Induction motor

Three-phase totally enclosed fan-cooled (TEFC) induction motor

with end cover on the left, and without end cover to show cooling fan. In TEFC motors, interior losses are dissipated indirectly
through enclosure ns mostly by forced air convection.

Cutaway view through stator of TEFC induction motor. Note

rotor air circulation vanes. Many such motors have a symmetric
armature, and the frame may be reversed to place the electrical
connection box (not shown) on the opposite side.

An asynchronous motor type of an induction motor

is an AC electric motor in which the electric current
in the rotor needed to produce torque is obtained by
electromagnetic induction from the magnetic eld of the
stator winding. An induction motor can therefore be
made without electrical connections to the rotor as are
found in universal, DC and synchronous motors. An
asynchronous motors rotor can be either wound type or
squirrel-cage type.

Three-phase squirrel-cage asynchronous motors are

widely used in industrial drives because they are rugged,
reliable and economical. Single-phase induction motors
are used extensively for smaller loads, such as household
appliances like fans. Although traditionally used in xed- A model of Teslas rst induction motor, in Tesla Museum, Belspeed service, induction motors are increasingly being grade.
used with variable-frequency drives (VFDs) in variablespeed service. VFDs oer especially important energy
savings opportunities for existing and prospective induction motors in variable-torque centrifugal fan, pump and
compressor load applications. Squirrel cage induction
motors are very widely used in both xed-speed and
variable-frequency drive (VFD) applications. Variable
voltage and variable frequency drives are also used in
variable-speed service.

History

In 1824, the French physicist Franois Arago formulated the existence of rotating magnetic elds, termed Early squirrel cage rotor
Aragos rotations, which, by manually turning switches
on and o, Walter Baily demonstrated in 1879 as in
1

2
eect the rst primitive induction motor.[1][2][3][4] The
rst alternating-current commutatorless induction motors have been independently invented by Galileo Ferraris and Nikola Tesla, a working motor model having
been demonstrated by the former in 1885 and by the
latter in 1887. Tesla applied for U.S. patents in October and November 1887 and was granted some of these
patents in May 1888. In April 1888, the Royal Academy
of Science of Turin published Ferrariss research on his
AC polyphase motor detailing the foundations of motor
operation.[4][5] In May 1888 Tesla presented the technical paper A New System for Alternating Current Motors
and Transformers to the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE)[6][7][8][9][10] describing three fourstator-pole motor types: one with a four-pole rotor forming a non-self-starting reluctance motor, another with a
wound rotor forming a self-starting induction motor, and
the third a true synchronous motor with separately excited DC supply to rotor winding. George Westinghouse,
who was developing an alternating current power system
at that time, licensed Teslas patents in 1888 and purchased a US patent option on Ferraris induction motor concept.[11] Tesla was also employed for one year
as a consultant. Westinghouse employee C. F. Scott
was assigned to assist Tesla and later took over development of the induction motor at Westinghouse.[6][12][13][14]
Steadfast in his promotion of three-phase development,
Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky invented the cage-rotor induction motor in 1889 and the three-limb transformer in
1890.[15][16] Furthermore, he claimed that Teslas motor
was not practical because of the two-phase pulsations.[17]
Although Westinghouse achieved its rst practical induction motor in 1892 and developed a line of polyphase 60
hertz induction motors in 1893, these early Westinghouse
motors were two-phase motors with wound rotors until
B. G. Lamme developed a rotating bar winding rotor.[6]
The General Electric Company (GE) began developing
three-phase induction motors in 1891.[6] By 1896, General Electric and Westinghouse signed a cross-licensing
agreement for the bar-winding-rotor design, later called
the squirrel-cage rotor.[6] Arthur E. Kennelly was the rst
to bring out full signicance of the letter i (the square
root of minus one) to designate the 90-degree rotation
operator in complex number analysis of AC problems.[18]
GEs Charles Proteus Steinmetz greatly developed the application of AC complex quantities by including terms
now commonly known as the induction motors Steinmetz
equivalent circuit.[6][19][20][21] Induction motor improvements owing from these inventions and innovations were
such that a 100-horsepower induction motor currently has
the same mounting dimensions as a 7.5-horsepower motor in 1897.[6]

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

A three-phase power supply provides a rotating magnetic eld in

an induction motor.

Inherent slip - unequal rotation frequency of stator eld and the

rotor.

rotates in time with the AC oscillations. Whereas a synchronous motors rotor turns at the same rate as the stator eld, an induction motors rotor rotates at a slower
speed than the stator eld. The induction motor stators
magnetic eld is therefore changing or rotating relative to
the rotor. This induces an opposing current in the induction motors rotor, in eect the motors secondary winding, when the latter is short-circuited or closed through
an external impedance.[22] The rotating magnetic ux induces currents in the windings of the rotor;[23] in a manner
similar to currents induced in a transformer's secondary
winding(s). The currents in the rotor windings in turn
create magnetic elds in the rotor that react against the
stator eld. Due to Lenzs Law, the direction of the magnetic eld created will be such as to oppose the change
2 Principles of operation
in current through the rotor windings. The cause of induced current in the rotor windings is the rotating stator
In both induction and synchronous motors, the AC power magnetic eld, so to oppose the change in rotor-winding
supplied to the motors stator creates a magnetic eld that currents the rotor will start to rotate in the direction of

2.2

Slip

the rotating stator magnetic eld. The rotor accelerates

until the magnitude of induced rotor current and torque
balances the applied load. Since rotation at synchronous
speed would result in no induced rotor current, an induction motor always operates slower than synchronous
speed. The dierence, or slip, between actual and synchronous speed varies from about 0.5 to 5.0% for standard Design B torque curve induction motors.[24] The induction machines essential character is that it is created
solely by induction instead of being separately excited as
in synchronous or DC machines or being self-magnetized
as in permanent magnet motors.[22]
For rotor currents to be induced, the speed of the physical rotor must be lower than that of the stators rotating
magnetic eld ( ns ); otherwise the magnetic eld would
not be moving relative to the rotor conductors and no currents would be induced. As the speed of the rotor drops
below synchronous speed, the rotation rate of the magnetic eld in the rotor increases, inducing more current
in the windings and creating more torque. The ratio between the rotation rate of the magnetic eld induced in
the rotor and the rotation rate of the stators rotating eld
is called slip. Under load, the speed drops and the slip increases enough to create sucient torque to turn the load.
For this reason, induction motors are sometimes referred
to as asynchronous motors.[25] An induction motor can
be used as an induction generator, or it can be unrolled to
form a linear induction motor which can directly generate
linear motion.

2.1

Synchronous speed

An AC motors synchronous speed, ns , is the rotation

rate of the stators magnetic eld,

ns =

2f
p

where f is the motor supplys frequency, where p is the

number of magnetic poles and where ns and f have identical units. For f in unit Hertz and ns in RPM, the formula becomes
ns =

2f
p

( 60 s )
min

120f
p

s
min

.[26][27]

around the stator. In a 4-pole 3-phase machine (4 polepairs, so for three phases it is 4 x 3 = 12 poles) there are 12
poles set at 30 degree intervals. This is illustrated above
right. The illustration on the left is of a 2-pole machine
(2 pole-pairs, so for three phases it is 2 x 3 = 6 poles).

2.2 Slip

Typical torque curve as a function of slip, represented as 'g' here.

Slip, s , is dened as the dierence between synchronous

speed and operating speed, at the same frequency, expressed in rpm or in percent or ratio of synchronous
speed. Thus

s=

ns nr
ns

where ns is stator electrical speed, nr is rotor mechanical

speed.[28][29] Slip, which varies from zero at synchronous
speed and 1 when the rotor is at rest, determines the motors torque. Since the short-circuited rotor windings have
small resistance, a small slip induces a large current in
the rotor and produces large torque.[30] At full rated load,
slip varies from more than 5% for small or special purpose motors to less than 1% for large motors.[31] These
speed variations can cause load-sharing problems when
dierently sized motors are mechanically connected.[31]
Various methods are available to reduce slip, VFDs often
oering the best solution.[31]

2.3 Torque

For example, for a four-pole three-phase motor, p equals See also: Flemings left-hand rule for motors
4, thus ns = 2f
4 which equals 25 Hz (1,500 RPM) and 30
Hz (1,800 RPM) respectively for 50 Hz and 60 Hz supply
systems.
2.3.1 Standard torque
Note that p , the number of poles is a notional number determined by analogy to a single-phase machine, the The typical speed-torque relationship of a standard
simplest type of which has 2 poles of opposite magnetic NEMA Design B polyphase induction motor is as shown
polarity set at 180 degrees with respect to each other. The in the curve at right. Suitable for most low perforsimplest three-phase machine has three pole pairs (total 6 mance loads such as centrifugal pumps and fans, Design
stator poles), each pair connected to one of the phases of B motors are constrained by the following typical torque
the 3-phase supply (red, green, blue), and arranged evenly ranges:[24][lower-alpha 1]

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

In two-pole single-phase motors, the torque goes to zero

at 100% slip (zero speed), so these require alterations to
the stator such as shaded-poles to provide starting torque.
A single phase induction motor requires separate starting circuitry to provide a rotating eld to the motor. The
normal running windings within such a single-phase motor can cause the rotor to turn in either direction, so the
starting circuit determines the operating direction.

Speed-torque curves for four induction motor types: A) Singlephase, B) Polyphase cage, C) Poly-phase cage deep bar, D) Polyphase double cage

In certain smaller single-phase motors, starting is done by

means of a shaded pole with a copper wire turn around
part of the pole. The current induced in this turn lags
behind the supply current, creating a delayed magnetic
eld around the shaded part of the pole face. This imparts
sucient rotational eld energy to start the motor. These
motors are typically used in applications such as desk fans
and record players, as the required starting torque is low,
and the low eciency is tolerable relative to the reduced
cost of the motor and starting method compared to other
AC motor designs.

Larger single phase motors are split-phase motors and

have a second stator winding fed with out-of-phase current; such currents may be created by feeding the winding through a capacitor or having it receive dierent values of inductance and resistance from the main winding.
In capacitor-start designs, the second winding is disconnected once the motor is up to speed, usually either by a
Typical speed-torque curve for NEMA Design B Motor
centrifugal switch acting on weights on the motor shaft or
a thermistor which heats up and increases its resistance,
reducing the current through the second winding to an
Breakdown torque (peak torque), 175-300 percent
insignicant level. The capacitor-run designs keep the
of rated torque
second winding on when running, improving torque. A
Locked-rotor torque (torque at 100% slip), 75-275 resistance start design uses a starter inserted in series with
the startup winding, creating reactance.
percent of rated torque
Self-starting polyphase induction motors produce torque
even at standstill. Available squirrel cage induction motor
starting methods include direct-on-line starting, reducedOver a motors normal load range, the torques slope is voltage reactor or auto-transformer starting, star-delta
approximately linear or proportional to slip because the starting or, increasingly, new solid-state soft assemblies

value of rotor resistance divided by slip, Rr /s , domi- and, of course, VFDs.[33]

nates torque in linear manner.[32] As load increases above
rated load, stator and rotor leakage reactance factors Polyphase motors have rotor bars shaped to give dier
gradually become more signicant in relation to Rr /s ent speed-torque characteristics. The current distribution
such that torque gradually curves towards breakdown within the rotor bars varies depending on the frequency of
torque. As the load torque increases beyond breakdown the induced current. At standstill, the rotor current is the
same frequency as the stator current, and tends to travel
torque the motor stalls.
at the outermost parts of the cage rotor bars (by skin effect). The dierent bar shapes can give usefully dierent
speed-torque characteristics as well as some control over
2.3.2 Starting
the inrush current at startup.
See also: Motor controller
In wound rotor motors, rotor circuit connection through
Pull-up torque, 65-190 percent of rated torque.

slip rings to external resistances allows change of speedThere are three basic types of competing small induction torque characteristics for acceleration control and speed
motors: single-phase split-phase and shaded-pole types, control purposes.
and small polyphase induction motors.
Although polyphase motors are inherently self-starting,
their starting and pull-up torque design limits must be
high enough to overcome actual load conditions.

f=50Hz

30

f=40Hz
f=30Hz
f=20Hz
f=10Hz

25

+U W +V U +W V +U W +V U +W V

C(Nm)

20

U1

U2

15

10

0
0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

N(tr/min)

Typical speed-torque curves for dierent motor input frequencies

as for example used with variable-frequency drives.

2.3.3

Speed control

Before the development of semiconductor power electronics, it was dicult to vary the frequency, and cage
induction motors were mainly used in xed speed applications. Applications such as electric overhead cranes
used DC drives or wound rotor motors (WRIM) with
slip rings for rotor circuit connection to variable external resistance allowing considerable range of speed control. However, resistor losses associated with low speed
operation of WRIMs is a major cost disadvantage, especially for constant loads.[34] Large slip ring motor drives,
termed slip energy recovery systems, some still in use,
recover energy from the rotor circuit, rectify it, and return it to the power system using a VFD. In many industrial variable-speed applications, DC and WRIM drives
are being displaced by VFD-fed cage induction motors.
The most common ecient way to control asynchronous
motor speed of many loads is with VFDs. Barriers to
adoption of VFDs due to cost and reliability considerations have been reduced considerably over the past three
decades such that it is estimated that drive technology
is adopted in as many as 30-40% of all newly installed
motors.[35]

Typical winding pattern for a three-phase (U, V, W), four-pole

motor. Note the interleaving of the pole windings and the resulting quadrupole eld.

from the single-phase supply and feeds it to the second

motor winding. Single-phase motors require some mechanism to produce a rotating eld on startup. Cage induction motor rotors conductor bars are typically skewed to
reduce noise.

4 Rotation reversal

The method of changing the direction of rotation of an

induction motor depends on whether it is a three-phase
or single-phase machine. In the case of three phase, reversal is carried out by swapping connection of any two
phase conductors. In a single-phase split-phase motor, it
is achieved by changing the connection between the primary winding and the start circuit. Single-phase splitphase motors that are designed for specic applications
may have the connection between the primary winding
and the start circuit connected internally so that the rota3 Construction
tion cannot be changed. Also, single-phase shaded-pole
motors have a xed rotation, and the direction cannot be
The stator of an induction motor consists of poles carrychanged.
ing supply current to induce a magnetic eld that penetrates the rotor. To optimize the distribution of the magnetic eld, the windings are distributed in slots around the
stator, with the magnetic eld having the same number of 5 Power factor
north and south poles. Induction motors are most commonly run on single-phase or three-phase power, but two- The power factor of induction motors varies with load,
phase motors exist; in theory, induction motors can have typically from around 0.85 or 0.90 at full load to as low
any number of phases. Many single-phase motors having as 0.12 at no-load,[33] due to stator and rotor leakage
two windings can be viewed as two-phase motors, since and magnetizing reactances.[36] Power factor can be ima capacitor is used to generate a second power phase 90 proved by connecting capacitors either on an individual

motor basis or, by preference, on a common bus covering

several motors. For economic and other considerations,
power systems are rarely power factor corrected to unity
power factor.[37] Power capacitor application with harmonic currents requires power system analysis to avoid
harmonic resonance between capacitors and transformer
and circuit reactances.[38] Common bus power factor correction is recommended to minimize resonant risk and to
simplify power system analysis.[38]

Eciency

LINEAR INDUCTION MOTOR

Magnetizing reactance ( Xm ).
Paraphrasing from Alger in Knowlton, an induction motor is simply an electrical transformer the magnetic circuit
of which is separated by an air gap between the stator
winding and the moving rotor winding.[22] The equivalent circuit can accordingly be shown either with equivalent circuit components of respective windings separated
by an ideal transformer or with rotor components referred to the stator side as shown in the following circuit and associated equation and parameter denition
tables.[33][37][40][41][42][43]

(See also Energy savings)

Full load motor eciency varies from about 85% to
97%, related motor losses being broken down roughly as
follows:[39]
Friction and windage, 5% 15%
Iron or core losses, 15% 25%
Stator losses, 25% 40%
Rotor losses, 15% 25%
Stray load losses, 10% 20%.
Various regulatory authorities in many countries have introduced and implemented legislation to encourage the
manufacture and use of higher eciency electric motors. There is existing and forthcoming legislation regarding the future mandatory use of premium-eciency
induction-type motors in dened equipment. For more
information, see: Premium eciency and Copper in energy ecient motors.

Steinmetz equivalent circuit

Many useful motor relationships between time, current,

voltage, speed, power factor and torque can be obtained from analysis of the Steinmetz equivalent circuit (also termed T-equivalent circuit or IEEE recommended equivalent circuit), a mathematical model used
to describe how an induction motors electrical input is
transformed into useful mechanical energy output. The
equivalent circuit is a single-phase representation of a
multiphase induction motor that is valid in steady-state
balanced-load conditions.

Steinmetz equivalent circuit

The following rule-of-thumb approximations apply to the

circuit:[43][44][45]
Maximum current happens under locked rotor current (LRC) conditions and is somewhat less than
Vs /X , with LRC typically ranging between 6 and 7
times rated current for standard Design B motors.[24]
Breakdown torque Tmax happens when s

Rr /X and Is 0.7LRC such that Tmax

K Vs2 /(2X) and thus, with constant voltage input, a low-slip induction motors percent-rated maximum torque is about half its percent-rated LRC.
The relative stator to rotor leakage reactance of standard Design B cage induction motors is[46]
Xs
0.4

Xr
0.6
Neglecting stator resistance, an induction motors
torque curve reduces to the Kloss equation[47]
Tem
Tmax .

2Tmax
+ smax
s

s
smax

, where smax is slip at

8 Linear induction motor

The Steinmetz equivalent circuit is expressed simply in Main article: linear induction motor
terms of the following components:
Linear induction motors, that work on same general prin Stator resistance and leakage reactance ( Rs , Xs ). ciples as rotary induction motors and are frequently threephase, are designed to produce straight line motion. Uses
Rotor resistance, leakage reactance, and slip ( Rr , include magnetic levitation, linear propulsion, linear ac

Xr or Rr , Xr , and s ).
tuators, and liquid metal pumping.[48]

See also
AC motor
Circle diagram
Induction generator
Premium eciency
Copper in energy ecient motors
Induction motors modelling in ABC frame of reference
Variable refrigerant ow

10

Notes

[8] The Electrical Engineer (21 Sep 1888). . . . a new application of the alternating current in the production of rotary motion was made known almost simultaneously by two
experimenters, Nikola Tesla and Galileo Ferraris, and the
subject has attracted general attention from the fact that no
commutator or connection of any kind with the armature
was required. . . . Volume II. London: Charles & Co. p.
239.
[9] Ferraris, Galileo (1885). Electromagnetic Rotation with
an Alternating Current. Electrician 36: 360375.
[10] Tesla, Nikola; AIEE Trans. (1888). A New System for
Alternating Current Motors and Transformers. AIEE 5:
308324. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
[11] Jill Jonnes, Empires of Light: Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse, and the Race to Electrify the World, Edison Declares War
[12] Electrical World, Volume 78, No 7. page 340

[1] NEMA MG-1 denes a) breakdown torque as the maximum torque developed by the motor with rated voltage applied at rated frequency without an abrupt drop in speed,
b) locked-rotor torque as the minimum torque developed
by the motor at rest with rated voltage applied at rated
frequency, and c) pull-up torque as the minimum torque
developed by the motor during the period of acceleration
from rest to the speed at which breakdown torque occurs.

11

References

[1] Babbage, C.; Herschel, J. F. W. (Jan 1825). Account of

the Repetition of M. Aragos Experiments on the Magnetism Manifested by Various Substances during the Act
of Rotation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 115 (0): 467496. doi:10.1098/rstl.1825.0023. Retrieved 2 December 2012.
[2] Thompson, Silvanus Phillips (1895). Polyphase Electric
Currents and Alternate-Current Motors (1st ed.). London:
E. & F.N. Spon. p. 261. Retrieved 2 December 2012.
[3] Baily, Walter (June 28, 1879). A Mode of producing
Aragos Rotation. Philosophical magazine: A journal of
theoretical, experimental and applied physics (Taylor &
Francis).
[4] Vukovi, Vladan (November 2006). Interpretation of a
Discovery (PDF). The Serbian Journal of Electrical Engineers 3 (2). Retrieved 10 February 2013.
[5] Ferraris, G. (1888). Atti della Reale Academia delle Science di Torino. Atti della R. Academia delle Science di
Torino. XXIII: 360375.
[6] Alger, P.L.; Arnold, R.E. (1976). The History of Induction Motors in America. Proceedings of the IEEE 64 (9):
13801383. doi:10.1109/PROC.1976.10329.
[7] Froehlich, Fritz E. Editor-in-Chief; Allen Kent Co-Editor
(1992). The Froehlich/Kent Encyclopedia of Telecommunications: Volume 17 - Television Technology to Wire Antennas (First ed.). New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. p. 36.
ISBN 0-8247-2902-1. Retrieved 2 December 2012.

[13] Klooster, John W. (30 July 2009). Icons of Invention the

Makers of the Modern World from Gutenberg to Gates.
Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. p. 305. ISBN 978-0-31334744-3. Retrieved 10 September 2012.
[14] Day, Lance (1996). McNeil, Ian, ed. Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology. London: Routledge.
p. 1204. ISBN 0-203-02829-5. Retrieved 2 December
2012.
[15] Hubbell, M.W. (2011). The Fundamentals of Nuclear
Power Generation Questions & Answers. Authorhouse. p.
27. ISBN 978-1463424411.
[16] VDE Committee History of Electrical Engineering IEEE
German Chapter (January 2012). 150th Birthday of
Michael von Dolivo-Dobrowolsky Colloquium 13. Retrieved 10 February 2013.
[17] Dolivo-Dobrowolsky, M. (1891). ETZ 12: 149, 161.
Missing or empty |title= (help)
[18] Kennelly, A. E. (Jan 1893). Impedance. Transactions
of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers X: 172
232. doi:10.1109/T-AIEE.1893.4768008.
[19] Steinmetz, Charles Porteus (1897). The Alternating Current Induction Motor. AIEE Trans XIV (1): 183217.
Retrieved 18 December 2012.
[20] Banihaschemi, Abdolmajid (1973). Determination of the
Losses in Induction Machines Due to Harmonics (PDF).
Fredericton, N.B.: University of New Brunswick. pp. 1,
58.
[21] Steinmetz, Charles Proteus; Berg, Ernst J. (1897). Theory
and Calculation of Alternating Current Phenomena. McGraw Publishing Company.
[22] Alger, Philip L.; et al. (1949). "'Induction Machines subsection of Sec. 7 - Alternating-Current Generators and
Motors. In Knowlton, A.E. Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers (8th ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 705.
[23] AC Motors. NSW HSC Online - Charles Sturt University. Retrieved 2 December 2012.

[24] NEMA MG-1 2007 Condensed (2008). Information

Guide for General Purpose Industrial AC Small and
Medium Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor Standards. Rosslyn, Virginia US: NEMA. p. 29 (Table 11). Retrieved 2
December 2012.
[25] Induction (Asynchronous) Motors (PDF). Mississippi
State University Dept of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Course ECE 3183, 'Electrical Engineering Systems for non-ECE majors. Retrieved 2 December 2012.
[26] Induction Motors. electricmotors.machinedesign.com.
Penton Media, Inc. Archived from the original on 200711-16. Retrieved 2016-04-12.
[27] Motor Formulas. elec-toolbox.com. Retrieved 1 January 2013.
[28] Srivastava, Avinash; Kumar, Ravi. Torque Slip Characteristics of Induction Motor. Course notes (Malnad College Of Engineering).
[29] NEMA Standards Publication (2007). Application Guide
for AC Adjustable Speed Drive Systems. Rosslyn, Virginia
US: NEMA. p. 6. Retrieved 2 December 2012.
[30] Herman, Stephen L. (2011). Alternating Current Fundamentals (8th ed.). US: Cengage Learning. pp. 529536.
ISBN 1-111-03913-5.
[31] Peltola, Mauri. AC Induction Motor Slip. Plantservices.com. Retrieved 18 December 2012.
[32] Keljik, Jerey (2009). Chapter 12 - The Three-Phase,
Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor. Electricity 4 : AC/DC
Motors, Controls, and Maintenance (9th ed.). Clifton
Park, NY: Delmar, Cengage Learning. pp. 112115.
ISBN 1-4354-0031-3.
[33] Liang, Xiaodong; Ilochonwu, Obinna (Jan 2011).
Induction Motor Starting in Practical Industrial Applications (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications
47 (1): 271280. doi:10.1109/TIA.2010.2090848. Retrieved 4 December 2012.

13

EXTERNAL LINKS

[40] Hubert, Charles I. (2002). Electric Machines : Theory,

Operation, Applications, Adjustment, and Control (2nd
ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall. pp. Chapter 4. ISBN 0130612103.
[41] Beaty, H. Wayne (Ed.) (2006). Section 5 - ThreePhase Induction Motors by Hashem Oraee (PDF). Handbook of Electric Power Calculations (3rd ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-136298-3.
[42] Knight, Andy.
Three-Phase Induction Machines.
Hosted by University of Alberta. Retrieved 21 December 2012.
[43] IEEE 112 (2004). IEEE Standard Test Procedure for
Polyphase Induction Motors and Generators. New York,
N.Y.: IEEE. ISBN 0-7381-3978-5.
[44] Alger (1949), p. 711
[45] zyurt, .H. (2005). Parameter and Speed Estimation of
Induction Motors from Manufacturers Data and Measurements (PDF). Middle East Technical University. pp. 33
34.
[46] Knight, Andy. Determining Induction Machine Parameters. Hosted by University of Alberta. Retrieved 31
December 2012.
[47] Hameyer, Kay (2001). Electrical Machine I: Basics, Design, Function, Operation (PDF). RWTH Aachen University Institute of Electrical Machines. Retrieved 11 January 2013.page=133
[48] Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Educational Foundation
for Atomic Science. 6 June 1973. Retrieved 8 August
2012.

12 Classical sources
Bailey, Benjamin Franklin (1911). The Induction
Motor. McGraw-Hill.

[34] Jamil Asghar, M.S. (2003). Speed control of wound

rotor induction motors by AC regulator based optimum
voltage control. Power Electronics and Drive Systems,
2003. The Fifth International Conference on 2: 1037
1040. doi:10.1109/PEDS.2003.1283113.

Behrend, Bernhard Arthur (1901). The Induction

Motor: A Short Treatise on its Theory and Design,
With Numerous Experimental Data and Diagrams.
McGraw Publishing Company / Electrical World
and Engineer.

[35] Lendenmann, Heinz; et al. Motoring Ahead (PDF). Retrieved Apr 18, 2012.

Boy de la Tour, Henri (1906). The Induction Motor: Its Theory and Design, Set Forth By a Practical
Method of Calculation. Translated Cyprien Odilon
Mailloux. McGraw Pub. Co.

[36] Fink, D.G.; Beaty, H.W. (1978). Standard Handbook for

Electrical Engineers (11th ed.). McGraw-Hill. pp. 2028
thru 2029.
[37] Jordan, Howard E. (1994). Energy-Ecient Electric Motors and their Applications (2nd ed.). New York: Plenum
Press. ISBN 0-306-44698-7.
[38] NEMA MG-1, p. 19
[39] U.S. DOE (2008). Improving Motor and Drive System
Performance: A Sourcebook for Industry (PDF). p. 27.
Retrieved 31 December 2012.

13 External links
An induction motor drawing
Rotating magnetic elds: interactive, (Italian)
Construct your squirrel cage induction motor, using
povray

9
Induction motor topics from Hyperphysics website
hosted by C.R. Nave, GSU Physics and Astronomy
Dept.
Torques in Electrical Induction Motors on Engineering ToolBox

10

14

14
14.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Induction motor Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_motor?oldid=729597194 Contributors: Heron, Mcarling, Ijon, Julesd,

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