Modern II

Modern Physics II
Philip Hwang
May 12, 2016
These are notes on the Modern Physics II course taken at the Oklahoma
School of Science and Mathematics and taught by Dr. Shayne Johnston
during the Spring Semester of 2016. The book used is Modern Physics by
Tipler.
Philip Hwang
Contents
Contents
1 Schr
odinger Formulation of Non-relativistic Quantum Mechanics
1.1 Bound particle in a static potential U (r) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 1D Infinite Square Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 3D Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 One Dimensional Hydrogen Atom (Classical Treatment) . . . . .
1.5 Expectation Value of an Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6 3D Bohr Model of Hydrogen Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7 1D Hydrogen AtomQuantum Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8 Energy Eigenfunctions (Quantum Bouncer) . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.9 The Quantum Bouncer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.10 The Generalized Uncertainty Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.11 Angular Momentum-Quantized in our universe. . . . . . . . . . .
1.12 Angular Momentum Eigenvalues and Eigenfunctions . . . . . . .
1.13 Two Classical Interacting Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.14 One Classical Particle in a Central Force Field V (r) . . . . . . .
1.15 Quantum Particle in any Central Force Field . . . . . . . . . . .
1.16 Hydrogenic Atoms- H, He+ , Li++ , etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.17 Radial Probabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.18 Transitions-Radiation spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.19 Multielectron atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.20 Spin Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.21 Orbital Magnetic Moment of H Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.22 Intrinsic Magnetic Moment of Elementary Particles . . . . . . . .
1.23 Stern-Gerlach Experiment-1922 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.24 Addition of Angular Momenta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.25 Efective Magnetic Moment of H atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.26 Relativistic (Non-Schr
odinger) Effects on the Energy Levels of an
1.27 Energy Levels of the Hydrogen Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.28 Relativistic Dirac Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.29 Hierarchy of Corrections to the Bohr Energy Levels . . . . . . . .
1.30 H Atom in External Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.31 Identical Particles+Symmetrization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.32 Two Particles in a 1D Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.33 N particles in a box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.34 Spin-State Symmetry? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.35 Combined spatial+spin-state symmetries . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.36 Quick Review for Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.36.1 Schr
odinger equation in 3D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.36.2 Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.36.3 Hydrogen wave functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.36.4 Electron spin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.36.5 Spin-orbit coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.36.6 Exclusion principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2 Statistical Physics: Systems of many particles

2.1 Energy Distribution Function f (E) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Derivation of g(E) for massive particles m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Quantum Gas of Free Electrons in a Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Philip Hwang
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
Contents
Boltzmann distribution . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1 Boson Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2 Fermion Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.3 Photon Gas (Temperature T ) . . . .
The Variational Method for Ground States
Recall the 1D Harmonic Oscillator . . . . .
Hydrogenic Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7.1 Ground State of Helium . . . . . . .
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3 Molecular Physics
3.1 The Covalent Bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1 Hydrogen Molecule H2+ . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.2 Muon-Catalyzed Fusion . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Diatomic Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1 Lennard-Jones Potential (1924) . . . . . . .
3.2.2 Selection Rules for Transitions . . . . . . .
3.2.3 Transition Spectral Lines . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Light Sources-Emission characteristics . . . . . . .
3.4 Interaction between a material and electromagnetic
3.4.1 Basic Elements of a Laser . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.2 Pumping Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.3 He N e lasers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Perturbation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1 Applied to the Schrodinger equation . . . .
3.5.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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4 Solid State Physics

4.1 Classical free-electron model of electrical conduction in
4.1.1 Resistivity at Room Temperature . . . . . .
4.2 The Dirac Delta Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 The Band Structure of Crystalline Solids . . . . . . . .
4.3.1 Dirac comb potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2 Insulators, Conductors, and Semiconductors . .
4.3.3 Transparency to visible light . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Impurity Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.1 The p n Junction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.2 Si Solar Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 Superconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.1 Low-Tc superconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.2 BCS Theory-1959 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.3 High-Tc Superconductors . . . . . . . . . . . .
metals .
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5 Nuclear Physics
5.1 Nuclear Binding . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.1 Stability . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.2 The Strong Force . . . . . .
5.1.3 Binding Energy of a nucleus
5.2 Stability of Nuclei . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Quarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.1 Color force . . . . . . . . .
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Philip Hwang
5.4
5.5
Contents
Spin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.1 Gluons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.2 Types of gluons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.3 Quark confinement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.4 Asymptotic freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.5 Model of color-force interaction potential . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nuclear Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.1 The Shell Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.2 The Liquid Drop Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.3 Free Particle in 3D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.4 Infinite spherical well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.5 Shell model of the nucleus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.6 Refinements of the model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.7 Semi-empirical binding energy formula (Inspired by Liquid Drop
Model) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.8 Optimal value of Z for fixed A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6 The
6.1
6.2
6.3
Weak Interaction
Characteristics of the weak interaction . . . . .
Weak interactions important for nuclear physics
Radioactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.1 Beta Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 Fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.1 Hydrogen Bomb . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.2 Fusion Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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7 TBA
7.1 Overview of Quantum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.1 Two Equivalent Frameworks . . . . . . . .
7.1.2 The Postulates of Quantum Mechanics . . .
7.1.3 Particular realizations of Diracs framework
7.2 Relativistic Quantum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 Qubits-Another example of Diracs framework . . .
7.3.1 The Pauli Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.2 Successive Spin Measurements . . . . . . .
7.4 The Quantum Measurement Problem . . . . . . . .
7.4.1 Classical View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4.2 Quantum View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5 Bells Inequality (1964) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5.1 The Prediction of Local Determinism . . .
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76
Philip Hwang
Schr
1 Schr
odinger Formulation of Non-relativistic Quantum
Mechanics
Quantum state of a particle is described by a wave function (r, t). Observable physical
properties are described by differential operators o. Here are some examples of operators:
Linear Momentum. p
= i~.
= i~r .
Rotational Momentum. L
=
Hamiltonian (Energy). H
1 2
2m p
+ U (r) (TI)
Here, we examine wave equations, like we did in Modern I, but expand it to three
dimensions and with more formalism.
Important 1.1 (Time Dependent Schrodinger Equation)
We can write the TDSE as
H(r,
t) = i~
,
t
or, in expanded form,
~2 2
+ U (r) = i~
2m
t
When solving such an equation, the problem of messy, multiple variables becomes a
problem. We can overcome these difficulties with one method, separation of variables,
where we rewrite the TDSE as
(r, t) = (r)(t).
Doing this gives us
2
~
[ 2m
i~ (t)
2 (r) + U (r)(r)]
t
=
E.
(r)
(t)
Since both sides of independent of the variable on the other side, we introduce the
separation constant E.
d(t)
i
= E(t) (t) = CeiEt/~
dt
~
H(r) = E(r) Eigenvalue equation of form A x = x
1.1 Bound particle in a static potential U (r)

is hermitian and so the eigenvalues {En } are real and there are is a complete set of
H
orthogonal eigenfunctions {n (r)}. By orthogonal, we mean
Z
d3 rn (r)n (r) = 0,
all space
if n0 6= n. This is the same as saying i j = 0 for two vectors i and j. THis gives the
separated solutions as:
n (r, t) = n (r)eiEn t/~ , n = 1, 2, 3, ...
5
Philip Hwang
Schr
The General solution of the TDSE is
(r, t) =
Cn eiEn t/~ n (r).
n=1
Note that the measure energy of a particle probability of En is
|Cn |2
P
2,
j=1 |Cn |
where the
denominator is 1 if is normalized. We normalize {n }:

Z
rn (r)n (r)
d3 r(
all space
all space
d3 r
=
all space
Cn n (r))(
n=1
Cn0 n0 (r))
n=1
|Cn |2 n (r)n (r)
n=1
|Cn |2 = 1
n=1
1.2 1D Infinite Square Well

Lets review the infinite square well problem in 1 dimension. We are given a particle
with position 0 x L, where the potential at 0 and L is infinite. This gives boundary
conditions (0) = 0 and (L) = 0. The solutions when solving such a system are:
n2 ~2 2
, n = 1, 2, 3, ...
2mL2
r
2
nx
n (x) =
sin(
)
L
L
En =
1.3 3D Box
Imagine the same thing as the last problem but three dimensional. We let the potential
anywhere outside the box to be infinite and the potential inside to be 0. The boundary
conditions are then,
(r) = 0
(0, y, z) = 0, etc.
We are given three lengths of the box L1 , L2 , L3 , where
0 x L1
0 y L2
0 z L3
Again we solve by separation of variables(r) = X(x)Y (y)Z(z). This implies
En1 ,n2 ,n3 =
2 ~2 n21
n2
n2
( 2 + 22 + 32 )
2m L1 L2 L3
Note: When L1 = L2 = L3 , the energy levels exhibit degeneracy (same E but different
state ). We get the wave equation as
n1 ,n2 ,n3 (x, y, z) = C sin(
n1 x
n2 x
n3 x
) sin(
) sin(
).
L1
L2
L3
6
Philip Hwang
Schr
Normalization:
Z L3
dz|n1 ,n2 ,n3 (x, y, z)|2 = 1
dy
0
0
r0 r
r
2
2
2
= C =
.
L1 L2 L3
Z
L1
L2
dx
1.4 One Dimensional Hydrogen Atom (Classical Treatment)

Here, we will find the period for a one dimensional hydrogen atom orbital. For an electron
orbiting an proton, the potential of the system can be written as being 0 for x 0 and
2
1
kex for x > 0. Here, k = 4
. To find the period T we look at when the kinetic energy
0
is 0. This is the so called turning point of the system. The total energy is written as
1
ke2
E = mv 2
.
2
x
This gives the velocity in terms of x as
s
v(x) =
2ke2 1
1
(
),
m x xm
where xm is the turning point. The period is

r
Z
Z xm
dx
2ke2 1 xm
dx
q
= 2(
)
T =2
v(x)
m
1
1
0
0
x xm
r
Z xm r
m
xm x
=2
dx
2ke2 0
xm x
r
Z 1r
m
X
xm dX
=2
xm
2ke2
1
X
0
r
m xm 2
= T = 2
(
) .
ke2 2
Note that we introduce halfway in the calculating above X
x
xm
1.5 Expectation Value of an Operator

The expectation value of an operator is
R
h
oi =
(r, t)d3 r
all space (r, t) o
R
3
all space (r, t)(r, t)d r
The denominator of this expression is 1 if is normalized.

Note 1.2 (Dirac Notation).
h
oi =
h|
o|i
h|i
In particular,
=
hHi
(r, t)H(r,
t)d3 r
all space
Z
=
all space n0 =1
Cn0 n0 (r)eiEn t/~ )H(
n=1
Cn n (r)eiEn t/~ )d3 r.
Philip Hwang
Schr
Only n0 = n terms survive because the eigenfunctions are orthogonal.

=
hHi
Z
X
|Cn |2 n (r)n (r)d3 .
n=1 all space
Because the wave functions are normalized

=
hHi
|Cn |2 En .
n=1
1.6 3D Bohr Model of Hydrogen Atom

This model predicts the correct energy levels. Circular orbits are about a fixed proton.
Coulombs law gives
ke2
mv 2
=
r
r
ke2
= r =
.
mv 2
Angular momentum is conjectured to be dependent on an integer multiple of ~
Important 1.3 (Angular Momentum)
L = mvr = n~, n = 1, 2, 3, ...

This implies
n~
mrn
ke2
rn =
n~ 2
m( mr
)
n
vn =
rn = n2 (
~2
) = n2 ao .
mke2
Lets find the period of orbit.

Tn =
2rn
2rn
2mrn2
= n~ =
vn
n~
( mrn )
p
~2
)
=
n~
=
mke2 rn
mke2
r
2mrn2
m 3
Tn =
= 2
r
2 n
2
ke
mke rn
rn = n2 (
This is an analogue of Keplers 3rd law. Compare this with our one dimensional model.
These two models agree if xn 2rn (diameter). What is missing from our 1D model is
the angular momentum. So we need to go back and incorporate this.
Philip Hwang
Schr
1.7 1D Hydrogen AtomQuantum Treatment

2
Our potential energy U (x) is given by a function that is infinity when x 0 and kex
whenever x > 0. We write the time independent Schr
odinger equation with separated
variables
~2 d2 ke2
(x) E(x) = 0.
2m dx2
x
Lets define new variables

~2
kme2
2mEa20
1

~2
d
2x
2 d
=
X
=
a0
dx
a0 dX
a0
d2

1
+ ( ) )(X) = 0
2
dX
X
4
These are the boundary equation

(0) = 0
lim = 0
As x
d2
1
(x) = 0
2
dX
4
= (x) = ex/2 .
Thus
(X) = AeX/2 .
Next, we will write (X) = f (x) (X) = eX/2 f (X). And so
d2 f
df

+ f (x) = 0.
2
dX
dx x
To solve this, we try a series solution: Write
f (x) =
Cn X n .
n=1
Note C0 = 0. Shifting the summations...
X
df
=
(n + 1)Cn+1 X n
dX
d2 f
dX 2
f (X)
=
X
n=0
(n + 2)(n + 1)Cn+2 X n
n=0
Cn+1 X n .
n=0
Philip Hwang
Schr
The result looks like
[(n + 2)(n + 1)Cn+2 (n + 1)Cn+1 + Cn+1 ]X n = 0
n=0
[(n + 2)(n + 1)Cn+2 (n + 1)Cn+1 + Cn+1 ] 0, n = 0, 1, 2, ....

So
(n + 1)nCn+1 nCn + Cn = 0
n
Cn+1 =
Cn
n(n + 1)
This recursion relation gives us only one independent C1 = C. For large n, Cn+1
C1
Cn
n+1 . This is like (n+1). Our infinite series is becoming like the infinite series of an
exponential function eX . But this is a problem because then (x) ex/2 , which is
divergent. The trick here is to have as an integer so that eventually = n and the
infinite series truncates into a polynomial. So
2 =
= En =
~2
= n2
2mEn a20
1
~2
(
), n = 1, 2, 3, ...
n2 2ma20
Note that we will have to incorporate the following effects before the model is satisfactory
* No angular momentum
* No electron spin.
1.8 Energy Eigenfunctions (Quantum Bouncer)

For = 1, C2 = C3 = ... = 0. Set C1 = C. So
f (X) = CX
1 (x) = CXeX/2 .
For = 2, C3 = C4 = ... = 0. So C1 = C and C2 = C21 . So
F (x) = CX C
2 (x) = C(X
X2
2
X 2 X/2
)e
.
2
For = 3, C4 = C5 = ... = 0.
C1 = C
C2 = C
C
C3 =
6
3
CX
f (X) = CX CX 2 +
6
3
X
3 (X) = C(X X 2 +
)eX/2 ,
6
10
Philip Hwang
Schr
and so on. Recall X =
2x
a0
2x
na0 .
So the normalization condition is
[n (
0
Because they are orthogonal

Z
n0 (
0
2x 2
)] dx = 1
na0
2x
2x
) n (
)dx = 0,
n0 a0
na0
whenever n0 6= n. The general solution for the 1D Hydrogen atom is

(r, t) =
Cn e ~ En t n (
n=1
2x
).
na0
This describes the spreading wave packet bouncing back and forth.
1.9 The Quantum Bouncer

Particle in a triangular quantum well with a constant force. That is, the potential U (x)
is infinite for x 0 and F x for x > 0. Define
F (x) =
Classical turning points are x
n =
En
F .
dU
= F = constant.
dx
The wave function will diminish after x
n .
It is oscillatory for x x
n .
monotonically decaying for x > x
n .
TISE:
[
~2 d2
+ F x E]E (x) = 0.
2m dx2
The boundary conditions are

E (0) = 0.
E (x) 0 as x .
Definitions:
f
(
2m
2m
F, 2 E
2
~
~
d2
f x + )E (x) = 0.
dx2
New variable x X k(x f ) = k(x

and only if x is the turning point x
n .
E
F ),
where k f 1/3 . This means that X = 0 if
Important 1.4 (Airy equation (1838))

d2
X) (X) = 0
dX 2
The solutions of this equation are called Airy function Ai(X), Bi(X). Call these
functions up in Mathematica for better representation.
(
11
Philip Hwang
Schr
The boundary conditions of these equations are

(X = k E
F ) = 0, when x = 0.
(X) 0 as X .
Because Bi(X) diverges, it does not contribute to this wave function, so (X) = CAi(X).
The energies are determined by the zeroes of Ai(X). So
k
X1
X2
A few of the zeroes... X3
X4
X5
The allowed energies are:
E
= Xn = nth zero of Ai(X)
F
= 2.33810
= 4.08704
= 5.52055
= 6.78670
= 7.94413
X6 = 9.02265
X7 = 10.04017
X8 = 11.00852
X9 = 11.93601
X10 = 12.82877
F Xn
k
~2 F 2 1/3
En = (
) Xn > 0
2m
En =
Corresponding wavefunctions are

n (X) = CAi(X)
kEn
)
F
= CAi(kx + Xn )
= CAi(kx
Normalizing gives
Z
1=
0
1
=
k
E
(x)E (x)dx
kE
F
(X) (X)dX.
General solution for the quantum bouncer:

(x, t) =
Cn Ai(kx + Xn )e ~ En t ,
n=1
where
~2 F 2 1/3
) Xn > 0
2m
2mF
k = ( 2 )1/3
~
Xn = nth zero of Ai(X) < 0.
En = (
This superposition describes a wave packet bouncing and spreading.
12
Philip Hwang
Schr
1.10 The Generalized Uncertainty Principle
hAi
(r, t)A[(r,
t)]d3 r
What do we mean by uncertainty?

q
2 i
h(A hAi)
q
2.
= hA2 i hAi
(A) =
The interpretation of this means if I look at a system over and over again, A gives the
spread of the results of those measurements.
Theorem 1.5 (Cauchy-Schwarz Variant)
1
B]
i|,
(A) (B) |hi[A,
2
B.
Note that the commutator
for Hermitian operators A,
B]
= (AB
B
A).
[A,
Example 1.6 (Position/Momentum)
A = x
=x
= px = i~
B
x
[
x, px ](x) = x
p(x) px
(x)
= x(i~)
(i~) (x)
x
x
= i~x
+ i~x
+ i~(x)
x
x
= i~(x)
= [
x, px ] = i~
This means
(x)(px )
~
2
1.11 Angular Momentum-Quantized in our universe.

Angular momentum in our universe has to be a multiple of ~. Here is the classical formula
L=rp
Lx = ypz zpy
Ly = zpx xpz
Lz = xpy ypx
13
Philip Hwang
Schr
Important 1.7 (QM Formula)
= i~r
L
x = i~(y z )
L
z
y
y = i~(z
x )
L
x
z
z = i~(x
L
y )
y
x
We introduce spherical coordinates
x = r sin cos
y = r sin sin
z = r cos
After messy bashing, the operators in spherical coordinates become
x = i~(sin + cot cos )
L
y = i~(cos
L
cot sin
)
z = i~
L
2
2 = ~2 [ 1 (sin ) + 1 ]
L
sin
sin2 2
These spherical coordinates give no
terms! The commutators become
x, L
y ] = i~L
z
[L
y, L
z ] = i~L
x
[L
z, L
x ] = i~L
y.
[L
Becomes the commutators are not zero, we can only measure one component of L at a
time. Or
L
= i~L
L
However, we can measure |L| (l) and one component (usually Lz ) (m) simultaneously.
We are almost ready to do it!!!
1.12 Angular Momentum Eigenvalues and Eigenfunctions

Remember from before. We have
2, L
z] = 0
[L
14
Philip Hwang
Schr
, which implies simultaneous eigenfunctions which we will call Y (, ).

2 Y (, ) = (~2 )Y (, )
L
z Y (, ) = (~)Y (, ).
L
Solve these equations by separation of variables so that Y (, ) = f ()g().
Conditions on g():
1. g( + 2) = g()
R 2
2. 0 |g()|2 d = 1
1 and 2 imply
1
g() = eim , m = integer
2
Conditions on f ():
1. Well behaved at = 0 and = (not singular).
R
2. 0 |f ()|2 sin d = 1
This implies that
f () = C 0 Plm (cos ), l = 0, 1, 2, ..., m = l, l + 1, ..., l 1, l
The eigenvalues:
= l(l + 1)
=m
Now we write out spherical harmonics
Ylm = flm ()gm ()
2
L Ylm (, ) = l(l + 1)~2 Ylm (, )

z Ylm (, ) = m~Ylm (, )
L
1.13 Two Classical Interacting Particles

Let there be two particles of mass m1 and m2 . Let their spatial vectors be r1 and r2 ,
and let r = r2 r1 . Allow rcm to be the positional vector of the center of mass. So
r + cm =
m1 r1 + m2 r2
.
m1 + m2
Let V (r) be the interacting potential energy ( kqr1 q1 ). So the forces of the particles are
r V
r r
r V
m2 r2 =
.
r r
m1 r1 =
Adding the two above gives conservation of momentum

m1 r1 + m2 r2 = 0
p = m1 r 1 + m2 r 2 = constant
15
Philip Hwang
Schr
Note that p = (m1 + m2 )rcm . So now we have

m2
)r
m1 + m2
m1
)r
r2 = rcm + (
m1 + m2
r1 = rcm (
Note (r1 , r2 ) (rcm , r). Taking the time derivative twice gives
m2
)r
m1 + m2
m1
r2 = (
)r.
m1 + m2
r1 = (
Multiplying by the masses gives

m1 m2
r = V (r)
m1 + m2
m1 m2
r = V (r).
m2 r2 =
m1 + m2
m1 r1 =
m2
Note that r cm is constant and that for mm11+m
, we have r = V (r). We have now
2
reduced the two-particle problem to the motion of one reduced particle in a central
force field.
1.14 One Classical Particle in a Central Force Field V (r)

Let there be some mass with position vector r. So
F = V (r) =
r
V
r
= r F = 0.
is constant. Remember
This means that L
L = r
dr
.
dt
This implies that the motion is confined to a plane. So now we can use polar coordinates
(r, ). Note p = F.
d
r dt
(r) = V
r +
2
(r)
r
(last term is centrifugal force).
d
= 0.
(r2 )
dt
Note that =
L
.
r2
Is
V
L2
+ 3
r
r
L2
= [V (r) +
],
r
2r2
r =
L
where [V (r) + 2r
2 ] is Veff (r). The centrifugal term means that for sufficiently small r,
Veff (r) would become larger than E > 0, which is impossible. We call that point the
turning point. There is a barrier as to how close to the origin we can get.
16
Philip Hwang
Schr
1.15 Quantum Particle in any Central Force Field

Recall TISE
~2 2
+ V (r) = E.
2
We are now going to derive for spherical coordinates.
1
~2 1 2
~2
1 2
[
] + V (r) = E(r, , )
(r
)
(sin
)
+
2 r2 r
r
2r2 sin
sin2 2
Recall
L2 = ~2 [
1 2
(sin ) +
]
sin
sin2 2
So now we have
2
~2 2
L
(r
)
+
[V
(r)
+
] = E(r, , ).
2r2 r
r
2r2
All of these angular derivatives are here! Construct solution by separation of variables
(r, , ) = R(r)Y (, )
nlm (r, , ) = Rnl (r)Ylm (, ), l = 0, 1, 2, ..., m = l, l + 1, ..., l 1, l
L
2, L
z.
Note that n labels the energies and the nlm is the common eigenstate of H,
R(r) satisfies
~2 2 R
l(l + 1)~2
(r
)
+
[V
(r)
+
]R(r) = ER(r).
2r2 r
r
2r2
We can use the following identity

1 2
1 2 R
(r
)
=
(rR)
r2 r
r
r r2
This implies
~2 2
l(l + 1)~2
(rR)
+
[V
(r)
+
]R(r) = ER(r).
2r2 r2
2r2
Define U (r) r R(r). So R(r) =
U (r)
r .
Therefore
~2 2 U
l(l + 1)~2
+
[V
(r)
+
]U (r) = EU (r)
2 r2
2r2
Because r cannot be negative, we have boundary condition of V (r) = for r < 0. This
means that U (0) = 0. This is a 1-D Schrodinger equation for 0 r .
1.16 Hydrogenic Atoms- H, He+ , Li++ , etc.

Imagine a general nucleus with charge +Ze and mass mn . There is an electron a distance
r away with charge e and mass me . Assume the nucleus is stationary (mn me ).
17
Philip Hwang
Schr
Note 1. To correct for motion of the nucleus,

me mn
me =
.
me + mn
The potential is Coulombic so
V (r) =
kze2
1
,k =
r
40
The wave equation and TISE can be expressed as

u(r)
Ylm (, )
r
~2 d2 u
kze2 l(l + 1)~2
+
[
+
]u = Eu
me dr2
r
2me r2
(r, , ) = C
Define:
E
2kze2 me
~2 k 2
, Kr, 0
2me
K~2
This implies that

d2 u
0 l(l + 1)
= [1
+
]u.
d2
2
Lets look at boundaries. As , we have that
of
d2 u
d2
u. Our solution takes the form
u() Ae + Be Ae .
Note that the B term must be zero for the function to vanish. For the next boundary
2
of 0, ddu2 l(l+1)
u, so
2
u() = Cl+1 + Dl Cl+1 .
To continue we peel off the asymptotic behavior:
u() = l+1 e v().
Now we solve the equation for v(). Power series solution for v() blow up like e+ unless
the series terminates. Set the parameter that C = 2n for n = 1, 2, 3, .... The solutions
vn () are called associated Laguerre polynomials. So if
0 = 2n = Kn =
where a
~2
kme e2
z
,
na
(Bohr radius). Now we can get the energies

En =
~2 Kn2
m3
z2
= [ 2 (ke2 )2 ] 2 .
2me
2~
n
Define the fine structure constant

En =
ke2
~c
1
137.036 .
The energies, in terms of , is
1 Z 2 2
me c2 , n = 1, 2, 3, ...
2 h2
Z2
En = (13.61eV ) 2 .
n
18
Philip Hwang
Schr
Note 2. En is independent of l and m (Degeneracy).

The corresponding wave functions are then
nlm (r, , ) = Cnl eZr/na (
Zr l 2l+1 2Zr
) Lnl1 (
)Ylm (, )
na
na
Important 1.8 (Normalization Constant)

To find the normalization constant Cnl , we do the following integral over all space
Z Z Z 2
dr2 sin |nlm (r, , )|2 = 1,
d
dr
0
n = 1, 2, 3, ....
l = 0, 1, 2, ..., (n 1)
m = l, l + 1, ..., l 1, l
Note 1.9.
1. Degeneracy of En is
n1
X
(2l + 1) = n2
l=0
2. Ground-state wave function

1 Z
100 (r, , ) = ( )3/2 eZr/a
a
3.
lim nlm (r, , ) = 0,
r0
except for s-states (l = 0).

|n00 (0)|2 =
1 Z 3 me c 3
(
) (
) 6= 0.
n
~
What is the visualization of nlm (r, , )?1. Chemists like to draw density plots. (brightness ||2 ).
2. Surfaces of constant ||2 .
3. Graphs of radial wave function Rnl (r). (See table 7-2, p. 279.)
1.17 Radial Probabilities

Say we have a function of radius f (r). The expected value is
Z Z Z 2
hf (r)inlm =
dr
d
dr2 sin f (r)|nlm (r, , )|2
0
0
Z0
=
f (r)r2 |Rnl (r)|2 dr.
0
19
Philip Hwang
Schr
Note 1.10. P (r) = r2 |Rnl (r)|2 which is a radial probability function.

Now the expected radial value is
Z
hrinlm =
r3 |Rnl (r)|2 dr
hrinlm
So hri1s =
3 a
2 Z , hri2s
a
=
[3n2 l(l + 1)].
2Z
= 6 Za , hri2p = 5 Za .
1.18 Transitions-Radiation spectrum

Imagine having some transition from initial state to final state Ei Ef . We can find
the wavelengths from the spacing of the energy levels
~
2c
1
1
1
= ~ = Ei Ef = Z 2 2 me c2 ( 2 2 ).
2
ni
nf
Therefore
1
1
1
= z 2 R( 2 2 ),
nf
ni
where the constant R
2 m e c2
4~c
= 1.097 107 m1 .
Note 1.11. What triggers the electron transition are the fluctuations that randomly
occur in the vacuum.
There is one more factor on the state which is the spin, which can be up or down.
Spin of electrons cannot be derived from mathematics of the Schrodingers equation. But
it enters naturally from Diracs relativistic quantum mechanics. So to add spin in a
nonrelativistic theory, we need to patch up and state somewhat arbitrary rules.
1.19 Multielectron atoms

H atom serves as a paradigm.
1. The electron eigenstates are still labeled by (n, l, m) as in hydrogen.
2. En Enl . Degeneracy in l is broken. This is because for sufficiently large l, the
other electrons will produce a screening effect.
3. The radius hri of each state grows with n, with slight dependence on l. This
means states of fixed n form a shell.
4. States of given n and l form a subshell.
5. The filling of shells according to the Exclusion Principle is the foundation of the
Periodic Table of the Elements.
20
Philip Hwang
Schr
1.20 Spin Angular Momentum

Important 1.12 (Spin)
Elementary point particles carry an intrinsic angular momentum S in addition
to their extrinsic angular momentum L. A proper treatment of spin requires
relativistic quantum mechanics. Note that the electron is not actually spinning;
spin is just a term we use.
Associated with spin is a spin operator
S2 |Xs,ms i = s(s + 1)~2 |Xs,ms i
Sz |Xs,ms i = ms ~|Xs,ms i,
where s is an integer or half-integer and ms = 2, 2 + 1, ..., s 1, s.
Note 1.13.
s=
1
1 1
= ms = , + .
2
2 2
See
S=
p
s(s + 1)~, s 0, ~ 0,
that S is purely quantum mechanical.

L=
p
l(l + 1)~,
as ~ 0, L does not necessarily go to 0 as l can be very large.

Particle
Mesons
Electrons, Protons, Neutrons
Photons
Gravitons
s
0
1
2
1
2
But what is S and what is |Xs,ms i? Assume s = 21 .

Important 1.14 (Pauli Spin Matrices)
For x , y , z , we have
z ).
= ~ (ix + jy + k
S
2
The matrices are now

x =
0 1
1 0

, y =

1 0
, z =
0 1

1 0
2
xyz = I =
0 1

3
1
0
2
2
S = ~
.
0 1
4
0 i
i 0
21
Philip Hwang
Schr
Now we have
S2 X = s(s + 1)~2 X
Sz X = ms ~X.

Eigenvectors are
1
0

for spin up and
0
1

for spin down. The commutators are
[Sx , Sy ] = i~Sz , etc.

S
= i~S.
S
Lets review some Classical E& M:
Spinning charge distribution L generates a moment .
Theorem 1.15
Lamours Theorem
||L.
Example 1.16 (Point charge moving around a circle)

For a point charge moving around radius r
= iA =
q
qvr
=
L.
2
2m
In general
=g
Q
L,
2M
where g is the gyromagnetic ratio.
Example 1.17 (Model of a spinning charged particle)

A ring of charge Q is spinning at .
= iA =
Q
1
R2 = QR2
2/
2
2
L = I = M R2 .
5
So
g=
( 1 QR2 )(2M )
5
= 2 2
= .
2
QL/2M
2
Q( 5 M R )
Definition 1.18. Elementary particle m0 , q0 . The Magneton is

M
q0
~,
2m0
22
Philip Hwang
Schr
Electrons (Bohr magneton) are

|e|~
= B = 9.274 1024 J/T,
2me
and Protons (nuclear magneton) are
|e|~
= 5.051 1027 J/T.
2mp
1.21 Orbital Magnetic Moment of H Atom
= gL L.
~
The state nlm gives
2 = (
gL B 2
) l(l + 1)~2 = l(l + 1)(gL B )2
~
B
z = gL
m~ = m(gL B ),
~
for l = 0, 1, 2, ... and m = l, ..., +l.
1.22 Intrinsic Magnetic Moment of Elementary Particles

The spin gives s = ,
= gs
Particle
Electron
Proton
Neutron
s
1
2
1
2
1
2
q0 M
S.
|q0 | ~
sgs
1.001,159,652,187...
2.792, 847,...
-1.913,042,...
1.23 Stern-Gerlach Experiment-1922

First direct observation of electron spin. A beam of silver atoms is passed through
magnets and the beam splits into two. The force between a magnetic dipole in an
inhomogeneous magnetic field is
F = U = ( B).
0 )k,
which implies
In the experiment B(x, y, z) = B00 xi + (B0 + B0z
F z = z
Bz
.
z
A silver atom with 47 electrons has 1 valence electron. For the 46 inner electrons
Ltotal + Stotal = 0. So the spin is due to the valence electron. The split is when the
electrons either spin up or spin down.
23
Philip Hwang
Schr
1.24 Addition of Angular Momenta

The total angular momentum is
=L
+S
J
(
J 2 = j(j + 1)~
j2 = mj~,
where mj = j, j + 1, ..., j. Also here is more stuff
(
jmin = |l s|
jmax = |l + s|.
Also |l s j l + s. The total number of angular momentum states is
l+s
X
(2j + 1) = (2l + 1)(2s + 1).
j=|ls|
Note that for electrons s = 12 , 2s + 1 = 2, ms = 12 , j = 12 , (j = 12 , F l = 0). We want

to view L and s as they process around J.
eff = J L J
L
J2
eff = s J J.
S
s2
1.25 Efective Magnetic Moment of H atom

(
e
L = gL 2m
L
e
s = gs 2m S.
Also
eff =
e gL L + gs S
J,
2m
J2
with
L
= 1 (J2 + L
2 S2 )
J
2
2
L
= [j(j + 1) + l(l + 1) s(s + 1)] ~ .
J
2
This makes
eff =
gJ J,
2m
where gJ is the Lande g-factor.
1.26 Relativistic (Non-Schr

odinger) Effects on the Energy Levels of an H
atom
Spin-Orbit Coupling
Because of orbiting proton
E = B =
24
e
gs S B.
2m
Philip Hwang
Schr
1.27 Energy Levels of the Hydrogen Atom

=
En =
ke2
1
~c
137
2 mc2
, n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ...
2n2
1.28 Relativistic Dirac Theory

Enj = r
1+
mc2
2
q
n(j+ 21 )+ (j+ 21 )2 2
1
, j = l , l = 0, 1, ..., (n 1).
2
We can expand above in terms of powers 2

Enj mc2 [1
2
4
1
3
) ...].
2
3
2n
n 2j + 1 8n
Other Effects:
Lamb shift En,j,l .
Hyperfine structure e p .
1.29 Hierarchy of Corrections to the Bohr Energy Levels

Order of Smallness
mc2
4 mc2
5 mc2
mc 4
2
mp mc
Effect
Bohr energies
Fine structure
Lamb shift
Hyperfine splitting
1.30 H Atom in External Magnetic Field

A weak beat (beatPeculating proton) gives rise to the Zeeman effect. Energy splits
due to interacting energy
E = eff Bext
e
Bext , J2 = mj ~.
E =
gJ J
2m
Also
mj (
e
gJ ~Bext ), j mj j.
2m
1.31 Identical Particles+Symmetrization

Classical physics: Identical point particles are distinguishable.
Quantum Mechanics: Identical particles that share the same space are indistinguishable.
Consider two identical particles that share the same space (1D).
25
Philip Hwang
Schr
Important 1.19 (TI two-particle Schrodinger Equation)
~2
~2 2
)(x1 , x2 ) + U (x1 , x2 )(x1 , x2 ) = E(x1 , x2 ).

2m x21 2m x22
Attempt to solve by separation of variables:

(x1 , x2 ) = a (x1 )b (x2 ).
This gives
~2
1 2 a (x1 )
1 2 b (x2 )
~2
+ U (x1 , x2 ) = E.
2m a (x1 ) x21
2m b (x2 ) x22
We have
U (x1 , x2 ) = U (x1 ) + U (x2 ) (External forces only and noninteracting particles).
U (x1 , x2 ) =
ke2
|x1 x2 |
(Interparticle force).
1.32 Two Particles in a 1D Box

Consider
(
0
if 0 < x < L
U (x) =
if otherwise.
Assume non interacting particles. Take
[
~2 1 2 a
~2 1 2 b
+
U
(x
)]
+
[
+ U (x2 )]
1
2m a x21
2m b x22
E1 [
~2 1 2 a
+ U (x1 )]
2m a x21
E2 [
~2 1 2 b
+ U (x2 )]
2m b x22
E = E1 + E2 .
Remember that for (x1 , x2 ) = n (x1 )n0 (x2 )
q
n (x1 ) = 2 sin( nx1 ) E1 = n2 2 ~22
L
2mL
qL
0 (x2 ) = 2 sin( n0 x2 ) E2 = n02 2 ~2 .
n
2mL2
Assume that n = 4, n0 = 3.
(x1 , x2 ) = 4 (x1 )3 (x2 )
2
4x1
3x2
= sin(
) sin(
).
L
L
L
Two-particle probability density is
P (x1 , x2 ) = |(x1 , x2 )|2
2
4x1
3x2
= ( )2 sin2 (
) sin2 (
).
L
L
L
26
Philip Hwang
Schr
Note normalization
Z
dx2 P (x1 , x2 ) = 1.
dx1
0
The probability of finding particle 1 at center of box is

4( 12 L)
1
2
3x2
P ( L, x2 ) = ( )2 sin2 (
) sin2 (
) = 0.
2
L
L
L
Probability of finding particle 2 at center of box is
3( L2 )
1
2
4x1
P (x1 , L) = ( )2 sin2 (
) sin2 (
) 6= 0.
2
L
L
L
Something is wrong here. We must have P (x2 , x1 ) = P (x1 , x2 ) for indistinguishable
particles. But P (x1 , x2 ) = |(x1 , x2 )|2 . This means must be symmetric or antisymmetric. For a symmetric/antisymmetric versions:
(
S (x1 , x2 ) = C[4 (x1 )3 (x2 ) + 3 (x1 )4 (x2 )]
A (x1 , x2 ) = C[4 (x1 )3 (x2 ) 3 (x1 )4 (x2 )].
Note that C =
1
2
to maintain normalization. So in general
(x1 , x2 ) =
2
4x1
3x2
3x1
4x2
[sin(
) sin(
) sin(
) sin(
)].
L
L
L
L
L
The probability that both particles would be found on the left hand side of the box is
Z L
Z L
2
2
2 2
4x1
3x2
3x1
4x2 2
dx1
dx2 (
) [sin(
) sin(
) sin(
) sin(
)]
P =
L
L
L
L
L
0
0
64
1
=
4 49 2
(
.382(symmetric)
= .250 .132 =
.118(antisymmetric).
this tendency for symmetric to be more likely to be together and antisymmetric to not is
called Exchange force (not really a force). Bosons are symmetric and fermions are
antisymmetric.
Noninteracting-S , A correspond to the same energy.
Two electrons (repel)-A corresponds to a lower energy (because they tend to be
farther apart).
1.33 N particles in a box

Symmetric is easy
S (x1 , x2 , ..., xN ) = straight forward
A (x1 , x2 , ..., xN ) = slater determinant

n1 (x1 ) n1 (x2 ) . . . n1 (xN )
1 (x ) (x ) . . . (X )
n2 2
n2
N
= n2 1
..
..
..
N !
.
.
.
Switch two rows A changes sign.
27
Philip Hwang
Schr
1.34 Spin-State Symmetry?

Assume s = 12 (ms = 21 ). The notation is {} with representing + 12 and representing
21 .
1.35 Combined spatial+spin-state symmetries

Symmetric (bosons/attract)
{}
n (x1 )n0 (x2 ) + n0 (x1 )n (x2 ) {}
{} + {}
Antisymmetric (fermions/repel)
{}
n (x1 )n0 (x2 ) n0 (x1 )n (x2 ) {}
{} + {}
[n (x1 )n0 (x2 ) n0 (x1 )n (x2 )]{} {}
[n (x1 )n0 (x2 ) + n0 (x1 )n (x2 )]{} {}.
If they are in the same state n0 = n they must have opposite spins.
Important 1.20 (Pauli Exclusion Principle)
No indistinguishable fermions may occupy the same individual-particle state (i.e.,
have the same set of quantum numbers).
Fermions
Half-integer spin
Obey the Exclusion Principle
System is in an antisymmetric state
Exchange force is repulsive
Particle
Electron e
Proton p
Neutron n
Neutrino
Omega
Bosons
Integer spin
Exclusion Principle does not apply
System is in a symmetric state
Exchange force is attractive
28
s
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
3
2
Philip Hwang
Statistical Physics: Systems of many particles
Particle
Pion +
Alpha Particle
Photon
Deuteron
Graviton
s
0
0
1
1
2
1.36 Quick Review for Test

1.36.1 Schr
odinger equation in 3D
1.36.2 Quantization
|L| =
p
l(l + 1)~, l = 0, 1, 2, . . .
Lz = m~, m = 0, 1, 2, . . . , l
En = (
kZe2 2
Z2
)
= 13.6 2 eV
2
~
2n
n
1.36.3 Hydrogen wave functions

nlm = Cnlm Rnl (r)Ynlm (, )
2
P (r)dr = 4r2 dr = 4r2 C100
e2Zr/a0 dr
1.36.4 Electron spin

1.36.5 Spin-orbit coupling
1.36.6 Exclusion principle
2 Statistical Physics: Systems of many particles

Consider N particles in a box of volume V . Do we use classical or quantum mechanicss
to describe the gas?
Let d be the typical interparticle spacing
d=(
V 1/3
) .
N
Let typical de-broglie wavelength

=
h
.
2mE
And
3
hEi = kb T,
2
where kb = 1.38 1023 J/K. Classical description is valid if d, so
(
N
h3
)
1
V (3mkb T )3/2
This is true when:
29
Philip Hwang
Temperature T is not too low

Particle density
N
V
not too great
Examples
Ordinary gas at room temperature is classical
Conduction electrons in a metal are governed by quantum mechanics
The energy distributions depend on the nature of the particles.
Example-Two particles A + B, three energy states available.
1. Distinguishable classical particles
E2
E1
AB
E3
AB
AB
A
B
A
B
B
A
A
B
B
A
B
A
E2
E3
2. Indistinguishable bosons
E1
AA
AA
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
3. Indistinguishable fermions
E1
A
A
E2
A
A
E3
A
A
2.1 Energy Distribution Function f (E)

Consider
dN = f (E) g(E)dE n(E)dE
where dN is the number of particles within dE of E, f (E) is the number of particles in a
given state of energy E, and g(E) is the number of states within dE of E ( dnstates ). So
Z
n(E)dE = N.
g(E) depends on the particular system.
30
Philip Hwang
System
Bound systems with discrete energies
g(E)
Degeneracy of energy level E
g(E) = C E
gas of massive particles

Gas of massless particles
g(E) =
DE 2
3/2 V
C [ (2s+1)m
2 2 ~3
D=
[ 2 ~V3 c3 ]
Distribution functions f (E) (thermal equilibrium).

Classical gas: fB (E) =
1 E/kb T
.
Ae
Fermion gas (Fermi-Dirac distribution):

fF D (E) =
1
AeE/kb T
+1
Boson gas (Bose-Einstein distribution):

fBE (E) =
1
AeE/kb T
Example 2.1 (Gas of classical hydrogen atoms)

Let T = 300K. Remember
(
En
gn
0
= E
, n = 1, 2, 3, ...
n2
2
= 2n
And
n(E) = A1 g(E)eE/kb T .
How many are in the ground state compared to other states?
n2
A1 g2 eE2 /kB T
= 1 E /k T = 4e(E2 E1 )/kB T .
n1
A g1 e 1 B
(E2 E1 ) = E0 (
1
1
2 ) = 10.2eV.
2
2
1
Note that kB T = 4.14 1021 J = .0259eV. Therefore
n2
n1
= 4e392 1.
2.2 Derivation of g(E) for massive particles m

N particles confined to a cubic box of side L. The single particle energy levels are
Enx ,ny ,nz =
2 ~2 2
(n + n2y + n2z ).
2mL2 x
Imagine something called Quantum number space (basis of nx , ny , nz ).

StatesInteger lattice
StatesCubes of unit volume
31
Philip Hwang
The Radial distance from the origins is

q
rn = n2x + n2y + n2z ,
so
2 ~2 2
r
2 n
2mLr
2mL2 E
.
= rn (E) =
2 ~2
= E =
Notice how the radius increases with energy.

Continuum approximation (assume that spacing between energies is small) E E.
nstates (E) is the number of states up to energy E. We want an octant of a sphere of the
space
1 4
nstates (E) = ( r(E)3 ).
8 3
So
1
dr
dnstates
= 3r2
dE
6r dE
2
2mL E
2mL2 1
= ( 2 2 )
2 ~
2 ~2 2 E
m3/2 V
] E.
=[
2 ~3 2
g(E) =
To include spin, multiply by (2s + 1).
2.3 Quantum Gas of Free Electrons in a Box

Free means that they only interact via the Exclusion Principle (e.g., conduction
electrons in a metal).
What is the ground state energy? (T 0)
Put one electron in each energy state until we run out of electrons. This occurs at a
certain maximum energy called the Fermi energy EF 0 . So f (E) = 1 by the Exclusion
Principle. For s = 21
dN = 1 ge (E)dE
Z EF 0
V (2me )3/2
N=
EdE
2 2 ~3
0
V (2me EF 0 )3/2
=
.
3 2 ~3
What we are really interested in here is what EF 0 is. We find that
EF 0 =
2 ~2 3 N 2/3
(
) ,
2me V
which is the Fermi energy (T 0).
32
Philip Hwang
Example 2.2 (Silver I)

kg
The mass density of silver is = 10.5 103 m
3.
N
atoms
=
= 5.86 1028 m3 .
V
volume
So
2 ~2
3
( 5.86 1028 )2/3
2(9.11 1031 )
= 8.8 1019 J
EF 0 =
= 5.5eV.
Note 2.3. At room temperature T = 300K, classical physics predicts
3
hEi = kB T .04eV.
2
Look at how remarkably smaller this is than quantum mechanics even at T 0.
Example 2.4 (Silver II)

At 0K, EF 0 = 5.5eV and the work function is = 4.6eV. The total depth of the
potential well is the sum + EF 0 (unfilled and filled energy levels).
Lets go back to the quantum gas of free electrons of a box. What is the pressure p of the
box. Lets squeeze the box.
1st Law of ThermodynamicsdEtotal = pdV
dEtotal
p=
.
dV
The total energy is
Z
EF 0
E1 g(E)dE
Etotal =
0
3
3
= N EF 0 ( = hEi = EF 0 ).
5
5
So
2
~2 N 5/3
p = (3 2 )2/3
( ) .
5
2m V
This is a completely quantum mechanical effect called Quantum degeneracy pressure
(p vanishes at classical limit). This is the same pressure that goes against the gravitational
pressure of a star.
Z
n(E)dE = N
n(E) = f (E)g(E),
33
Philip Hwang
where f (E) is the distribution function and g(E) is the density of states. Note
A eE/kB T , classical particles
f (E) = AeE/k1B T +1 , fermions
, bosons,
AeE/kB T 1
and
(
C E, m 6= 0
g(E) =
DE 2 , m = 0.
2.4 Boltzmann distribution

Gas of classical particles (s = 0) so
nB (E) =
We determine AB with
Z
N=
0
Note that
R
0
1 m3/2 V E/kB T
[
] Ee
.
AB 2 2 ~3
1 m3/2 V
nB (E)dE = [
]
A 2 2 ~3
EeE/kB T dE =
EeE/kB T dE.
AB = (
3/2 .
2 (kB T )
This implies
V mkB T 3/2 1
d3
)(
)
v
1
N
2
~3
3
The condition that AB 1 is what makes f (E) approach the classical condition. The
normalized version of the Boltzmann distribution is
nB (E) =
E/k T
2N
B
Ee
.
3/2
(kB T )
Note that ~ has cancelled out and E = 12 mv 2 . This is also known as Maxwells
distribution of kinetic energy. Now we can calculate expectations. Thusly
Z
1
3
hEi =
EnB (E)dE = kB T.
N 0
2
Now we can derive the distribution of speeds
n(E)dE = n(v)dv
dE
= mv.
dv
We get for Maxwells Distribution of molecular speeds
n(v) = 4N (
m
2
)3/2 v 2 emv /2kb T .
2kB T
Note normalization
Z
n(v)dv = N.
0
34
Philip Hwang
To get vmax ,
dn
= 0 = vmax =
dv
2kB T
.
m
For hvi,
1
hvi =
N
vn(v)dv = hvi =
0
8 kB T
.
m
For vrms
s
vrms
p
= hv 2 i =
1
N
v 2 n(v)dv
3kB T
.
m
Note that vrms checks out with hEi. For a N2 molecule at T = 300K,
s
8 (1.38 1023 )(300)
= 475m/s.
hvi =
(4.68 1026 )
Now that we have done the Boltzmann distribution, what about AF D and ABE ?
Z
Z
(2s + 1)m3/2 V
dE
N=
n(E)dE = [
]
E
.
E/k
2
3
(Ae B T 1)
2 ~
0
0
Let x =
E
kB T :
(2s + 1)(mkB T )3/2 V
N=
2 2 ~3
Z
0
xdx
.
1)
(Aex
Aex
This determines A implicitly because

1 cannot be determined in closed form. This
is not satisfying. But we know that A is a strictly increasing function of T . For bosons
(1), the integral doesnt make sense when A = 1, so A > 1.
2.4.1 Boson Gas
Most neutral atoms in the ground state are bosons.
Tc = critical temperature, A = 1
This is the lowest temperature consistent with Bose-Einstein statistics. So
Z
(2s + 1)V (mkB Tc )3/2
xdx
N=
x
(e 1)
2 2 ~3
0
2
2~
N 2/3
Tc =
(
) .
3/2
2.61V
mkB (2s + 1)
Note that (3) 2.61. Numerically we have
Tc = [(1.50 109 )eV m2 K]
(N/V )2/3
(2s + 1)2/3 mc2
Note 2.5. The continuum limit excludes the ground state E = 0.

At T = Tc , the noninteracting bosons begin to populate the lowest-energy state. This
is the Bose-Einstein condensation.
35
Philip Hwang
Example 2.6 (Liquid He 4remains liquid as T 0)

superfluidloses all resistance to flow (zero viscosity)
Tc = = 3.1K.
Bose-Einstein Condensation Predicted by Einstein (1925)
Observed experiment officially in 1995:
Dilute gas of Rb atomsTc = 190nK.
Denser gas of N a atomsTc = 2K (10 times warmer)
For T < Tc
N0 = number in ground state E = 0
Z
(mkB T )3/2 V (2s + 1)
xdx
N = N0 +
x
2
3
(e 1)
2 ~
0
N
T
1=
+ ( )3/2
N0
Tc
N
T
=
= 1 ( )3/2
N0
Tc
2.4.2 Fermion Gas
Conduction electrons in a metal. s = 21 . Remember
1
fF D (E) =
E/k
Ae B T + 1
3/2
2m V
g(E) = [
] E
2 ~3
We have
Z
n(E)dE =
fF D (E)g(E)dE = N
0
= A
Important 2.7 (Notation)
A = eEF /kB T
1
fF D (E) = (EE )/k T
F
B
e
+1
2 2
3N 2/3
Recall at T = 0 EF 0 = 2m~e ( V
) . Also fF D (EF ) = 21 , which defines EF .
Lets look at the limit as T 0. We need to look at two cases:
1. E < EF : fF D (E) = 1
36
Philip Hwang
2. E > EF : fF D (E) = 0.
What about T 6= 0? Then fF D depends only weakly on T (corners are round). We have
for the power expansion of the Fermi energy
EF EF 0 [1
2 kB T 2
) + ]
(
12 EF 0
Example 2.8 (Silver)

EF 0 = 5.5eV. What about EF (300K)? The correction term becomes
2 (kB T )2
= 104 eV
12 EF 0
SMALL! This means that room temperature is cold to the conduction electrons in
a metal.
Definition 2.9 (Fermi temperature).
kB TF = EF 0
(How hot you would have to have the classical gas to be equal to the energy of the fermion)
For silver this temperature becomes TF = 6.36 104 K.
Definition 2.10 (Fermi speed). Solve
1
mv 2 = EF 0 .
2 F
This gives for Silver vF = 1.39 106 m/s at T = 0.
2.4.3 Photon Gas (Temperature T )
Photon gasses include
Thermal radiation
Blackbody radiation
Cavity radiation
Photons are bosons so
fBE (E) =
1
AeE/kB T
There are a few issues...

1. Photons are massless
= g(E) = [
8V 2
]E
h3 c3
2. N changes with temperature. = Set A = 1 (to agree with blackbody radiation

measurements).
37
Philip Hwang
Now we will derive 1. What is different here is that we are not counting energy states
but waves. These are EM waves in a 3-dim. cubic box of side L. For a 3-dim standing
wave we have
my y
mx x
mz z
(x, y, z, t) = C sin(
) sin(
) sin(
) cos(2f t),
L
L
L
where (mx , my , mz ) are the number of lobes along each direction antinodes. We have
f = |m|
where |m| =
V
,
2L
q
m2x + m2y + m2z . We have an antinode space. The number states,
therefore, is the volume of this space. So for d|m| we have

(
V
df
= 2L
d|m|
1
dnstates = 8 4|m|2 d|m|
This implies
1
4|m|2 d|m|
dnstates
= 8 V
df
2L d|m|
m2 L
V
m=
Note 2.11.
2Lf
v
dnstates
4L3 2
=
f df.
df
V3
1. v = c
2. 2 independent polarizations
So
dnstates
8V
= 3 f 2.
df
c
Now g(E)
dnstates
dE
and since E = hf
dnstates df
df
dE
8V
1
= ( 3 f 2 )( )
c
h
g(E) =
8V 2
]E .
h3 c3
The total number of photons contained in the volume V at temperature T is
Z
N=
f (E)g(E)dE
0
Z
8V
E2
=
[ 3 3 ] E/k T
dE
h c (e B 1)
0
Z
x2 dx
8V
3
T 3,
= 3 3 (kB T )
x 1)
h c
(e
0
= g(E) = [
38
Philip Hwang
where the integrand
2
R
x2 dx
(ex 1)
2.40. Approximately we have
N
(2 107 K3 m3 )T 3 .
V
The total photon energy contained in volume V at temperature T :
Z
Ephotons =
Ef (E)g(E)dE
0
Z
x3 dx
8V
4
= 3 3 (kB T )
T4
h c
(ex 1)
0
R 3 dx
4
Note that the integral 0 (exx 1)
= 15 and that this is basically the Stefan-Boltzmann
expression.
Important 2.12 (Stefan-Boltzmann Law)
Ephotons c
V
4
= I = T 4
I=
This gives
4
W
2 5 kB
= 5.67 108 2
.
3
3
15 h c
m K4
Example 2.13 (Ideal monatomic gas at 273K, 1 atm)

Is in thermal equilibrium in a box.
4
Ephotons
8 5 kB
J
=
(273)4 = 6.1 106 3
3
3
V
15h c
m
3
3
Egas = N hEparticle i = N ( kB T ) = pV
2
2
Egas
3
J
= (1.01 105 ) = 1.5 105 3
=
V
2
m
Not even close!

dEphotons = Ef (E)g(E)dE
1
8V 2
= E E/k T
E dE.
(e B 1) h3 c3
This is the photon energy distribution. Express this in terms of f : (since E = hf )
Ephotons =
hf 3
(ehf /kB T
8V
df
1) c3
The so-called spectral energy density is

u(f )
1 dEphotons
hf 3
8
= hf /k T
,
b
V
df
(e
1) c3
AKA Planks formula.

39
Philip Hwang
2.5 The Variational Method for Ground States

is the complete set of orthogonal eigenfunctions {n , En }. The TISE is
Hamiltonian H
n i = En |n i.
H|
The ground state energy is denoted as E0 .
Note 2.14 (Dirac Notation).
Z
hb |b i =
a (x)b (x)dx = 0, if a 6= b
Consider an arbitrary trial function |i:

X
Cn |n i
|i =
n
H|i
=
Cn En |n i
Now we want to evaluate

XX
X
X
h|H|i
=
Cm
Cn En hm |n i =
|Cn |2 En E0
|Cn |2 ,
m
with
|Cn |2 = h|i. This implies that

hEi =
h|H|i
E0 ,
h|i
for any |i with h|i = 1 if |i is normalized. The goal now is to get a trial functions
closer and closer to the real wave functions, which will make the upper bound closer and
closer to the actual ground state energy.
2.6 Recall the 1D Harmonic Oscillator

1
En = (n + )~, n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
2
1
E0 = ~
2
1
U (x) = m 2 x2
2
r
~
.
a
m
The wave functions are
1
2
2
0 (x) = p ex /2a
a
1
x x2 /2a2
e
1 (x) = p
2a a
..
.
40
Philip Hwang
Example 2.15
Try (x) =
We have
1
,
(x2 +)
where is a parameter to minimize over. This is the Lorentzian.

R
hEi =
~2 d2
1
2 2
(x)[ 2m dx2 + 2 m x ] (x)dx
R
(x) (x)dx
= hEi =
~2 1
1
+ m 2 E0
2m 2
Now minimize over

d ~2 1
1
(
+ m 2 ) = 0
d 2m 2
1
1 ~2
= a2 .
= 0 =
m
2
2
And so
1
1
E0 hEimin = ~( 2 + ).
2
2
Example 2.16
Try
(
( 2 x2 ), |x| <
(x) =
0,
|x| > .
We have
1
5 ~2
+ m 2 2
2
4 m
14
r
d
35 ~
2
= 0 = 0 =
d
2 m
1
= E0 hEimin = 0.6~ = 1.2( ~)
2
hEi = =
Example 2.17 (Gaussian)

2
Try (x) = ex . The true ground-state wave function is in this family.

1
1
~2
+ m 2
2m
8
d
m
1
= 0 = 0 =
= 2
d
2~
2a
1
E0 hEimin = ~,
2
hEi = =
the exact ground-state energy!
41
Philip Hwang
Example 2.18
2
Try (x) = xex . The wave function of the first excited state is in this family.
3~2
3m 2 1
+
2m
8
d
3
= 0 = E0 hEimin = ~
d
2
hEi =
Example 2.19 (Triangular quantum well)

(
F x, x > 0
U (x) =
, x 0.
We showed earlier that
En = (
~2 F 2 1/3
) Xn , n = 1, 2, 3, ...
2m
and Xn is the nth zero of Ai(x) (negative). We have that

E1 = 2.338(
~2 F 2 1/3
) .
2m
Choose trial function

(x) = xex ,
which goes to 0 as x and x 0. So
i
h |H|
h | i
Z
1
h | i =
[ (x)]2 dx =
43
0
Z
~2 d2
i =
+ F x] (x)dx
h |H|
(x)[
2m dx2
0
~2 3F
= hEi =
+
2m
2
d
3Fm 1/3
= 0 = 0 = (
)
d
2~
9
9
~2 F 2 1/3
= E0 hEimin = [( )1/3 + ( )1/3 ](
) ,
16
2
2m
hEi =
which is 6% larger than 2.338.
42
Philip Hwang
2.7 Hydrogenic Atoms

Recall
Z 2 ke2
En = 2
n 2a0
s
z 3 zr/a0
100 (r) =
e
a30
a0
a0
z
~2
a0
.
kme2
2.7.1 Ground State of Helium
There are two electrons with vector distances r1 , r2 from the nucleus with charge 2e. The
hamiltonian is
2
1
= ~ (21 + 22 ) ke2 ( 2 + 2
H
)
2m
r1 r2 |r1 r2 |
Experiment gives Egs = 78.975eV, where |Egs | is the required energy to strip off both
electrons. Ionization energy for one electron is...?
Ei = Egs = 79eV
4
Ef = 2 (13.6eV) = 54.4eV.
1
So
W = Ef Ei
= (54.4) (79.0) = 24.6eV
Use variational method to obtain an upper bound on Egs .
If there is no e e repulsion, we get an equation that is separable
0 (r1 , r2 ) =
8 2(r1 +r2 )/a0

e
a30
Egs = 2 (54.4eV) = 109eV

0 = (109eV)0 + Vee 0 .
H
So
= h0 |H|
0 i = 109eV + hVee i
hHi
Z 4(r1 +r2 )/a0
e
8
d3 r1 d3 r2 = 34eV
hVee i = h0 |Vee |0 i = ke2 ( 3 )2
|r
r
|
a0
1
2
= hHi = 109 + 34 = 75eV.

Still, we are not satisfied. We want to incorporate electron shielding. Try trial function
(r1 , r2 ) =
z 3 z(r1 +r2 )/a0

e
,
a30
43
Philip Hwang
Molecular Physics
noting that z is the parameter to minimize over.

2
1
= ~ (21 22 ) ke2 ( z + z ) + ke2 ( (z 2) + (z 2) +
H
)
2m
r1 r2
r1
r2
|r1 r2 |
2
= 2 Z 2 ( ke ) + 2(z2 )ke2 h 1 i + hVee iz
hHi
2a0
r
1
1
z
z
z
h i = h100
| |100
i=
r
r
a0
z
z 5ke2
hVee iz = (hVee i|z=2 ) =
.
2
2 4a0
So
ke2 2
5
[2z 4z(z 2) z]
2a0
4
2
= ke [2z 2 + 27 z]
hHi
2a0
4
dhHi
27
0=
= 0 = 4z +
dz
4
27
= 1.69
= zeff =
16
min = 77.5eV.
= hHi
=
hHi
3 Molecular Physics
3.1 The Covalent Bond
3.1.1 Hydrogen Molecule H2+
There are two protons and an electron. The distance between
p the protons is r0 and the
two other distances are r1 , r2 . Note that r1 = r and r2 = r2 + r02 2rr0 cos . The
plan right now is to find the energy of one electron alone due to interaction of both
protons. Later, well add in p p repulsion.
Choose trial function
= A[0 (r1 ) + 0 (r2 )].
This is the LCAO technique. Remember normalization condition
Z
Z
Z
Z
2 3
2
2 3
2 3
1 = || d r = |A| [ |0 (r1 )| d r + |0 (r2 )| d r + 2 0 (r1 )0 (r2 )d3 r]
= |A|2 (2 + 2I)
1
|A|2 =
2(1 + I)
I = er0 /a0 [1 + (
r0
1 r0
) + ( )2 ].
a0
3 a0
We have hamiltonian (only electron energyno p p repulsion)

2
= ~ 2 ke2 ( 1 + 1 ).
H
2m
r1 r2
44
Philip Hwang
Molecular Physics
So
2
= A[ ~ 2 ke2 ( 1 + 1 )][0 (r1 ) + 0 (r2 )]
H
2m
r1 r2
1
1
= E1 Ake2 [ 0 (r1 ) + 0 (r2 )].
r2
r1
The expectation value is

= h|H|i
hHi
= E1 2|A|2 ke2 [h0 (r1 )|
= E1 2
hHi
1
1
|0 (r1 )i + h0 (r1 )| |0 (r2 )i]
r2
r1
1
ke2
1
1
[a0 h0 (r1 )| |0 (r1 )i + a0 h0 (r1 )| |0 (r2 )i]
2(1 + I) a0
r2
r1
With D = a0 h0 (r1 )| r12 |0 (r1 )i and X = a0 h0 (r1 )| r11 |0 (r2 )i. We get
= [1 + 2
hHi
(D + X)
]E1 .
(1 + I)
It can be shown that

a0
a0
(1 + )e2r0 /a0
r0
r0
r0 r0 /a0
X = (1 + )e
.
a0
D=
Now we add in p p repulsion:

Vpp =
ke2
a0
= 2 E1 .
r0
r0
The upper bound is

Etotal
(D + x)
a0
+ 2 F (x),
1 2
E1
(1 + I)
r0
letting x
x0
a0 .
F (x) = 1 +
2 (1 23 x2 )ex + (1 + x)e2x
{
}.
x
1 + (1 + x + 13 x2 )ex
Bonding will occur if the graph for F (x) goes below 1 (Etotal < 13.6 eV). The
which gives Ebinding =
equilibrium separation turns out to be approximately 2.4a0 = 1.3A,
and Ebinding =
1.8 eV, where Ebinding = |Etotal | |E1 |. From experiment r0 = 1.06A
2.7 eV.
3.1.2 Muon-Catalyzed Fusion
Construct hydrogen molecule ion with a muon in place of the electron. Note that the
mass of a muon is
m = 206.77me .
45
Philip Hwang
Molecular Physics
Note
a0 =
~2
1
.
kme2
m
So
1
r0 |e ,
207
and fusion probability is appreciable. The problem with muons is that they dont live
as long as electrons. So this was not an economical replacement for regular fusion with
electrons. Sometimes the muon gets stuck and cant go on to catalyze additional reactions
(sticking problem). But because of it, it is just below being economically viable, and
people have pretty much abandoned this idea.
r0 | =
3.2 Diatomic Molecules

Let U (r) be the interatomic potential energy. The potential is at minimum at
r = r0 .
Example 3.1 (H2 molecule)
r0 = .074 nm
Uatoms = 2 (13.6 eV)
Umin = 32.8 eV.
3.2.1 Lennard-Jones Potential (1924)

U (r) = U0 [(
r0 12
r0
) 2( )6 ] + Uatoms
r
r
rmin = r0
Umin = Uatoms + (U0 ).
We can expand as a taylor series about r0
1 dU
1 d2 U
|r=r0 (r r0 ) +
|r=r0 (r r0 )2 +
1! dr
2! dr2
1
U (r) U (r0 ) + k(r r0 )2 ,
2
U (r) U (r0 ) +
where k = ddrU2 |r=r0 .

The nuclei can be modeled with two masses m1 and m2 rotating about a center of mass.
m2
We can look at it as a single mass = mm11+m
that is vibrating like one particle on a
2
spring. The corresponding energies are
s
1
k
Evib = ( + )~
, = 0, 1, 2, . . .
2
Erot =
l(l + 1)~2
2r02
l = 0, 1, 2, . . .
ml = l, l + 1, . . . , l.
46
Philip Hwang
Molecular Physics
Note 3.2.
Evib Erot .
So we have that
E,l = Evib + Erot
E = Umin + E,l .
Example 3.3 (HD molecule)

Assign m1 = 1.008 u to the hydrogen atom and m2 = 2.013 u to the deuterium.
Here r0 = .074 nm. So = 0.671 u Let = 0. At what temperature will ten percent
of the molecules be rotated.
# with energy E0,1
3eE0,1 /kB T
= E /k T
# with energy E0,0
1e 0,0 B
= 3e(E0,1 E0,0 )/kB T .
So we have
~2 (1)(1 + 1) ~2 (0)(0 + 1)
2r02
2r02
~2
= 2
r0
(1.055 1034 )2
=
(.671 1.66 1027 )(.074 109 )2
= 1.82 1021 J
E0,1 E0,0 =
= 0.011 eV.
And
1
1.82 1021
= 3exp[
]
10
(1.38 1023 )T
= T 40 K.
For each electronic state of the molecule, there are closely-spaced vibrational levels and
even more closely-spaced rotational levels.
3.2.2 Selection Rules for Transitions
We need both
= 1 [if same state, no permanent electric dipole moment]
l = 1 [corresponds to emission or absorption of a spin-1 photon].
47
Philip Hwang
Molecular Physics
3.2.3 Transition Spectral Lines

Consider ( 1). The allowed energies of the photon is
(
E,l E1,l+1
Ephoton =
E,l E1,l1
q
~ k (l + 1) ~22
r0
q
=
~ k + l ~22 .
r
0
For all of these transitions the energy of the photon is

s
k
~2
j 2 , j = 0, 1, 2, 3,
Ephoton = ~
r0
So we get equally spaced spectral lines. From the spacing we can figure out r0 and from
the gap we can figure out the spring constant k.
Example 3.4 (HCl absorption spectrum)
27 kg.
Lets find (a) r0 and (b) k. First = (1.01)(35.5)
(1.01+35.5) = .982 u = 1.63 10
f = 6.0 1011 Hz and E = h f = (6.63 1034 )(6.0 1011 ) = 4.0 1022 J.
Solving for r0 gives us
r0 = 1.3 1010 m.
For k, the hole falls at f 8.65 1013 Hz. So
r
k
~
= hf = (6.63 1034 )(8.65 1013 ) = 5.73 1020 J
m
= k = 482 N/m.
What a stiff spring!
3.3 Light Sources-Emission characteristics

Incandescent Light Bulb
All directions
Random Phases
Broad Spectrum
Thermal radiation (Spontaneous Emission)
Fluorescent Bulb/Sodium Street lamp

All directions
Random phases
Discrete Spectrum
Triggered by EM vacuum fluctuations (Spontaneous Emi
3.4 Interaction between a material and electromagnetic radiation

Let E = E2 E1 . If photons are absorbed we have E1 E2 , and if photons are
emitted we have E2 E1 . Let Rabs be the stimulate absorption rate so that
Rabs = Babs N1 n(E),
where Babs is the proportionality constant, N1 is the number of atoms in level 1, and
n(E) is the available stimulating photons.
48
Philip Hwang
Note 3.5. Text uses the spectral energy density u(f ) =

Btext =
n(E)E dE
V
df ,
Molecular Physics
where
dE
df
= h. So
V
Bnotes .
h E
Important 3.6 (Emission Rate)
Remit = Rspon + Rstim

Remit = Aspon N2 + Bstim N2 n(E).
Einstein formed the ratio
Aspon N2 + Bstim N2 n(E)
Remit
=
Rabs
Babs N1 n(E)
Aspon
Remit
N2
N2 Bstim
=
+
.
Rabs
N1 Babs n(E) N1 Babs
Assume (temporarily) thermal equilibrium.
(
1=
N2
eE2 /kB T
)eq = E /k T = eE/kB T
N1
e 1 B
8V
1
3 3 (E)2
neq = E/k T
B
(e
1) h c
Remit
= 1.
Rabs
Aspon
h3 c3
Bstim
(1 eE/kB T ) + eE/kB T
.
2
Babs 8V (E)
Babs
Aspon , Babs , Bstim should not depend on T , so T -dependence must cancel out.
So we have that
Bstim
=1
Babs
Aspon
8V (E)2
=
.
Babs
h3 c3
Back to non-equilibrium (first term is spontaneous and second term is stimulated):
Remit
N2 8V (E)2
N2
=
+
.
Rabs
N1 h3 c3 n(E) N1
Note 3.7. In thermal equilibrium, spontaneous dominates stimulate (if E kB T ).
[n(E) is small in equilibrium.]
For stimulated to dominate spontaneous we need
population inversion N2 N1
pump in energy to increase n(E)
49
Philip Hwang
Molecular Physics
3.4.1 Basic Elements of a Laser

The setup is a cylinder with a mirror on one face and a partial mirror on the other
containing some medium. The length of the mirror is L. Energy is pumped into the
cylinder and some coherent light exits the partial mirror. The length is chosen by taking
notice to L = n 2 . Counter-propagating waves interfere constructively.
3.4.2 Pumping Mechanisms
1. Optical pumpingSolid-state lasers
Ruby = 694.3 nm
Neodymium glass = 1060 nm (infrared)
Use very intense light with a broad spectrum including the required frequency.
Much of the energy is dissipated as heat. Laser is pulsed to allow time for cooling.
2. Electric-discharge pumpingGas lasers
CO2 10, 600 nm
He N e632.8 nm
Heat dissipation is less of a problem. So CW (continuously working) operation is
possible.
3. 3 level laser
Problem with optical pumping
Remit
N2
= [Spontaneous emission] +
1
Rabs
N1
as N2 N1 .
tlifetime 108 sec
tmetastable 103 sec
Pump to a state above the metastable state and it will transition back down to
the metastable state, making the metastable state more populated (can achieve
N3 = N1 and N2 N1 AKA inversion).
4. 4-Level lasere.g., neodymium glass
Pump to E2 and E3 from the ground stable. The energy level E2 becomes more
populated because it is metastable. E1 becomes empty (a near-perfect population
inversion).
3.4.3 He N e lasers
This is the most common gas laser. The wavelength is = 632.8 nm (red-orange). When
you turn it on you create an electric discharge in the tube. You populate the metastable
state of He. Because you want visible light you add N e gas which gives excited Neon
states. When He and N e collide you get the same energy. Then the neon decays to a
lower neon state which gives visible light!
50
Philip Hwang
Molecular Physics
3.5 Perturbation Theory

Example 3.8 (Infinite square well)
What if we put a little bump on the bottom. The smaller the bump, the smaller the
energy change.
Example 3.9
Let x = 2 + x2 , where is small. Calculate x correct to second order in . As a
power series
x = x(0) + x(1) + 2 x(2) +
x(0) + x(1) + 2 x(2) + = 2 + (0)

[x + x(1) + 2 x(2) + ]2
2
= 2 + (0) 2 [x(0) + x(1) + 2 x(2) + ]2
[x ]
=2+
2
x(1)
[1
2(
+ )].
[x(0) ]2
x(0)
0 : x(0) = 2
1 : x(1) =
[x(0) ]2
1
4
1
2 : x(2) = 16
So
x2+
+ O(3 ).
4 16
When we return we will use this approximation for the Schrodinger equation. . .
3.5.1 Applied to the Schr
odinger equation
Unperturbed system:
0 n = En(0) n .
H
{n } is the complete set of orthogonal eigenfunctions. For a perturbed system we have:
U U + U 0
0 + H
1 )n = E
n n .
(H
Because the unperturbed wavefunctions form a complete set, we can write the perturbed
wavefunctions n in terms of the unperturbed ones. So
X
n = A(){n +
Cnk ()k }
k6=n
[A(0) = 1, Cnk (0) = 0]

n = E (0) + E (1) + 2 E (2) +
E
n
n
n
(1)
(2)
Cnk () = Cnk + 2 Cnk +

We match up the s so
51
Philip Hwang
Molecular Physics
0 :
0 n = E (0) n
H
n
0
1 n +
En(1) n = H
(0)
(1)
(Ek En(0) )Cnk k
k6=n
1 |n i = 1
= hn |H
1 |n i.
E (1) = hn |H
En(1) hn |n i
2 :
En2 =
X |hk |H
1 |n i|2
(0)
k6=n
(0)
(En Ek )
Note 3.10. .
(0)
(0)
(2)
1. If n is the ground state, then En < Ek , k. This implies En is always negative

1 ).
(independent of H
2. Nearby energy levels have the greatest effect.
3. Theory breaks down when there are degeneracies.
3.5.2 Examples
Example 3.11 (Perturbed infinite square well)
Imagine a little jog at the bottom of the infinite square well which is at some
potential V from x = 0 to x = L2 . Remember that the unperturbed energies
q
2 2 ~2
(0)
2
nx
and wavefunctions are En = n2mL
and
(x)
=
n
2
L sin( L ). The perturbed
hamiltonian is
(
L
1 = V, 0 < x < 2
H
L
0,
2 < x < L.
Therefore
1 |n i
En(1) = hn |H
Z L r
2
2
nx 2
=
[
sin(
)] V dx
L
L
0
Z L
2
2V
nx
=
sin2 (
)dx
L
L
0
V
=
.(independent of n)
2
For perturbation theory to be valid,
V
2
52
n2 2 ~2
.
2mL2
Philip Hwang
Molecular Physics
Example 3.12 (1D anharmonic oscillator)

The Schr
odingers equation is
2
2
= ~ d + 1 m 2 x2 + x4 = H
0 + H
1,
H
2m dx2 2
(1)
where is small. Our goal is to determine E0

(0)
E0 = 12 ~. Recall that
correction to ground state energy
1
2
2
0 (x) = p ex /2a ,
a
where a
~
m .
We want to do the integral

(1)
E0 = h0 |x4 |0 i
Z
2
2
x4 ex /a dx
=
a
3
3~2
= a4 =
.
4
4m2 2
So the perturbed energy is approximately
0 ~ [1 + 3~ + ]
E
2
2m2 3
Valid for
2m2 3
3~ .
Example 3.13 (Perturbed infinite square well)

Now we make a small perturbational bump with the shape of sin( x
L ). We have
1 |n i
En(1) = hn |H
1 = sin( x )
H
L
r
2
nx
n =
sin(
)
L
L
Z
2 L 2 nx
x
(1)
En =
sin (
) sin( )dx
L 0
L
L
2
1
= [1 +
],
(4n2 1)
(1)
where there is the consistency condition En
53
n2 2 ~2
.
2mL2
Philip Hwang
Molecular Physics
Example 3.14 (Another anharmonic oscillator)

Consider
2
2
= ~ d + 1 m 2 x2 + x3 = H
0 + H
1.
H
2m dx2 2
We have
En(1) = hn |x3 |n i
= 0,
if the integrand is an odd function of x. For even we have in terms of a Hermite
polynomial
1
En(0) = (n + )~
2
x
1
2
2
ex /2a Hn ( ).
n (x) = p
a
a2n n!
For second order we have
En(2) =
X |hn |H
1 |k i|2
(0)
k6=n
(0)
(En Ek )
Keep k = n 1, n 3 only. So
En(2) 2
11
15a6 2
(n + n + ).
4~
30
54
Philip Hwang
Solid State Physics
Example 3.15 (The Stark Effect)

The Hamiltonian is
3D Hydrogen atom in a uniform electric field = k.
2
2
= ~ 2 ke + ez = H
0 + H
1.
H
2m
r
Ground state is nondegenerate (n = 1, l = 0, n = 0). The ground state energy is

(0)
ke2
. The ground state wave function is
E0 = 13.6 eV = 2a
0
1
100 (r) = p 3 er/a0 .
a0
Our integral is odd
(1)
E0 = h100 |ez|100 i = 0,
so we must proceed to the second order
(2)
E0 = e2 2
|hnlm |z|100 i|2
(n,l,m)6=(1,0,0)
(E0 En )
(0)
(0)
a 3 2
a
4k 0
27 4
1
= ( a30 )( 0 2 ).
2 3
2
Note that the term

(2)
|E0 |
ke2
2a0
or
1
2
2 0
2 ke
3 a20 .
is the energy density. The consistency condition is
4 Solid State Physics

4.1 Classical free-electron model of electrical conduction in metals
Define to be the average time between collisions. The acceleration is
a=
eE
eE
F
=
= vd = a =
.
me
me
me
The current density is

ne2
E
me
me
= E = ( 2 )J,
ne
J = nevd =
me
where resistivity = ne
2 is independent of E. This is the local version of Ohms law
V = IR. We can write the average time as
,
hvi
where is the mean free path. To follow

=
me hvi
ne2
55
Philip Hwang
Solid State Physics
Classical model
hvi =
=
8kB T
me .
1
2 .
nion rion
Example 4.1 (Copper)

At T = 300 K we have that hvi = 1.08 105 m/s. Assume one conduction electron
for each ion:
(
ne = ni = 8.47 1028 m3
= 0.38 nm.
So the time between collisions on average is
=
0.38 109
= 3.52 1015 s,
=
hvi
1.08 105
and the resistivity is

classical = 1.19 107 m.
But experiment gives
expt = 1.69 108 m.
The problem is that the electrons are so close to each other that their de Broglie wavelengths overlap. Quantum mechanical model
hvi = uF , 12 me u2f = EF 0 =
2 ~2 3
2/3
2me ( ne )
Problems:
1. No temperature dependence at all.
2. is now 100 times too large.
Take
=
1
.
nion [(rthermal )2 ]
2 . This makes
(rthermal )2 is about 100 times smaller than rion
metal proportional to
T . Note that = thermal jitter + impurities .
4.1.1 Resistivity at Room Temperature

Solid
Cu
Pb
Ge
Si
S
Diamond
Category
Conductor
Conductor
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Insulator
Insulator
56
Resistivity ( m)
1.6 108
2.2 108
0.46
640
1015
1016
Philip Hwang
Solid State Physics
4.2 The Dirac Delta Function

The delta function (x) is an infinite spike at x = 0. Define (x) as the area of a rectangle
1
with height 2b
and width 2b. So
(
0,
x 6= 0
(x) = lim b(x) =
b0
, x = 0.
Note 4.2. .
1.
Z
(x)dx = f (0).
f (x)(x)dx = f (0)
2. (x) has units of
1
length .
Recall the 1D TISE
~2 d2
+ V (x)(x) = E(x),
2m dx2
plus the B.C. at interface of two regions of V (x):

(x) is continuous
d
dx
is continuous too, except at points where V (x) is infinite.
We are going to say that V (x) = (x). So

d2
2m
= 2 [(x) E](x).
2
dx
~
Look for bound states E < 0. To follow
Z 0+ 2
d
d
d
dx = ( )0+ ( )0
LHS =
2
dx
dx
0 dx
Z 0+
2m
2m
(x)dx.
RHS = 2 (0) 2 E
~
~
0
We have that
d
dx
is discontinuous at x = 0. So
(
d
d
2m
)0+ ( )0 = 2 (0).
dx
dx
~
For x 6= 0 we have
2mE
d2
= 2 (x) K 2 (x)
2
dx
~
r
2mE
(K 2 ).
~
The B.C. are (x) 0 as x . So the solutions are
(
B eKx ,
x<0
(x) =
Kx
B+ e
, x > 0.
57
Philip Hwang
Solid State Physics
Note that is continuous at x = 0. So B = B+ B. Now

2KB =
2m
B.
~2
Through K we have that

r
2
2mE
2m
= 2
2
~
~
m 2
= E = 2 ,
2~
so the energy only has one single bound state. Thus after normalizing
m m2 |x|
.
(x) =
e ~
~
4.3 The Band Structure of Crystalline Solids

4.3.1 Dirac comb potential
Define the potential as
V (x) =
N
1
X
(x ja).
j=0
We will be using periodic B.C. Imagine the x axis as a ring, not a straight line. The
N th spike is at x = a. We want free electrons with E > 0. Solve for the Schrodinger
equation
~2 d2
+ V (x) = E.
2m dx2
Note that periodicity V (x + a) = V (x).

Theorem 4.3 (Blochs Theorem)
V (x) periodic
= (x + a) = ei (x),
where is independent of x but depends on E. Therefore
|(x + a)|2 = |(x)|2 .
The probability of findings the electron between each of the barriers is the same.
Our periodic BC is (x + N a) = (x). By the theorem above eiN (x) = (x), so
=
n
(2), n = 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
N
and N 1023 .
Note 4.4. .
1. There are N values of between 0 and 2.
58
Philip Hwang
Solid State Physics
2. The allowed values of are very closely spaced (N 1).

3. Each value of corresponds to a different (x) and a different E.
We only need to find solutions in 0 < x < a because of Blochs Theorem. The potential
is 0 so
~2 d2
= E, (E > 0)
2m dx2
2mE
d2
2
= k , k
.
2
dx
~
The solutions are in the form

A sin(kx) + B cos(kx), 0 < x < a.
In the cell to the left,
(x) = ei {[A sin[k(x + a)] + B cos[k(x + a)]}
We have B.C.
(
(0+)
d
( d
dx )0+ ( dx )0
= (0 1)
= 2m
(0).
~2
Relating A and B,
(
B
= ei [A sin(ka) + B cos(ka)]
B.
kA ei k[A cos(ka) B sin(ka)] = 2m
~2
After some algebra:
[ei cos(ka)][1 ei cos(ka)] + ei sin2 (ka) =
2m
sin(ka).
~2 k
And
cos = cos(ka) +
Let
ma
,
~2
m
sin(ka).
~2 k
so
cos = cos(ka) +
sin(ka)
.
ka
2 2
k
The N allowed values between 0 and 2 for gives N allowed energies E = ~2m
. There
are N allowed energy states k between k1 and k2 , between k2 and k3 , etc. This implies
there are bands of closely-spaced energies, separated by gaps.
4.3.2 Insulators, Conductors, and Semiconductors

There is a higher Conduction Band and lower Valence Band separated by Egap .
Conductors have their conduction band partly filled and the valence band is filled. For an
insulator the valence band is filled but the conduction band is essentially empty. Fraction
of electrons thermally excited across the gap:
fraction(Egap ) =
1
(eEgap /2kB T
59
+ 1)
eEgap /2kB T ,
Philip Hwang
Solid State Physics
for Egap kB T . Diamond is an excellent insulator because at room temperature there

are no electrons in the conduction band. Silicon has a smaller Egap is smaller than
Diamonds which makes it a better semiconductor. If Egap = 1 eV, then the fraction is
approximately e20(1) = 2 109 .
The conductivity of a semiconductor is a very sensitive function of temperature.
Increasing T gives a larger conductivity of semiconductors and a smaller conductivity of
conductors.
4.3.3 Transparency to visible light
For visible light Ephoton is between 3.1 eV and 1.8 eV. Diamond is transparent because
Ephoton is less than Egap . Silicon is not transparent because Egap < Ephoton .
4.4 Impurity Semiconductors

Si lattice4 valence electrons. We can form an n-type semiconductor by doping it with
As, which has 5 valence electrons (extra electrons). This increases the conductivity of the
material. We can also create a p-type by doping with Ga, which has 3 valence electrons
(extra hole).
4.4.1 The p n Junction
When we put p and n type together we get diffusion of electrons towards one way while
the positively charged holes go the other way. Where there is an electric field we call a
depletion zone. This field is around |E| 108 V/m.
4.4.2 Si Solar Cells
Sunlight photon is absorbed so that Si covalent bond is broken and an electron and hole
is freed are separated by E before they can recombine. Now there is a photo voltage
V can drive a current.
The best solar cells are made by Boeing for NASA space applicatoins.
43% efficient
1 mi2 1.1 GW
Cost $100,000 per m2 .
Cheaper Solar Cells
About 13 as efficient = 3 mi2 per GW Assume 20% efficient. So we have around 14
hp per m2 . Compare this to cars which cruise at 20 hp and generate 100 hp when
passing. Solar cars are not practical.
4.5 Superconductivity
Discovered for Hg in 1911. If we plot resistivity with temperature T , superconductors
have no resistivity below critical temperature T = Tc . We dont have to worry about
heating loss when using a superconductor.
Meissner effect occurs when magnetic fields are expelled from superconductors (quantum mechanical basis).
60
Philip Hwang
Nuclear Physics
4.5.1 Low-Tc superconductors

Type I (e.g., Pb)
We have Bc (T ) = Bc (0)[1 ( TTc )2 ]. When B < Bc the field is successfully expelled. When
B > Bc the superconducting state is destroyed. These are metallic elements which are
poorer conductors at room temperature.
Type II (e.g., Si V3 )
These are metallic compounds and alloys. They have higher Tc and much higher Bc , so
they can carry larger currents. The vortex state gives current vortices that surround
tubes of B-field. The rest of the sample is superconducting and field-free.
4.5.2 BCS Theory-1959
Two hints:
Tc
1 .
Mion
So lattice must be involved in the mechanism.
Superconductors tend to be poor conductors (high ) at room temperature. So

strong interactions between the elements and the ion lattice are required.
Cooper pairs
One electron pulls the ion cores toward it
The other electron is attracted to this displacement.
Ebinding = 3.53kB Tc , so thermal motion greater than this can break these bonds. Thermal
kinetic energy can disassociate these pairs at higher temperatures T > Tc . Total spin of
pair is 0, so the pair is a boson. As T 0, a condensate can occur. All pairs in same
momentum state.
The spacing between paris is about 1000dlattice (non-local).
Pairs are constantly breaking and reforming.
Pairs are in entangled quantum state.
Type I theory is well understood. Type II is sort of understood.
4.5.3 High-Tc Superconductors
Theory is not well understood. World record is 164 K (under pressure). Typically
copper-oxides.
5 Nuclear Physics
Nucleons comprised of protons and neutrons are attracted to each other by the strong
force.
Example 5.1 (Hydrogen isotopes)
Consider 11 H,21 H,31 H. See Appendix ATable of Atomic Masses.
61
Philip Hwang
Nuclear Physics
An atomic mass unit is defined as

1
( mass of C-12 atom including electrons)
12
= 1.660559 1027 kg
1u
= 931.5 MeV/c2 .
Mass of proton is mp = 1.007276 u. The mass of neutron is mn = 1.008665 u. The mass
of an electron is me = 5.486 104 u.
Shape of Nucleus
Nearly all nuclei are nearly spherical.
Size of the nucleus
Experiments give empirical relation
r A1/3 r0 ,
where r0 = 1.2 1015 m. So
4
4
V = r3 = Ar03
3
3
4 3
= A ( r0 ),
3
where A is the total number of nucleons. solid 103 kg/m3 . For nucleus we have
nucleus =
A mnucleon
1.6 1027
=
4
4
15 )3
A 3 r03
3 (1.2 10
1017 kg/m3 .
This is YUGE!
5.1 Nuclear Binding

U (r) rises rapidly for distances less than 2 fm. This is a short-range force! There is no
simple formula for the strong force.
5.1.1 Stability
p p and n n is unstable while p n is stable. The problem is that the strong force
depends on spin, and is much stronger when spins are aligned. When both are spinning
the same direction, it violates the exclusion principle. Though p n is both spin up, they
are two different entities, so they are not violating the exclusion principle.
Example 5.2 (Deuteron)
1 bond, 2 nucleons. s = 1 so it is a boson. There is
1
2
bond per nucleon.
Example 5.3 (Alpha Particle)

6 bonds, 4 nucleons. So
3
2
bonds per nucleon.
A given nucleon cannot bond to others more than 2 fm away.

62
Philip Hwang
Nuclear Physics
Once completely surrounded, nucleons reach a fixed number of bonds per nucleon.
SA/V 1r .
Energy required to strip a C R atom of all its electrons is around 1000 eV.
Nuclear binding energy:
B.E. = energy required to disassemble the nucleus
= 492.3 MeV
for
56 F e.
5.1.2 The Strong Force

For an particle the BE is 28.3 MeV. Strong-force potential energy between two nucleons
is
Ustrong =
28.3 MeV
= 4.7 MeV.
6 bonds
Electrostatic potential energy of two protons separated by r = 1 fm:

Ue =
ke2
(1.44 ev nm) 1 MeV
=
( 6
) = +1.4 MeV.
r
106 nm
10 eV
So |Ustrong | 3Ue for nucleons.

Note 5.4. For quarks, |Ucolor | 100Ue .
The strong force is the remnant of the color force between quarks when nucleon
come close together.
5.1.3 Binding Energy of a nucleus
The binding energy is the energy required to totally separate all nucleons. It is given, in
general, by
BE = [(mass of parts) (mass of whole)]c2 = mc2 .
Example 5.5 (Deuteron)

The mass of a deuteron is 2.013553 u, the mass of a neutron is 1.008665 u, and the
mass of a proton is 1.007276 u. So m = .002388 u. Therefore
BE = [.002388 u (1.661 1027 kg/u](3.00 108 m/s)2
= 3.57 1013 J
= 2.22 MeV = BE/nucleon = 1.11 MeV.
Note that tables usually list atomic masses and not nuclear masses.
Convenient approximate formula:
BE [(ZmH N mn ) MA X ]c2 ,
Z
where mH is the hydrogen atomic mass and MA X is the atomic mass of the isotope
Z
in question. This is an approximation because electron binding energies are not included.
63
Philip Hwang
Nuclear Physics
Example 5.6 (12

6 C)
By definition the atomic mass of this carbon is 12.000000 u, and Z, N = 6. So
m = 6(1.007825 u) + 6(1.008665 u) 12.000000 u
= .098940 u
BE = mc2 = (.098940 u)(931.5 MeV/c2 u)c2
= 92.16 MeV.
Example 5.7 (56

26 F e)
The mass of this iron atom is 55.934939 u, and Z = 26 and N = 30.
BE = [26(1.007825) + 30(1.008665) 55.934939](931.5)
= 492.3 MeV
492.3 MeV
= 8.79 MeV/nucleon.
BE/nucleon =
56
5.2 Stability of Nuclei

In general, lower energy makes the nuclei more stable.
Important 5.8 (Ignore Coulomb Repulsion)
For a given A, N = Z is the state of lowest energy.
Supposing N > Z would erase one lower energy level and add a higher energy level,
making the nucleus unstable. Now we factor in Coulomb repulsion.
Proton energies are shifted higher
Lowest energy state now has N > Z.
5.3 Quarks
Quarks have 6 different flavors and 3 different colors. Thus there are 18 quarks and 18
anti quarks, making 36 total.
Quark
d
u
s
c
b
t
Electric Charge
13 e
+ 23 e
13 e
+ 23 e
13 e
+ 23 e
Proton: uud
Neutron: udd
Colors: Quarks r,g,b/Anti-quarks r, g, b.

All particles in nature are colorless:
64
Spin
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
Mass (MeV)
338
336
540
1,500
170,900
5,000
Philip Hwang
Nuclear Physics
rgbproton neutron
rrmesons
5.3.1 Color force
r-rrepel
r-battract
r-rattract
r-brepel
5.4 Spin
Nucleon 12
Quarks 21 + Gluons + Orbital ang. momentum of the quarks.
5.4.1 Gluons
There are 8 types.
Carry a color and an anti-color.
s=1
m=0
v = c.
When a quark emits a gluon, it changes color. This happens constantly.
5.4.2 Types of gluons
r
g , rg, b
g , bg, rb, rb, r
r, g
g , bb. Only 2 of the last three count because if this existed,
colorless particles could exchange it and experience the color force directly. Note there
are no quark-anitquark conversions. We must also have conservation of color.
5.4.3 Quark confinement
Different colors attract. Energy added to pull quarks apart is converted into more
string.
5.4.4 Asymptotic freedom
Decrease r < 1018 m (inside nucleon) = F 0.
5.4.5 Model of color-force interaction potential
4 s ~e
+ F0 r, F0 = 900 MeV/fm 16 tons.
3 r
s = .36 is the chromodynamic fine structure constant (strong-coupling constant).
U (r) =
Light quark states (particles) are intrinsically relativistic.

Heavy mesons like c
c (charmonium, ).
Can solve the Schro
odinger equation for energy states E.
E
M = m1 + m2 + 2 .
c
65
Philip Hwang
Nuclear Physics
5.5 Nuclear Models

No simple formula for the strong force means phenomenological models are useful.
The Shell Model
The Liquid Drop Model
5.5.1 The Shell Model
Explains the magic numbers of especially stable nuclei.
Z/N/both = 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126, . . .
Similar to atoms of atomic numbers Z = 2, 10, 18, 36, 54 (unusually stablecomplete
shells)
Explains the Pairing effect
Greater stability when Z/N are even.
5.5.2 The Liquid Drop Model
Cohesion holds the nucleus together
Lowest energy state is one in which the surface area is minimum (sphere)
Semi-empirical binding energy formula is the centerpiece of this model.
5.5.3 Free Particle in 3D
Recall
E=
~2 k 2
.
2
Definite linear momentum of the particle p = ~k gives wavefunction

(r) = Ceikr .
Assume instead that it is in the state of definite angular momentum. Angular momentum
is being quantized as
p
L = l(l + 1)~
Lz = m~
(r) = Djl (kr)Ylm (, ),
where the wave is a spherical wave and jl (kr) is a spherical Bessel function. For
spherical Bessel functions
j0 () =
sin
.
When l 6= 0 we get a decaying, oscillating function. For l

jl ()
l
.
1 3 5 (2l + 1)
For l
jl ()
1
l
sin( ).
66
Philip Hwang
Nuclear Physics
5.5.4 Infinite spherical well

Let the potential be
(
0,
U (r) =
,
r<R
r > R.
The boundary conditions is jl (kR) = 0. So kR has to be a root of a spherical Bessel

function. Each root ln (nth root) corresponds to an energy level Eln =
Table of roots pln of jl ()
l/n
1
2
3
..
.
0
3.14
6.28
9.42
1
4.49
7.73
2
5.76
9.10
3
6.99
10.42
4
8.18
2
~2 kln
2
(kln =
Pln
R ).
5
9.36
The order in which the energy levels occurs is 1s, 1p, 1d, 2s, 1f, 2p, 1g, 2d, 1h , 3s, . . .
5.5.5 Shell model of the nucleus
Each shell contains 2(2l + 1) protons and 2(2l + 1) neutrons.
Shell
1s
1p
1d
2s
# of protons
2
6
10
2
Z
2
8
18
20
The problem is that some of these are not the magic numbers!
5.5.6 Refinements of the model
Finite spherical well with rounded corners.
Spin-orbit interaction causes a splitting between parallel and antiparallel vectors of
the orbital angular momentum and spin of the nucleon. True magic numbers are
Z = 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126, . . .
There are Doubly magic nuclei 42 He,1 68 O,2 088 2P b.
5.5.7 Semi-empirical binding energy formula (Inspired by Liquid Drop Model)
The form of the terms is determined by theoretical argument. Coefficients are chosen to
fit experimental data. Define the binding energy to be positive as
Z(Z 1)
(N Z)2
C
,
4
A
A1/3
where A = Z + N and N Z = A 2Z. The first term is a volume term. The second
term is a surface area penalty. The third term is the Coulomb repulsion of the protons.
The last term is for when N 6= Z. The numerical values vary slightly:
C1 A C2 A2/3 C3
C1 = 15.75 MeV
C2 = 17.8 MeV
C3 = .711 MeV
C4 = 23.7 MeV
67
Philip Hwang
The Weak Interaction
Example 5.9 (Iron)

A = 56, Z = 26, N = 30. So
Eb = 15.8(56) 17.8(56)2/3 0.711
26(25)
(30 26)2
23.7
56
(56)1/3
= 496.9 MeV.
Therefore, the binding energy per nucleon is 8.87 MeV which is the formula. Experimental value is 8.79 MeV. This is a less than 1% discrepancy.
5.5.8 Optimal value of Z for fixed A

We want to minimize Matom c2 . This gives optimal stability. Recall
(A Z)2
Z(Z 1)
C
4
A
A1/3
2
2
2
Eb [Zmp c + (A Z)mn c + Zme c ] Matom c2
Eb (A, Z) = C1 A C2 A2/3 C3
= Amn c2 Z(mn mp me )c2 Matom c2 ,

and we will define (mn mp me )c2 Cm = .782 MeV. The Amn c2 term is fixed while
Matom c2 is minimized. Define
b (A, Z) Eb (A, Z) + CM Z = Amn c2 Matom c2 .
E
b over Z for fixed A. This minimizes Matom c2 . So 0 =
Maximize E
Zopt (A) =
=
b
E
Z |fixed A .
This gives
CM
C3
2/3
4C4 )A + ( 4C4 )A
C3
)A2/3
2 + ( 2C
4
(1.0084A + .0075A2/3 )
(1 +
(2 + .0150A2/3 )
As an approximation
(
Zopt (A)
1
2 A, small A
2
5 A, 165 < A
< 250.
There is a complication called the pairing effect from experiment. For even A, Zopt (A)
is odd, making N odd as well. If A is odd, it is the most stable.
6 The Weak Interaction

Example 6.1 (n e + p+ )
A free neutron has a half-life of 10.25 minutes. Problems:
Conservation of energy
Conservation of spin angular momentum
68
Philip Hwang
W, Pauli introduced neutrinos to solve this problem. Neutrinos have essentially zero
mass and are electrically neutral.
Not electromagnetic interaction
Not gravitational interaction
Not strong interaction
Therefore there must be a 4th kind of fundamental interaction called the weak interaction.
6.1 Characteristics of the weak interaction

1. Affects both hadrons and leptons.
2. The effective range is 103 fm. (Really short range)
3. Usually transform are type of particle into another. (Dont just exchange momentum.)
4. Involves the creation or absorption of neutrinos (not seen in any other context).
6.2 Weak interactions important for nuclear physics

1. Neutron decay-spontaneous (raises Z)
n e + p+ + .
2. Proton decay-(not possible for free protons, lowers Z)
p+ n + e+ +
3. Electron capture- (e needs > .8 MeV of energy)
p+ + e n +
Note that 2 and 3 can be spontaneous in nuclei if the transformation causes a shift in
nuclear structure that releases energy.
6.3 Radioactivity
Alpha is 42 He nuclei. Beta is electrons. Gamma is high-energy photons.
6.3.1 Beta Decay
Long half-lives are seen.
1. Neutron decay ( decay, lowers
A
Z Xi
2. Proton decay ( + decay, raises
3. Electron capture (raises
N
Z)
0
A
A+1 Xf +1 +
N
Z)
A
Z Xi
0
A
Z1 Xf ++1 +
A
Z Xi
+01 A
Z1 Xf +
N
Z)
69
Philip Hwang
Example 6.2 (Sun)
p + p 2p + Energy pn(stable) +
Let the kinetic energy released in beta decay be
Q (mi mf )c2
Take for example (neutron decay/electron emission)
12
5 B
0
12
6 C +1 + nu
So
Q = (12.014352 u 12.000000 u) 931.5 MeV/u
= 13.4 MeV.
Take for example (proton decay/position emisison)
12
7 N
0
12
6 C ++1 +
So
Q = [12.018613 u 12.000000 u 2 5.486 104 u] 931.5 MeV/u
= 16.3 MeV.
Take for example (electron capture)
11
6 C
+01 11
5 B + .
So
Q = [11.01143 u 11.009305 u] 931.5 MeV/u
= 1.98 MeV
Energetically preferred 100 : 1 for
11 C.
Need two classes worth of notes
6.4 Fusion
Need:
High density (more frequent collisions)
High temperature (high speeds)
Fusion is more efficient because the fusion slope is steeper than the gradual fission slope.
6.4.1 Hydrogen Bomb
Explode a fission bomb. This forces carefully-arranged hydrogen isotopes together.
70
Philip Hwang
TBA
6.4.2 Fusion Reactors

Still experimental devices. Idea is to make a little sun on the earth. You must heat a gas
to a very high temperature to get a plasma. Barely reached breakeven...
(
3 T +1 H
(Q = 4.0 MeV)
1
1
2
2
1 D +1 D 3
1
2 He +0 n (Q = 3.3 MeV).
2
1D
+31 T 42 He +10 n(Q = 17.6 MeV)
Required T?
Tsun 107 K = plasma state
The problem is that when the plasma touches the wall, it cools off. There are various
confinement methods
Gravitational (Sun, stars)
Magnetic confinement
Inertial confinement
The Advantages of Fusion:
Fuel
Combustion products
Stability
7 TBA
7.1 Overview of Quantum Mechanics
Quantum Mechanics is an abstract mathematical framework that correctly predicts
the results of measurements but defies intuitive pictures.
7.1.1 Two Equivalent Frameworks
Sum over paths (Feynman)
Abstract Vector Spaces (Dirac)
Schr
odinger (waves)
Heisenberg (matrices)
7.1.2 The Postulates of Quantum Mechanics
1. The state of a quantum system is a vector |(t)i in a Hilbert space.
2. Observable quantities are represented by operators. A dynamical quantity A is represented by operator A (Hermitianreal eigenvalues complete set of eigenvectors)
71
Philip Hwang
TBA
3. The only possible results of a measurement of A are the eigenvalues of A.

n i = An |vn i,
A|v
where |vn i is the eigenvector and An are the eigenvalues. Also
X
Cn |vn i,
|vi =
n
and
Prob(An ) = |Cn |2
4. Time evolution of |i is governed by the Schrodinger equation:
i~
|i = H|i
t
7.1.3 Particular realizations of Diracs framework

|vi = complex wave function (r, t)
A =linear differential operator
Wave mechanics (Schr
odinger/Dirac)
|vi =complex column vector (maybe infinite)
A =matrix operator (maybe infinite)
Matrix mechanics (Heisenberg)
7.2 Relativistic Quantum Mechanics

Schrodinger equation is nonrelativistic. Dirac equation is relativistic (predicts spin and
antiparticles). Both theories are first quantization theories (point particles). The theory
beyond this is called Quantum Field Theory. Particles are now excitations of a quantum
field. This allows for particle creation and annihilation. This is a second quantization
theory.
Example 7.1 (Diracs Framework)
Imagine a particle on a line. We make it so that the particle can only be found in
one of the positions {x0 , x1 , x2 , , xn1 }. State space has dimension n. In QM, the
particle can be in a strange fuzzy blending of these states:
|psii = C 0|x0 i + C1 |x1 i + + Cn1 |xn1 i
(imagine a column vector from C0 to Cn1 , elements of Cn . When we measure the
position of the particle |i collapses to |xi i.
p(xi ) =
Example 7.2 (n = 4)
3 i
2i
Suppose |i =
i
2
|Ci |2
|Ci |2
=
2
2
2
|||i||
|C0 | + |C1 | + + |Cn1 |2
.What is p(x2 )? Do the shit and get p(x2 ) =
72
1
19
= .052624.
Philip Hwang
TBA
Suppose there was a continuous x-axis. Then we have a continuous function C(x)
(complex wavefunction). p(x) |(x)|2 . Where was the particle before it was measured?
Three schools of thought before 1964:
1. The realist position. The particle was where it was found. Q.M. is an incomplete
theory. There are Hidden variables.
2. The orthodox position. The particle really wasnt anywhere. The act of measurement forced a definite position. Copenhagen interpretation.
3. The agnostic position. Refuse to answer. It is meaningless to ask about the state
of a particle before it was measurement.
John Bell in 1964 presented an argument that
1. Eliminated 3 as a viable option. It makes an observable difference whether the
particle had a precise position prior to measurement.
2. Experiments decisively support 2 over 1.
7.3 Qubits-Another example of Diracs framework

Two states (as with a bit)-|0i and |1i.
But a qubit can also exist in a superposition state:
|i = |0i + |1i,
where
||2 + ||2 = 1
if |i is normalized. So p(|0i) = ||2 and p(|1i) = ||2 if a measurement is made.
Column vector representation:

|i =

.
Example 7.3
An example of a qubit would be spin- 12 momentum of an elementary particle on
a fixed axis. Let |0i be up and |1i be down. Suppose the spin state is |i =
(3 4i)|0i + (7 + 2i)|1i. So
|3 4i|2
25
=
78
78
2
|7 + 2i|
53
p(|1i) =
= .
2
78
( 78)
p(|0i) =
The two basic states form an orthonormal basis of C2 :

1
0
{|0i, |1i} {
,
}.
0
1
73
Philip Hwang
TBA
Alternate basis is
|0i+|1i
2
|0i|1i
.
2
(
|+i =
|i =
Consider
|i = |0i + |1i
= 0 |+i + 0 |i.
Introduce unitary U

0
0
=U
where

U=
h+|0i h+|1i
h|0i h|1i
1
=
2
1 1
1 1
Example 7.4
q
q
Allow |i = 13 |0i + 23 |1i. So

0
0
1
=
2
1 1
1 1

" 1 #

1
1 + 2
3
q
=
2
6 1 2
3
7.3.1 The Pauli Matrices

1 0
0 1
0 1
1 0
0 i
i 0
1 0
0 1
0
1
2
3
The above span the vector space of all 2 2 Hermitian matrices. Recall that we saw
these when discussing spin angular momentum. Each of these operators comes with its
own set of eigenvectors.
Important 7.5 (Eigenvalues and eigenvectors)
A x = x,
where A is n n, x is an eigenvector and is the eigenvalue. There are n eigenvalues.
74
Philip Hwang
7
1

1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
+1
Eigenvectors of 1 , 2 , 3 :
Example 7.6
Spin state |i =
3
2 |0i
2

1
1
2
i
1
1
2
i
TBA
3
1
0
0
1
+ 12 |1i.
1. Measure spin along z-axis:

~
p(+ ) =
2
~
p( ) =
2
3
4
1
4
2. Measure spin along y-axis: Must express |i in terms of new basis.

Chance-of-basis matrix

hy + |0i hy + |1i
hy |0i hy |1i
U=
1
=
2
1 i
1 i

,
so
( 3 i)
( 3 + i)
| i =
|y+i +
|yi.
2 2
2 2
0
Both probabilities p(+ ~2 ) and p( ~2 ) are 21 .
7.3.2 Successive Spin Measurements

Let |i = | iz . Now measure i :
1
p(| i ) = cos2 ( )
2
2
1
p(| i ) = sin2 ( ) .
2
2
7.4 The Quantum Measurement Problem

7.4.1 Classical View
Prior to a measurement, a property of a system has a definite value.
7.4.2 Quantum View
Properties of a system do not have a definite value until after a measurement is made.
Two aspects of the classical view1. Objectivity
a) weakIndependent experiments agree
b) strongThere is an underlying reality independent of observers.
75
Philip Hwang
TBA
2. Locality: Measurement of particle A in no way affects particle the state of a distant

particle B.
Entanglement is the Quantum correlation of particles as systems, even when the two
systems are spatially separated. Q.M. violates strong objectivity and locality. This was
what EPR paper (1935) was arguing against.
7.5 Bells Inequality (1964)

Imagine two boxes (#1 and #2) that are spin analyzers with a red and green probe.
In between the there is a source that emits 2 particles with correlated (opposite) spins.
Each analyzer has three 3 different axis separated at 120 degrees.
The axis of each analyzer is switched at random
A, B, C are separated by 120 degrees
Spin-up corresponds to a red flash and spin down corresponds to a green flash.
What is the probability that the detectors flash with opposite colors?
Example 7.7 (Q.M.)
#2, set at A, measures spin-down (G). Then #1 is spin-up with respect to A. So
the probability flashes the opposite color is
1
1
120
1
240
1
1 + cos2 (
) + cos2 (
)=
3
3
2
3
2
2
7.5.1 The Prediction of Local Determinism

Local means no communication between the particles. Determinism means the rules for
flashes (instruction sets). RRG means:
If A, flash R
If B, flash R
If C, flash G
Orientation Setting
AA
BB
CC
AB
BA
BC
CB
AC
CA
Detectors flash
RG
RG
GR
RG
RG
RR
GG
RR
GG
Probability of different color flashes is 59 . There are 8 different instruction sets.
76
Philip Hwang
7
Instruction Set (Detector 1)
RRR
GGG
RRG
RGR
GRR
RGG
GRG
GGR
TBA
Prob. different colors

1
1
5/9
5/9
5/9
5/9
5/9
5/9
Important 7.8 (Bells Inequality)

In any instruction-set scheme, the probability of different color flashes has a probability greater than 59 .
But Q.M. predicts a violation of this inequality.
77

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Modern Physics II

2 Statistical Physics: Systems of many particles

4 Solid State Physics

or, in expanded form,

H(r) = E(r) Eigenvalue equation of form A x = x

1.1 Bound particle in a static potential U (r)

The General solution of the TDSE is

Cn eiEn t/~ n (r).

Note that the measure energy of a particle probability of En is

denominator is 1 if is normalized. We normalize {n }:

|Cn |2 n (r)n (r)

1.2 1D Infinite Square Well

1.4 One Dimensional Hydrogen Atom (Classical Treatment)

where xm is the turning point. The period is

1.5 Expectation Value of an Operator

The denominator of this expression is 1 if is normalized.

Cn0 n0 (r)eiEn t/~ )H(

Cn n (r)eiEn t/~ )d3 r.

Only n0 = n terms survive because the eigenfunctions are orthogonal.

|Cn |2 n (r)n (r)d3 .

n=1 all space

Because the wave functions are normalized

1.6 3D Bohr Model of Hydrogen Atom

L = mvr = n~, n = 1, 2, 3, ...

Lets find the period of orbit.

1.7 1D Hydrogen AtomQuantum Treatment

Lets define new variables

These are the boundary equation

Note C0 = 0. Shifting the summations...

The result looks like

[(n + 2)(n + 1)Cn+2 (n + 1)Cn+1 + Cn+1 ]X n = 0

[(n + 2)(n + 1)Cn+2 (n + 1)Cn+1 + Cn+1 ] 0, n = 0, 1, 2, ....

1.8 Energy Eigenfunctions (Quantum Bouncer)

and so on. Recall X =

So the normalization condition is

Because they are orthogonal

whenever n0 6= n. The general solution for the 1D Hydrogen atom is

1.9 The Quantum Bouncer

The boundary conditions are

New variable x X k(x f ) = k(x

where k f 1/3 . This means that X = 0 if

Important 1.4 (Airy equation (1838))

The boundary conditions of these equations are

Corresponding wavefunctions are

General solution for the quantum bouncer:

This superposition describes a wave packet bouncing and spreading.

1.10 The Generalized Uncertainty Principle

What do we mean by uncertainty?

Example 1.6 (Position/Momentum)

1.11 Angular Momentum-Quantized in our universe.

Important 1.7 (QM Formula)

terms! The commutators become

1.12 Angular Momentum Eigenvalues and Eigenfunctions

, which implies simultaneous eigenfunctions which we will call Y (, ).

L Ylm (, ) = l(l + 1)~2 Ylm (, )

1.13 Two Classical Interacting Particles

Adding the two above gives conservation of momentum

Note that p = (m1 + m2 )rcm . So now we have

Multiplying by the masses gives

1.14 One Classical Particle in a Central Force Field V (r)

(last term is centrifugal force).

1.15 Quantum Particle in any Central Force Field

We are now going to derive for spherical coordinates.

[(n + 2)(n + 1)Cn+2 (n + 1)Cn+1 + Cn+1 ]X n = 0

[(n + 2)(n + 1)Cn+2 (n + 1)Cn+1 + Cn+1 ] 0, n = 0, 1, 2, ....

New variable x X k(x f ) = k(x