense water

Separating
Funnel

in a separating funnel, less dense oil floats

on top of more dense water, when the valve
density of liquids
is open the water can be poured out from
under the oil

Filtration

solubility

insoluble calcium carbonate can be

separated from soluble sodium chloride in
water by filtration

Evaporation

solubility and
boiling point

soluble sodium chloride can be separated

from water by evaporation

Crystallization

solubility

slightly soluble copper sulfate can be

separated from water by crystallization

Distillation

boiling point

ethanol (ethyl alcohol) can be separated

from water by distillation because ethanol
has a lower boiling point than water

Elements and Compounds

Key Concepts

Elements and Compounds are pure substances.

An element is a pure substance that cannot be decomposed into simpler

substances.

Elements are listed in the Periodic Table of the Elements.

Each element has a 1 or 2 letter symbol.

A compound is a pure substance that can be decomposed into simpler

substances.

Compounds are made up of two or more elements.

Elements
An element is a pure substance that cannot be decomposed (broken down) into
simpler substances.
There are 92 naturally occurring elements.

Some Elements

Each element has been given a 1 or 2 letter symbol:

Name

hydrogen
the first letter of the symbol is always a capital letter
helium
eg, H for hydrogen, C for carbon, N for nitrogen
lithium
beryllium
if there is a second letter in the symbol it is a lower case
boron
letter
carbon
eg, He for helium, Ca for calcium, Ne for neon
nitrogen
oxygen
Elements can be present in nature as solids, liquids or gases.
fluorine
neon
Liquid
Gaseous
sodium
Solid elements
Elements
Elements
magnesium
2 elements exist 11 elements exist all other elements
aluminium
in nature as
in nature as
exist in nature as
silicon
liquids:
gases:
solids, eg:
phosphorus
mercury (Hg)
hydrogen (H)
lithium (Li)
sulfur
bromine (Br)
helium (He)
carbon (C)
chlorine
nitrogen (N)
sodium (Na)
argon
oxygen (O)
magnesium (Mg)
potassium
fluorine (F)
aluminium (Al)
calcium
neon (Ne)
silicon (Si)
chlorine (Cl)
phosphorus (P)
titanium
argon (Ar)
sulfur (S)
vanadium
krypton (Kr)
potassium (K)
chromium
xenon (Xe)
calcium (Ca)
radon (Rn)
zinc (Zn)
manganese
iron
cobalt
The atmosphere is mostly made up of the elements nitrogen
(~78%) and oxygen (~21%).
nickel
copper

Symbol
H
He
Li
Be
B
C
N
O
F
Ne
Na
Mg
Al
Si
P
S
Cl
Ar
K
Ca
Ti
V
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu

Common elements found in the earth's crust are:

oxygen (O)

silicon (Si)

aluminium (Al)

iron (Fe)

calcium (Ca)

sodium (Na)

potassium (K)

magnesium (Mg)

hydrogen (H)

The most common elements found in living things are:

carbon (C)

hydrogen (H)

oxygen (O)

nitrogen (N)

phosphorus (P)

sulfur (S)

zinc
gallium

Zn
Ga

arsenic
selenium
bromine
krypton
rubidium
strontium

As
Se
Br
Kr
Rb
Sr

silver
tin
barium
tungsten
platinum
gold
mercury
lead
uranium

Ag
Sn
Ba
W
Pt
Au
Hg
Pb
U

The most common elements found in the universe are:

hydrogen (H)

helium (He)

carbon (C)
oxygen (O)

Compounds
Compounds are pure substances made up of 2 or more elements.
Each compound has a formula showing which elements are present in the compound
Examples of some common compounds are shown below.
compound
name
water
ammonia
carbon monoxide
carbon dioxide
sodium chloride

compound
formula
H2O
NH3
CO
CO2
NaCl

sodium hydroxide NaOH

calcium chloride

CaCl2

elements present
hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O)
nitrogen (N) and hydrogen (H)
carbon (C) and oxygen (O)
carbon (C) and oxygen (O)
sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl)
sodium (Na), oxygen (O) and hydrogen
(H)
calcium (Ca) and chlorine (Cl)

calcium (Ca), carbon (C) and oxygen

(O)
calcium (Ca), nitrogen (N) and oxygen
(O)
calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P) and
oxygen (O)
calcium (Ca), sulfur (S) and oxygen (O)
carbon (C) and hyrogen (H)
carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen
(O)

calcium carbonate CaCO3

calcium nitrate

Ca(NO3)2

calcium phosphate Ca3(PO4)2

calcium sulfate
methane

CaSO4
CH4

ethanol

C2H5OH

A compound can be decomposed into simpler pure substances.

For example, an electric current can be passed through water to form the elements
hydrogen and oxygen.
Water can be decomposed into hydrogen and oxygen.
Water is a compound made up of hydrogen and oxygen.

Definitions of Acids and Bases

Many substances can be classified as either acids or bases based on

their properties.

The definition of what an acid or a base is, is dependent on the chemical

system being studied.

Arrhenius acid produces hydrogen ions (H+ or protons).

Arrhenius base produces hydroxide ions (OH-).

Brnsted-Lowry acid donates a proton, producing a hydrogen ion (proton) and

a conjugate base.
Brnsted-Lowry base accepts a proton, producing a conjugate acid.

An amphiprotic substance is one that can either donate or accept a proton.

An amphoteric substance is one that can either produce protons in solution, or

can produce hydroxide ions in solution.

A monoprotic acid can only donate 1 proton : HA H+ + AA diprotic acid can donate 2 protons : H2A 2H+ + AA triprotic acid can donate 3 protons : H3A 3H+ + AThe term polyprotic is used to describe any acid that is capable of donating
more than 1 proton.

Defintions of Acids and Bases in Chronological Order

ACIDS
Lavoisier
(1779)

Davy

BASES

Definition: An acid contains oxygen.

Limitations: Does not account for substances with acidic
properties that do not contain oxygen, for example,
hydrochloric acid, HCl.
Definition: An acid contains hydrogen.

(1810)

Limitations: Does not account for substances which

contain hydrogen but do not display acidic properties.

ArrheniusDefini Definition: An acid ionises Definition: A base ionises in

tions
in water to produce
water toproduce hydroxide
(1884)
hydrogen ions,
ions, OH-.
H+ (protons).
Examples:

Examples:
+
hydroxi
prot
acid
anio
base
on
de
n
ion
hydrochlo
+
+
H
HCl
ric acid:
Cl- sodium
NaO
OHhydroxide
nitric
HN
+
H
H+
acid:
O3
NO3- :
potassiu
m
KOH OHhydroxide
:

+
catio
n
+
Na+

+ K+

Limitations: Only accounts Limitations: Only accounts for

for acids that:
bases that:

are aqueous
solutions

are aqueous solutions

(alkalis)

have hydrogen in
their structure, eg,
HCl

have OH- already in

their structures, eg,
NaOH

does not account

for amphotericsubstances
(those that can act as an
Arrhenius acid or an
Arrhenius base)
Brnsted-Lowry Definition: An acid is a
Definitions
species that donates a
(1923)
proton (H+).
Examples:
HB

conjuga
+

te
proto
base
n

HCl
HNO3
H2SO

HSO4
-

H2O

Definition: A base is a species

thataccepts a proton (H+).
Examples:
B- + H+

H+ + B-

HB is acting as an acid by
donating a proton, H+.
B- is the conjugate base of
the acid HB .
aci
d

does not account

for amphotericsubstances
(those that can act as an
Arrhenius acid or an Arrhenius
base)

ClNO3-

+ H+
+ H+

HSO4-

+ H+

SO42-

+ H+

OH-

+ H+

HB

B- is acting as a base by
accepting a proton, H+ .
HB is the conjugate acid of the
base B- .
bas
e
OHNH3
CO32HCO3H2O

proton
+
+
+
+
+

H+
H+
H+
H+
H+

conjugat
e
acid
H2O
NH4+
HCO3H2CO3
H3O+

Definition: An amphiprotic substance can act as a proton

donor and as a proton acceptor.
Example: hydrogen carbonate (bicarbonate) ion (HCO3-) is
amphiprotic.
hydrogen carbonate (bicarbonate) ion acting as an

acid: HCO3- CO32- + H+

hydrogen carbonate (bicarbonate) ion acting as a base:
HCO3- + H+ H2CO3
Limitations: The solvent system must be protonic, for
example, the solvent system can be water (H2O(l)), or
liquid ammonia (NH3(l)).

Properties of Acids and Bases Tutorial

Key Concepts

Many substances can be classified as either acids or bases based on their

properties.

An acid is a substance that has acidic properties.

A base is a substance that has basic properties.

An acid that dissolves in a solvent such as water is said to form an acidic

solution.

A base that is soluble in water is also called an alkali.

The aqueous solution of a base can be referred to as a basic solution or as
an alkaline solution.

Acids and bases can also be further classified based on whether or not they
contain carbon:
Inorganic acids and inorganic bases do not contain carbon.
Organic acids and organic bases do contain carbon.
Carbonic acid, H2CO3, is an exception. It is classed as an inorganic acid even
though it contains carbon.

Properties of Acids and Bases

Properties of Acids

Properties of Bases

sour taste

bitter taste

solutions conduct electricity

solutions conduct electricity

can sting or burn skin

(especially strong acids)

slippery or soapy feel

change red litmus to blue

change blue litmus to red

neutralise acids

neutralise bases

corrode most metals

react with many carbonates and

bicarbonates

Classification and Uses of Acids and Bases

Inorganic (Mineral) Acids:

hydrochloric acid, HCl

Used to clean metals and
mortar.
Used in swimming pools to
adjust pH.
Found in the stomach for
digestion of food.
sulfuric acid, H2SO4
Used in car batteries.
Used to make fertilizers
(sulfate of ammonia and
superphosphate).
Used to make plastics,
detergents, dyes, drugs,
and explosives.

nitric acid, HNO3

Used in the manufacture of
fertilizers.
Used to make explosives (TNT
and dynamite).

phosphoric acid, H3PO4

Used as a food acid.
Used in anti-rust products for
cars.

carbonic acid, H2CO3

Formed when carbon dioxide
gas, CO2, dissolves in water.

Organic Acids:
Carboxylic acids are organic acids.
Examples include:

Inorganic Alkalis (water soluble

bases):

sodium hydroxide, NaOH

Other names: caustic
soda.
Used to clean blocked
drains.
Used to
make soapsand detergents.

potassium hydroxide, KOH

Other names: caustic
potash.
Used to
make soapsand detergents.

aqueous ammonia, NH3(aq)

Used in some cleaning
products
(cloudy ammounia, floor
cleaners)

Organic Alkalis (water soluble

bases):

methanoic acid (formic acid),

HCOOH
Found in ant stings.

ethanoic acid (acetic acid),

CH3COOH
Found in vinegar.

butanoic acid (butyric acid),

C3H7COOH
Gives rancid butter its
characteristic smell

2-hyroxypropane-1,2,3tricarboxylic acid (citric acid),

C6H8O7
Found in citrus fruits such as
oranges and lemons.
Used an antioxidant in canned
foods.

Amines are organic bases.

Metals and Non-Metals

Key Concepts
Elements can be classified as metals or non-metals on the basis of their properties.
Physical properties include:

appearance

density

melting and boiling point

conductivity of heat and electricity

tensile strength (resistance to bending)

malleability (ability to roll into sheets)

ductility (ability to draw into a wire)

Chemical properties include:

charge on ions formed from the element

type of bonding found in the element's oxides and chlorides

pH of the element's oxide

Metals are found on the left hand side of the Periodic Table while non-metals are
found on the right hand side.
Properties of Metallic and Non-Metallic Elements
Property

Metallic Elements

Non-Metallic
Elements

Appearance

lustrous

dull

moderate to high

low to moderate

solid (except liquid

mercury)

solid, liquid or gas

moderate to high

wide range

good

poor (except
graphite)

high

brittle

malleable

not malleable

ductile

not ductile

(physical property)

Density
(physical property)

Physical State
(25oC, 101.3kPa)
(physical property)

Melting and Boiling Point

(physical property)

Heat and Electrical

Conductivity
(physical property)

Tensile Strength (resistance to

bending)
(physical property)

Malleability (roll into sheets)

(physical property)

Ductility (draw into wire)

(physical property)

Charge on Ions (in general)*

(chemical property)

Bonding in oxides and

chlorides

forms positive ions

forms negative ions

usually ionic**

covalent

usually basic***

usually acidic

(chemical property)

pH of oxides
(chemical property)

*some non-metals can form positive or negative ions, eg, H+ and H**some metal oxides are covalent, eg, Al2O3
***some metal oxides are amphoteric (both acidic and basic), eg, Al2O3

Examples of Metals and Non-metals

Metal

Non-Metal

Property
magnesium zinc oxygen

sulfur

Density (g/mL)

1.74

7.14

0.0013

2.07

Melting Point (oC)

650

419

-219

113

Electrical Conductivity (megaohm-1)

23

16

10-21

Charge on Ion

2+

2+

2-

2-

Bonding in Oxides

MgO
ionic

ZnO
O2
SO2
ionic covalent covalent

Position of Metallic and Non-Metallic Elements in the Periodic Table

Metals

Metals occur on the left hand side of the Periodic Table.

Non-metals Non-metals occur on the right hand side of the Periodic Table.
Semi-metals Semi-metals with properties in between metals and non-metals
(metalloids) occur between these two groups. (B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te)
metals

non-metals

H
He

Li

Be

Ne

Na

Mg

Al

Si

Cl

Ar

Ca

Transition Metals

Ga

Ge

As

Se

Br

Kr

Rb

Sr

Transition Metals

In

Sn

Sb

Te

Xe

Cs

Ba

Transition Metals

Tl

Pb

Bi

Po

At

Rn

Fr

Ra

Transition Metals