RadioactiveWasteManagement

(UpdatedOctober2015)
Nuclearpoweristheonlylargescaleenergyproducingtechnologywhichtakesfull
responsibilityforallitswastesandfullycoststhisintotheproduct.
Theamountofradioactivewastesisverysmallrelativetowastesproducedbyfossilfuel
electricitygeneration.
Usednuclearfuelmaybetreatedasaresourceorsimplyasawaste.
Nuclearwastesareneitherparticularlyhazardousnorhardtomanagerelativetoothertoxic
industrialwastes.
Safemethodsforthefinaldisposalofhighlevelradioactivewastearetechnicallyproventhe
internationalconsensusisthatthisshouldbegeologicaldisposal.
Allpartsofthenuclearfuelcycleproducesomeradioactivewaste(radwaste)andtherelativelymodestcost
ofmanaginganddisposingofthisispartoftheelectricitycost,i.e.itisinternalisedandpaidforbythe
electricityconsumers.
Ateachstageofthefuelcyclethereareproventechnologiestodisposeoftheradioactivewastessafely.
Forlowandintermediatelevelwastesthesearemostlybeingimplemented.Forhighlevelwastessome
countriesawaittheaccumulationofenoughofittowarrantbuildinggeologicalrepositoriesothers,suchas
theUSA,haveencounteredpoliticaldelays.
Unlikeotherindustrialwastes,thelevelofhazardofallnuclearwasteitsradioactivitydiminisheswith
time.Eachradionuclideacontainedinthewastehasahalflifethetimetakenforhalfofitsatomstodecay
andthusforittolosehalfofitsradioactivity.Radionuclideswithlonghalflivestendtobealphaandbeta
emittersmakingtheirhandlingeasierwhilethosewithshorthalflivestendtoemitthemorepenetrating
gammarays.Eventuallyallradioactivewastesdecayintononradioactiveelements.Themoreradioactive
anisotopeis,thefasteritdecays.
Themainobjectiveinmanaginganddisposingofradioactive(orother)wasteistoprotectpeopleandthe
environment.Thismeansisolatingordilutingthewastesothattherateorconcentrationofany
radionuclidesreturnedtothebiosphereisharmless.Toachievethis,practicallyallwastesarecontained
andmanagedsomeclearlyneeddeepandpermanentburial.Fromnuclearpowergeneration,noneis
allowedtocauseharmfulpollution.
Alltoxicwastesneedtobedealtwithsafely,notjustradioactivewastes.Incountrieswithnuclearpower,
radioactivewastescompriselessthan1%oftotalindustrialtoxicwastes(thebalanceofwhichremains
hazardousindefinitely).

Typesofradioactivewaste
Exemptwaste&verylowlevelwaste
Exemptwasteandverylowlevelwaste(VLLW)containsradioactivematerialsatalevelwhichisnot
consideredharmfultopeopleorthesurroundingenvironment.Itconsistsmainlyofdemolishedmaterial
(suchasconcrete,plaster,bricks,metal,valves,pipingetc)producedduringrehabilitationordismantling
operationsonnuclearindustrialsites.Otherindustries,suchasfoodprocessing,chemical,steeletcalso
produceVLLWasaresultoftheconcentrationofnaturalradioactivitypresentincertainmineralsusedin
theirmanufacturingprocesses(seealsoinformationpageonNaturallyOccurringRadioactiveMaterials).
Thewasteisthereforedisposedofwithdomesticrefuse,althoughcountriessuchasFrancearecurrently

developingfacilitiestostoreVLLWinspecificallydesignedVLLWdisposalfacilities.

Lowlevelwaste
Lowlevelwaste(LLW)isgeneratedfromhospitalsandindustry,aswellasthenuclearfuelcycle.It
comprisespaper,rags,tools,clothing,filtersetc,whichcontainsmallamountsofmostlyshortlived
radioactivity.Itdoesnotrequireshieldingduringhandlingandtransportandissuitableforshallowland
burial.Toreduceitsvolume,itisoftencompactedorincineratedbeforedisposal.Itcomprisessome90%of
thevolumebutonly1%oftheradioactivityofallradioactivewaste.
Intermediatelevelwaste
Intermediatelevelwaste(ILW)containshigheramountsofradioactivityandsomerequiresshielding.It
typicallycomprisesresins,chemicalsludgesandmetalfuelcladding,aswellascontaminatedmaterials
fromreactordecommissioning.Smalleritemsandanynonsolidsmaybesolidifiedinconcreteorbitumen
fordisposal.Itmakesupsome7%ofthevolumeandhas4%oftheradioactivityofallradwaste.By
definition,itsradioactivedecaygeneratesheatoflessthanabout2kW/m3sodoesnotrequireheatingtobe
takenintoaccountindesignofstorageordisposalfacilities.
Highlevelwaste
Highlevelwaste(HLW)arisesfromthe'burning'ofuraniumfuelinanuclearreactor.HLWcontainsthe
fissionproductsandtransuranicelementsgeneratedinthereactorcore.Itishighlyradioactiveandhotdue
todecayheat,sorequirescoolingandshielding.Ithasthermalpoweraboveabout2kW/m3andcanbe
consideredasthe'ash'from'burning'uranium.HLWaccountsforover95%ofthetotalradioactivity
producedintheprocessofelectricitygeneration.TherearetwodistinctkindsofHLW:
Usedfuelitself.
Separatedwastefromreprocessingtheusedfuel(asdescribedinsectiononManagingHLWfrom
usedfuelbelow).
HLWhasbothlonglivedandshortlivedcomponents,dependingonthelengthoftimeitwilltakeforthe
radioactivityofparticularradionuclidestodecreasetolevelsthatareconsiderednolongerhazardousfor
peopleandthesurroundingenvironment.Ifgenerallyshortlivedfissionproductscanbeseparatedfrom
longlivedactinides,thisdistinctionbecomesimportantinmanagementanddisposalofHLW.
HLWisamajorfocusofattentionregardingnuclearpower,andtheindustryhasproposedthatanyoption
forthemanagementofusednuclearfuelissustainableif:
Itcoversallthestepsofusedfuelmanagementuntilfinaldisposal,inaccordancewithan
acceptable,practicalplan.
Itprovestobefeasiblewithanacceptableimpactlevelbymeetingdefinedkeycriteria.
Itincludesarealisticandbalancedfinancingplan.
Itdoesnotimposeundueburdensonfuturegenerations.

Miningandmilling
Traditionaluraniummininggeneratesfinesandytailings,whichcontainvirtuallyallthenaturallyoccurring
radioactiveelementsnaturallyfoundinuraniumore.Thesearecollectedinengineeredtailingsdamsand
finallycoveredwithalayerofclayandrocktoinhibittheleakageofradongasandensurelongterm
stability.Intheshortterm,thetailingsmaterialisoftencoveredwithwater.Afterafewmonths,thetailings
materialcontainsabout75%oftheradioactivityoftheoriginalore.Strictlyspeakingthesearenotclassified
asradioactivewastes.
Conversion,enrichment,fuelfabrication
Uraniumoxideconcentratefrommining,essentially'yellowcake'(U3O8),isnotsignificantlyradioactive
barelymoresothanthegraniteusedinbuildings.Itisrefinedthenconvertedtouraniumhexafluoridegas
(UF6).Asagas,itundergoesenrichmenttoincreasetheU235contentfrom0.7%toabout3.5%.Itisthen

turnedintoahardceramicoxide(UO2)forassemblyasreactorfuelelements.
Themainbyproductofenrichmentisdepleteduranium(DU),principallytheU238isotope,whichisstored
eitherasUF6orU3O8.About1.2milliontonnesofDUisnowstored.Someisusedinapplicationswhereits
extremelyhighdensitymakesitvaluable,suchasthekeelsofyachtsandmilitaryprojectiles.Itisalsoused
(withreprocessedplutonium)formakingmixedoxidefuelandtodilutehighlyenricheduraniumfrom
dismantledweaponswhichisnowbeingusedforreactorfuel(seepagesonUraniumandDepleted
UraniumandMilitaryWarheadsasaSourceofNuclearFuel).

Electricitygeneration
Intermsofradioactivity,highlevelwaste(HLW)isthemajorissuearisingfromtheuseofnuclearreactors
togenerateelectricity.Highlyradioactivefissionproductsandalsotransuranicelementsareproducedfrom
uraniumandplutoniumduringreactoroperationsandarecontainedwithintheusedfuel.Wherecountries
haveadoptedaclosedcycleandutilisedreprocessingtorecyclematerialfromusedfuel,thefission
productsandminoractinidesbareseparatedfromuraniumandplutoniumandtreatedasHLW(uraniumand
plutoniumisthenreusedasfuelinreactors).Incountrieswhereusedfuelisnotreprocessed,theusedfuel
itselfisconsideredawasteandthereforeclassifiedasHLW.
Lowandintermediatelevelwasteisproducedasaresultofoperations,suchasthecleaningofreactor
coolingsystemsandfuelstorageponds,thedecontaminationofequipment,filtersandmetalcomponents
thathavebecomeradioactiveasaresultoftheiruseinornearthereactor.

Howmuchwasteisproduced?
Asalreadynoted,thevolumeofnuclearwasteproducedbythenuclearindustryisverysmallcompared
withotherwastesgenerated.Eachyear,nuclearpowergenerationfacilitiesworldwideproduceabout
200,000m3oflowandintermediatelevelradioactivewaste,andabout10,000m3ofhighlevelwaste
includingusedfueldesignatedaswaste1.
IntheOECDcountries,some300milliontonnesoftoxicwastesareproducedeachyear,butconditioned
radioactivewastesamounttoonly81,000m3peryear.
IntheUK,forexample,thetotalamountofradioactivewaste(includingradioactivewasteexpectedtoarise
fromexistingnuclearfacilities)isabout4.7millionm3,oraround5milliontonnes.Afurther1millionm3has
alreadybeendisposed.OftheUK'stotalradioactivewaste,about94%(i.e.about4.4millionm3)fallsinto
thelowlevelradioactivewaste(LLW)category.About6%(290,000m3)isintheintermediatelevel
radioactivewaste(ILW)category,andlessthan0.1%(1000m3)isclassedashighlevelwaste(HLW).
AlthoughthevolumeofHLWisrelativelysmall,itcontainsabout95%ofthetotalinventoryof
radioactivity12.
Atypical1000MWelightwaterreactorwillgenerate(directlyandindirectly)200350m3lowand
intermediatelevelwasteperyear.Itwillalsodischargeabout20m3(27tonnes)ofusedfuelperyear,
whichcorrespondstoa75m3disposalvolumefollowingencapsulationifitistreatedaswaste.Wherethat
usedfuelisreprocessed,only3m3ofvitrifiedwaste(glass)isproduced,whichisequivalenttoa28m3
disposalvolumefollowingplacementinadisposalcanister.
Thiscompareswithanaverage400,000tonnesofashproducedfromacoalfiredplantofthesamepower
capacity.Today,volumereductiontechniquesandabatementtechnologiesaswellascontinuinggood
practicewithintheworkforceallcontributetocontinuingminimisationofwasteproduced,akeyprincipleof
wastemanagementpolicyinthenuclearindustry.Whilstthevolumesofnuclearwastesproducedarevery
small,themostimportantissueforthenuclearindustryismanagingtheirtoxicnatureinawaythatis
environmentallysoundandpresentsnohazardtobothworkersandthegeneralpublic.

Managinghighlevelwaste
Usedfuelgivesrisetohighlevelwaste(HLW)whichmaybeeithertheusedfuelitselfinfuelrods,orthe

separatedwastearisingfromreprocessingthis(seenextsectiononRecyclingusedfuel).Ineithercase,the
amountismodestasnotedabove,atypicalreactorgeneratesabout27tonnesofusedfuelwhichmaybe
reducedto3m3peryearofvitrifiedwaste.Bothcanbeeffectivelyandeconomicallyisolated,andhave
beenhandledandstoredsafelysincenuclearpowerbegan.
Storageofusedfuelismostlyinpondsassociatedwithindividualreactors,orinacommonpoolatmulti
reactorsites,oroccasionallyatacentralsite.Seelatersectionbelow.
Iftheusedfuelisreprocessed,asisthatfromUK,French,German,JapaneseandRussianreactors,HLW
compriseshighlyradioactivefissionproductsandsometransuranicelementswithlonglivedradioactivity.
Theseareseparatedfromtheusedfuel,enablingtheuraniumandplutoniumtoberecycled.LiquidHLW
fromreprocessingmustbesolidified.TheHLWalsogeneratesaconsiderableamountofheatandrequires
cooling.Itisvitrifiedintoborosilicate(Pyrex)glass,encapsulatedintoheavystainlesssteelcylindersabout
1.3metreshighandstoredforeventualdisposaldeepunderground.Thismaterialhasnoconceivablefuture
useandisunequivocallywaste.Thehullsandendfittingsofthereprocessedfuelassembliesare
compacted,toreducevolume,andusuallyincorporatedintocementpriortodisposalasILW.Francehas
twocommercialplantstovitrifyHLWleftoverfromreprocessingoxidefuel,andtherearealsoplantsinthe
UKandBelgium.ThecapacityoftheseWesternEuropeanplantsis2,500canisters(1000t)ayear,and
somehavebeenoperatingforthreedecades.
Ifusedreactorfuelisnotreprocessed,itwillstillcontainallthehighlyradioactiveisotopes,andthenthe
entirefuelassemblyistreatedasHLWfordirectdisposal.Ittoogeneratesalotofheatandrequirescooling.
However,sinceitlargelyconsistsofuranium(withalittleplutonium),itrepresentsapotentiallyvaluable
resourceandthereisanincreasingreluctancetodisposeofitirretrievably.
Eitherway,after4050yearstheheatandradioactivityhavefallentoonethousandthofthelevelat
removal.ThisprovidesatechnicalincentivetodelayfurtheractionwithHLWuntiltheradioactivityhas
reducedtoabout0.1%ofitsoriginallevel.
Afterstorageforabout40yearstheusedfuelassembliesarereadyforencapsulationorloadingintocasks
readyforindefinitestorageorpermanentdisposalunderground.
DirectdisposalofusedfuelhasbeenchosenbytheUSAandSwedenamongothers,althoughevolving
conceptsleantowardsmakingitrecoverableiffuturegenerationsseeitasaresource.Thismeansallowing
foraperiodofmanagementandoversightbeforearepositoryisclosed.
Usedfuelissubjecttointernationalsafeguardsduetoitsuraniumandplutoniumcontent.Separated(and
vitrified)HLWisnotsubjecttosafeguards,whichisanotherfactorineasierhandling.

Recyclingusedfuel
AnyusedfuelwillstillcontainsomeoftheoriginalU235aswellasvariousplutoniumisotopeswhichhave
beenformedinsidethereactorcore,andtheU238c.Intotaltheseaccountforsome96%oftheoriginal
uraniumandoverhalfoftheoriginalenergycontent(ignoringU238).Reprocessing,undertakeninEurope
andRussia,separatesthisuraniumandplutoniumfromthewastessothattheycanberecycledforreuse
inanuclearreactor(seepageonProcessingofUsedNuclearFuel).Plutoniumarisingfromreprocessingis
recycledthroughaMOXfuelfabricationplantwhereitismixedwithdepleteduraniumoxidetomakefresh
fuel(seepageonMixedOxideFuel).Europeanreactorscurrentlyuseover5tonnesofplutoniumayearin
freshMOXfuel.
MajorcommercialreprocessingplantsoperateinFrance,UK,andRussiawithacapacityofsome5000
tonnesperyearandcumulativecivilianexperienceof80,000tonnesover50years.Anewreprocessing
plantwithan800t/yrcapacityatRokkashoinJapanisundergoingcommissioning.FranceandUKalso
undertakereprocessingforutilitiesinothercountries,notablyJapan,whichhasmadeover140shipments
ofusedfueltoEuropesince1979.UntilnowmostJapaneseusedfuelhasbeenreprocessedinEurope,
withthevitrifiedwasteandtherecovereduraniumandplutonium(asMOXfuel)beingreturnedtoJapanto
beusedinfreshfuel(seepageonJapaneseWasteandMOXShipmentsFromEurope).Russiaalso
reprocessessomeusedfuelfromSovietdesignedreactorsinothercountries.
Thereareseveralproposeddevelopmentsofreprocessingtechnologies(describedinthepageon
ProcessingofUsedNuclearFuel).Onetechnologyunderdevelopmentwouldseparateplutoniumalongwith
theminoractinidesasoneproduct.ThishowevercannotbesimplyputintoMOXfuelandrecycledin
conventionalreactorsitrequiresfastneutronreactorswhichareasyetfewandfarbetween.Ontheother
hand,itwillmakedisposalofhighlevelwasteseasier.
Sotheoptionsforusedfuelare:
Directdisposal(afterstorage)toageologicalrepository.Thematerialhasverylonglived
radioactivity,andwilltakeabout300,000yearstoreachthesamelevelastheoriginalore.
Aqueousreprocessingtoremoveonlyuraniumandplutonium.Thematerialthenonlytakesabout
9000yearstoreachthesamelevelofradioactivityastheoriginalore.
Advancedelectrometallurgicalreprocessingwhichremovesuranium,plutoniumandminoractinides
togetherforrecyclinginafastreactor.Thewastesthenonlyneed300yearstoreachthesamelevel
ofradioactivityastheoriginalore.Thisisnotyetoperationalonanycommercialscale.

StoragepondforusedfuelattheThermalOxideReprocessingPlantattheUK'sSellafieldsite
(SellafieldLtd)

StorageanddisposalofusedfuelandseparatedHLW
Thereisabout240,000tonnesofusedfuelinstorage,muchofitatreactorsites.About90%ofthisisin
storageponds(smallerversionsofthatillustratedabove),thebalanceindrystorage.Muchoftheworld's
usedfuelisstoredthus,andsomeofithasbeentherefordecades.Annualarisingsofusedfuelareabout
7,000tonnes,andupto3,000tonnesofthisareintendedforreprocessing.Finaldisposalisnoturgentin
anylogisticalsense.
AccordingtoGEHitachi,in2015fundssetasideformanaginganddisposalofusedfueltotaledabout$100
billion,about$51billionofthisinEurope,$40billionintheUSAand$6.5billioninCanada.
Storagepondsatreactors,andthoseatcentralizedfacilitiessuchasCLABinSweden,are712metres
deep,toallowseveralmetresofwaterovertheusedfuelcomprisingrackedfuelassembliestypicallyabout
4mlongandstandingonend.Themultipleracksaremadeofmetalwithneutronabsorbersincorporatedin
it.Thecirculatingwaterbothshieldsandcoolsthefuel.Thesepoolsarerobustconstructionsmadeofthick
reinforcedconcretewithsteelliners.Pondsatreactorsareoftendesignedtoholdalltheusedfuelforthe
lifeofthereactor.
Somestorageoffuelassemblieswhichhavebeencoolinginpondsforatleastfiveyearsisindrycasks,or
vaultswithaircirculationinsideconcreteshielding.Onecommonsystemisforsealedsteelcasksormulti
purposecanisters(MPCs)eachholdingabout80fuelassemblieswithinertgas.Casks/MPCsmaybeused
alsofortransportingandeventualdisposaloftheusedfuel.Forstorage,eachisenclosedinaventilated
storagemodulemadeofconcreteandsteel.Thesearecommonlystandingonthesurface,about6mhigh,
cooledbyairconvection,ortheymaybebelowgrade,withjustthetopsshowing.Themodulesarerobust
andprovidefullshielding.Eachcaskhasupto45kWheatload.
AcollectionofcasksormodulescomprisesanIndependentSpentFuelStorageInstallation(ISFSI),which
intheUSAislicensedseparatelyfromanyassociatedpowerplant,andisforinterimstorageonly.About
onequarterofUSusedfuelisstoredthus.
Fordisposal,toensurethatnosignificantenvironmentalreleasesoccurovertensofthousandsofyears,
'multiplebarrier'geologicaldisposalisplanned.ThisimmobilisestheradioactiveelementsinHLWand
someILWandisolatesthemfromthebiosphere.Themainbarriersare:
Immobilisewasteinaninsolublematrixsuchasborosilicateglassorsyntheticrock(fuelpelletsare

alreadyaverystableceramic:UO2).
Sealitinsideacorrosionresistantcontainer,suchasstainlesssteel.
Locateitdeepundergroundinastablerockstructure.
Surroundcontainerswithanimpermeablebackfillsuchasbentoniteclayiftherepositoryiswet.

LoadingsiloswithcanisterscontainingvitrifiedHLWintheUK.Eachdisconthefloorcoversasiloholding
tencanisters
HLWfromreprocessingmustbesolidified.FrancehastwocommercialplantstovitrifyHLWleftoverfrom
reprocessingoxidefuel,andtherearealsosignificantplantsintheUKandBelgium.Thecapacityofthese
westernEuropeanplantsis2,500canisters(1000t)ayear,andsomehavebeenoperatingforthree
decades.Bymid2009,theUKSellafieldvitrificationplanthadproducedit5000thcanisterofvitrifiedHLW,
representing3000m3ofliquorreducedto750m3ofglass.Theplantfillsabout400canistersperyear.
TheAustralianSynroc(syntheticrock)systemisamoresophisticatedwaytoimmobilisesuchwaste,and
thisprocessmayeventuallycomeintocommercialuseforcivilwastes.(seepageonSynroc).
TodatetherehasbeennopracticalneedforfinalHLWrepositories,assurfacestoragefor4050yearsis
firstrequiredsothatheatandradioactivitycandecaytolevelswhichmakehandlingandstorageeasier.
Theprocessofselectingappropriatedeepgeologicalrepositoriesisnowunderwayinseveralcountries.
FinlandandSwedenarewelladvancedwithplansfordirectdisposalofusedfuelinminedrepositories,
sincetheirparliamentsdecidedtoproceedonthebasisthatitwassafe,usingexistingtechnology.Both
countrieshaveselectedsites,inSweden,aftercompetitionbetweentwomunicipalities.TheUSAhasopted
forafinalrepositoryatYuccaMountaininNevada,thoughthisisnowstalledduetopoliticaldecision.There
havealsobeenproposalsforinternationalHLWrepositoriesinoptimumgeology2.(Seealsoinformation
pageonInternationalNuclearWasteDisposalConcepts.)

Relativeactivityofusedfuelwith38GWd/tburnup
Source:IAEA(referencedinRadioactiveWasteinPerspectiveNEA2010,p74)
Acurrentquestioniswhetherwastesshouldbeemplacedsothattheyarereadilyretrievablefrom
repositories.Therearesoundreasonsforkeepingsuchoptionsopeninparticular,itispossiblethatfuture
generationsmightconsidertheburiedwastetobeavaluableresource.Ontheotherhand,permanent
closuremightincreaselongtermsecurityofthefacility.Afterbeingburiedforabout1,000yearsmostofthe
radioactivitywillhavedecayed.Theamountofradioactivitythenremainingwouldbesimilartothatofthe
naturallyoccurringuraniumorefromwhichitoriginated,thoughitwouldbemoreconcentrated.Inmined
repositories,whichrepresentthemainconceptbeingpursued,retrievabilitycanbestraightforward,butany
deepboreholedisposalispermanent.
Deepboreholesaremoreappropriateforsmalleramountsofwastesthannationalprogramsinvolvingdirect
disposalofusedfuel,andhencearemorelikelytobeusedforsmallervolumesofshorterlivedwastes
arisingfromGenerationIVfuelcycles.
France's2006wastelawsaysthatHLWdisposalmustbe"reversible",whichseemstorefertothe
managementstrategy.France,Switzerland,Canada,JapanandtheUSArequireretrievability,andthatis
policyalsoinmostothercountries,butthispresupposesthatlongterm,therepositorywouldbesealedto
satisfysafetyrequirements.
Themeasuresorplansthatvariouscountrieshaveinplacetostore,reprocessanddisposeofusedfueland
wastesaredescribedinAppendix3:NationalPoliciesandsummarisedinthefollowingTable.Storageand
disposaloptionsaredescribedmorefullyinAppendix2.
WastemanagementforusedfuelandHLWfromnuclearpowerreactors
Country

Policy

Facilitiesandprogresstowardsfinalrepositories
CentralwastestorageatDessel

Belgium

Undergroundlaboratoryestablished1984atMol

Reprocessing

Constructionofrepositorytobeginabout2035

NuclearWasteManagementOrganisationsetup2002

Canada

Directdisposal

Deepgeologicalrepositoryconfirmedaspolicy,retrievable

Repositorysitesearchfrom2009,plannedforuse2025

CentralusedfuelstorageatLanZhou
China

Repositorysiteselectiontobecompletedby2020

Reprocessing

Undergroundresearchlaboratoryfrom2020,disposalfrom2050

Programstart1983,twousedfuelstoragesinoperation
PosivaOysetup1995toimplementdeepgeologicaldisposal

Finland

Directdisposal

UndergroundresearchlaboratoryOnkalounderconstruction
Repositoryplannedfromthis,nearOlkiluoto,openin2020

Undergroundrocklaboratoriesinclayandgranite

France

Parliamentaryconfirmationin2006ofdeepgeologicaldisposal,
containerstoberetrievableandpolicy"reversible"

Reprocessing

Bureclaydepositislikelyrepositorysitetobelicensed2015,
operating2025

Germany

Repositoryplanningstarted1973

Reprocessing
butmovingto
directdisposal

UsedfuelstorageatAhausandGorlebensaltdome
GeologicalrepositorymaybeoperationalatGorlebenafter2025

India

Reprocessing

ResearchondeepgeologicaldisposalforHLW

UndergroundlaboratoryatMizunamiingranitesince1996

Japan

Reprocessing

UsedfuelandHLWstoragefacilityatRokkashosince1995
UsedfuelstorageunderconstructionatMutsu,startup2013
NUMOsetup2000,siteselectionfordeepgeologicalrepository
underwayto2025,operationfrom2035,retrievable

UndergroundlaboratoryingraniteorgneissinKrasnoyarsk
regionfrom2015,mayevolveintorepository
SitesforfinalrepositoryunderinvestigationonKolapeninsula

Russia

PoolstorageforusedVVER1000fuelatZheleznogorsksince
1985

Reprocessing

DrystorageforusedRBMKandotherfuelatZheleznogorskfrom
2012
Variousinterimstoragefacilitiesinoperation

South
Korea

Wasteprogramconfirmed1998,KRWMseetup2009

Directdisposal,
wantstochange

Centralinterimstorageplannedfrom2016

ENRESAestablished1984,itsplanaccepted1999

Spain

CentralinterimstorageatVillardeCanasfrom2016(volunteered
location)

Directdisposal

Researchondeepgeologicaldisposal,decisionafter2010

CentralusedfuelstoragefacilityCLABinoperationsince
1985
Sweden

Directdisposal

UndergroundresearchlaboratoryatAspoforHLWrepository
Osthammarsiteselectedforrepository(volunteeredlocation)

CentralinterimstorageforHLWandusedfuelatZZL
Wurenlingensince2001
SmallerusedfuelstorageatBeznau

Switzerland Reprocessing

Undergroundresearchlaboratoryforhighlevelwasterepository
atGrimselsince1983
Deeprepositoryby2020,containerstoberetrievable

Lowlevelwasterepositoryinoperationsince1959

United
Kingdom

HLWfromreprocessingisvitrifiedandstoredatSellafield
Reprocessing

Repositorylocationtobeonbasisofcommunityagreement
NewNDAsubsidiarytoprogressgeologicaldisposal

DoEresponsibleforusedfuelfrom1998,accumulated$32billion
wastefund

USA

Considerableresearchanddevelopmentonrepositoryinwelded
tuffsatYuccaMountain,Nevada

Directdisposal
butreconsidering

The2002Congressdecisionthatgeologicalrepositorybeat
YuccaMountainwascounteredpoliticallyin2009
Centralinterimstorageforusedfuelnowlikely

Note:inmostcountriesrepositoriesoratleaststoragefacilitiesforlowlevelwastesandintermediatelevel
wastesareoperating.Seealsoindividualcountrypapers.

Wastesfromdecommissioningnuclearplants
Inthecaseofnuclearreactors,about99%oftheradioactivityisassociatedwiththefuel.Apartfromany
surfacecontaminationofplant,theremainingradioactivitycomesfrom'activationproducts'suchassteel
componentswhichhavelongbeenexposedtoneutronirradiation.Theiratomsarechangedintodifferent
isotopessuchasiron55,cobalt60,nickel63andcarbon14.Thefirsttwoarehighlyradioactive,emitting
gammarays,butwithcorrespondinglyshorthalflivessothatafter50yearsfromfinalshutdowntheirhazard
ismuchdiminished.Somecaesium137mayalsobeindecommissioningwastes.
Somescrapmaterialfromdecommissioningmayberecycled,butforusesoutsidetheindustryverylow
clearancelevelsareapplied,somostisburied.
Generally,shortlivedintermediatelevelwastes(mainlyfromdecommissioningreactors)areburied,while
longlivedintermediatelevelwastes(fromfuelreprocessing)willbedisposedofdeepunderground.Low
levelwastesaredisposedofinshallowburialsites.

Disposalofotherradioactivewastes

Somelowlevelliquidwastesfromreprocessingplantsaredischargedtothesea.Theseinclude
radionuclideswhicharedistinctive,notablytechnetium99(sometimesusedasatracerinenvironmental
studies),andthiscanbediscernedmanyhundredkilometresaway.However,suchdischargesare
regulatedandcontrolled,andthemaximumradiationdoseanyonereceivesfromthemisasmallfractionof
naturalbackgroundradiation.
Nuclearpowerstationsandreprocessingplantsreleasesmallquantitiesofradioactivegases(e.g.krypton
85andxenon133)andtraceamountsofiodine131totheatmosphere.However,theyhaveshorthalflives,
andtheradioactivityintheemissionsisdiminishedbydelayingtheirrelease.Alsothefirsttwoare
chemicallyinert.Theneteffectistoosmalltowarrantconsiderationinanylifecycleanalysis.Alittletritium
isalsoproducedbutregulatorsdonotconsideritsreleasetobesignificant.
TheUSNuclearRegulatoryCommissionclassifieslowlevelwastesintofourcategoriesbasedon
radioactivitycorrespondingtomanagementanddisposalrequirments:ClassAwastehasthelowest
radioactivitylevelanddecaystobackgroundlevelafterabout100years.Itaccountsforabout99%ofthe
volumeofLLWgeneratedintheUSAandincludesslightlycontaminatedpaperproducts,clothing,rags,
mops,equipmentandtools,aswellasdepleteduranium.ClassBandCwastesincludefilters,resins,
irradiatedhardwarewithactivationproducts,andlongerlivedradioisotopesthatdecayafter300and500
years,respectively.GreaterthanClassCLLWhasradionuclideconcentrationlimitsgreaterthanthose
specifiedforClassCwaste.
Itisnoteworthythatcoalburningproducessome280milliontonnesofashperyear,mostofitcontaining
lowlevelsofnaturalradionuclides3.SomeofthiscouldbeclassifiedasLLW.Itissimplyburied.(Seealso
pageonNaturallyOccurringRadioactiveMaterials.)

Costsofradioactivewastemanagement
Financialprovisionsaremadeformanagingallkindsofcivilianradioactivewaste.Thecostofmanagingand
disposingofnuclearpowerplantwastesrepresentsabout5%ofthetotalcostoftheelectricitygenerated.
Mostnuclearutilitiesarerequiredbygovernmentstoputasidealevy(e.g.0.1centsperkilowatthourinthe
USA,0.14/kWhinFrance)toprovideformanagementanddisposaloftheirwastes(seeAppendix4:
NationalFunding).SofarsomeUS$28billionhasbeencommittedtotheUSwastefundbyelectricity
consumers.
Theactualarrangementsforpayingforwastemanagementanddecommissioningalsovary.Thekey
objectiveishoweveralwaysthesame:toensurethatsufficientfundsareavailablewhentheyareneeded.
Therearethreemainapproaches4:

Provisionsonthebalancesheet
Sumstocovertheanticipatedcostsofwastemanagementanddecommissioningareincludedonthe
generatingcompany'sbalancesheetasaliability.Aswastemanagementanddecommissioningwork
proceeds,thecompanyhastoensurethatithassufficientinvestmentsandcashflowtomeettherequired
payments.
Internalfund
Paymentsaremadeoverthelifeofthenuclearfacilityintoaspecialfundthatisheldandadministered
withinthecompany.Therulesforthemanagementofthefundvary,butmanycountriesallowthefundtobe
reinvestedintheassetsofthecompany,subjecttoadequatesecuritiesandinvestmentreturns.
Externalfund
Paymentsaremadeintoafundthatisheldoutsidethecompany,oftenwithingovernmentoradministered
byagroupofindependenttrustees.Again,rulesforthemanagementofthefundvary.Somecountriesonly
allowthefundtobeusedforwastemanagementanddecommissioningpurposes,othersallowcompanies
toborrowapercentageofthefundtoreinvestintheirbusiness.

Naturalprecedentsforgeologicaldisposal

Naturehasalreadyproventhatgeologicalisolationispossiblethroughseveralnaturalexamples(or
'analogues').Themostsignificantcaseoccurredalmost2billionyearsagoatOkloinwhatisnowGabonin
WestAfrica,whereseveralspontaneousnuclearreactorsoperatedwithinarichveinofuraniumore5.(At
thattimetheconcentrationofU235inallnaturaluraniumwasabout3%.)Thesenaturalnuclearreactors
continuedforabout500,000yearsbeforedyingaway.TheyproducedalltheradionuclidesfoundinHLW,
includingover5tonnesoffissionproductsand1.5tonnesofplutonium,allofwhichremainedatthesiteand
eventuallydecayedintononradioactiveelements.
Thestudyofsuchnaturalphenomenaisimportantforanyassessmentofgeologicrepositories,andisthe
subjectofseveralinternationalresearchprojects.However,itmustbenotedthattheOkloreactions
proceededbecausegroundwaterwaspresentasamoderatorinthe'enriched'andpermeableuraniumore.

Legacywastes
Inadditiontotheroutinewastesfromcurrentnuclearpowergenerationthereareotherradioactivewastes
referredtoas'legacywastes'.Thesewastesexistinseveralcountrieswhichpioneerednuclearpowerand
especiallywherepowerprogrammesweredevelopedoutofmilitaryprogrammes.Thesearesometimes
voluminousanddifficult,andaroseinthecourseofthosecountriesgettingtoapositionwherenuclear
technologyisacommercialpropositionforpowergeneration.Theyrepresentaliabilitywhichisnotcovered
bycurrentfundingarrangements.IntheUK,some73billion(undiscounted)isestimatedtobeinvolvedin
addressingthese6principallyfromMagnoxandsomeearlyAGRdevelopmentsandabout30%ofthe
totalisattributabletomilitaryprogrammes.IntheUSA,RussiaandFrancetheliabilitiesarealso
considerable.

Regulation
Thenuclearandradioactivewastemanagementindustriesworktowellestablishedsafetystandardsforthe
managementofradioactivewaste.InternationalandregionalorganisationssuchastheInternationalAtomic
EnergyAgency(IAEA),theNuclearEnergyAgency(NEA)oftheOrganisationforEconomicCooperation
andDevelopment(OECD),theEuropeanCommission(EC)andtheInternationalCommissionon
RadiologicalProtection(ICRP)developstandards,guidelinesandrecommendationsunderaframeworkof
cooperationtoassistcountriesinestablishingandmaintainingnationalstandards.Nationalpolicies,
legislationandregulationsarealldevelopedfromtheseinternationallyagreedstandards,guidelinesand
recommendations.Amongstothers,thesestandardsaimtoensuretheprotectionofthepublicandthe
environment,bothnowandintothefuture.
InternationalagreementsintheformofconventionshavealsobeenestablishedsuchastheJoint
ConventiononNuclearSafetyandtheJointConventionontheSafetyofSpentFuelManagementandon
theSafetyofRadioactiveWasteManagement.Thelatterwasadoptedin1997byadiplomaticconference
convenedbytheIAEAandcameintoforceinJune2001followingtherequirednumberofratifications.
Otherinternationalconventionsanddirectivesseektoprovideforinteralia,thesafetransportationof
radioactivematerial,protectionoftheenvironment(includingthemarineenvironment)fromradioactive
waste,andthecontrolofimportsandexportsofradioactivewasteandtransboundarymovements.

InternationalAtomicEnergyAgencyd
TheIAEAistheinternationalorganisationthatadvisesonthesafeandpeacefulusesofnucleartechnology.
ItisanagencyoftheUnitedNations,basedinVienna,Austriafoundedin1957anditcurrentlyhas134
memberstatesfromcountrieswithandwithoutnuclearenergyprogrammes.TheIAEAdevelopssafety
standards,guidelinesandrecommendationsandinteraliaprovidestechnicalguidancetomemberstateson
radioactivewasteprinciples.Memberstatesusethestandardsandguidelinesindevelopingtheirown
legislation,regulatorydocumentsandguidelines.Italsoverifiesthroughasafeguardsinspection
programmecompliancewiththeNuclearNonProliferationTreaty(NPT).
TheIAEA'sWasteandEnvironmentalSafetySectionworkstodevelopinternationallyagreedstandardson
thesafetyofradioactivewaste.TheRadioactiveWasteSafetyStandardsProgramme(RADWASS)

providesguidancetomemberstatestoproducetheirownpoliciesandregulationsforthesafemanagement
ofradioactivewaste,includingdisposal7.
Inaddition,theIAEAhelpsmemberstatesbyprovidingtechnicalassistancewithservices,equipmentand
trainingandbyconductingradiologicalassessments.

NuclearEnergyAgencye
TheNuclearEnergyAgencyoftheOECDisbasedinParis,France.Ithasavarietyofwastemanagement
programmesinvolvingits28memberstates.Theorganisationaimstoassistthesestatesindevelopingsafe
wastedisposalstrategiesandpoliciesforspentnuclearfuel,HLWandwastefromdecommissioningnuclear
facilities.ItalsoworkscloselywiththeIAEAonnuclearsafetystandardsandothertechnicalactivities.
TheNEAhasaprojectaimedatpreservingrecords,knowledgeandmanagement(RK&M)oflonglived
nuclearwastedisposalforfuturegenerations.

EuropeanCommission
Forseveralyears,theEuropeanCommission(EC)hasattemptedtopassDirectivesaimedatensuringa
commonapproachtonuclearsafetyandradioactivewastemanagement.Thesocalled'NuclearPackage'
ofDirectivesonnuclearsafetyandwastemanagementwasatopdownapproachwhichmetwith
considerableoppositionfromseveralMemberStatesandwasrevisedonseveraloccasionsleadingtothe
2011adoptionofascaledbackversion.8
InJuly2011theEuropeanUnionadoptedadirectiveforthedisposalofusednuclearfuelandradioactive
wasteswhichrequiredmembercountriestodevelopnationalwastemanagementplansforEuropean
Commissionreviewby2015.Theplansmustincludefirmtimetablesfortheconstructionofdisposal
facilities,descriptionsofneededimplementationactivities,costassessments,andfinancingschemes.
SafetystandardspromulgatedbytheIAEAwouldbecomelegallybindingwithintheEUwidepolicy
framework.Internationalpeerreviewsshouldbeinvitedatleasteverytenyears.
Theagreementallowstwoormoremembernationstodevelopjointdisposalfacilitiesandallowstransport
ofusedfuelandradioactivewasteswithintheEU.ExportsoutsidetheEUwillonlybepossibletocountries
thatalreadyhavearepositoryinoperationthatmeetsIAEAstandards.Foroverseasreprocessing,ultimate
wastesmustbereturnedtotheoriginatingEUcountry.Thedirectiveacknowledgesthatnocountrycurrently
operatessucharepositoryandprojectsthataminimumof40yearswouldberequiredtodevelopone.The
shipmentofusedfuelandradioactivewastestoAfrican,PacificandCaribbeancountriesandtoAntarctica
isexplicitlybanned.Plansareexpectedtouseastepbystepapproachtogeologicdisposalbasedonthe
voluntaryinvolvementofpotentialhostcommunities.Tworoutesareacknowledged:onetodisposeofused
nuclearfuelaswastetheothertoreprocessthefuelandrecycletheuraniumandplutoniumwhiledisposing
oftheremainderaswaste.
ThedirectivebecameeffectiveinAugust2011,andnationalgovernments,whichretainultimate
responsibilityforwastes,hadtwoyearstobringtheirnuclearwastelegislationintolinewithit.Thereare143
nuclearenergyfacilitiesgeneratingusedfuelin14oftheEUs27membernations.Theremainingnations
possessradioactivewasterequiringdisposalthathasbeenproducedbyresearch,medicineandindustry.

InternationalCommissiononRadiologicalProtectionf
TheInternationalCommissiononRadiologicalProtection(ICRP)isanindependentregisteredcharitythat
issuesrecommendationsforprotectionagainstallsourcesofradiation.TheIAEAinterpretsthese
recommendationsintointernationalsafetystandardsandguidelinesforradiologicalprotection.National
regulatorsmayalsoadopttherecommendationsbytheICRPfortheirownradiationprotectionstandards.
InMarch2007,theICRPapproveditsnewfundamentalRecommendationsonradiologicalprotection(ICRP
Publication103)11,replacingtheCommissionspreviousRecommendationsfrom1990.Amongstothers,
thenewrecommendationsincludeforthefirsttimeanapproachfordevelopingaframeworktodemonstrate
radiologicalprotectionoftheenvironment.

Perspective
Nuclearwastesareasignificantpartofthenuclearpowerpicture,andneedtobemanagedanddisposedof
properly.Howeverinmorethan50decadesofcivilnuclearpowerexperiencetheyhavenotcausedany
serioushealthorenvironmentalproblems,norposedanyrealriskstopeople.
Alternativesforpowergenerationarenotwithoutchallenges,andforavarietyofreasonstheyparticularly
thosefromcoalcombustionhavenotalwaysbeenwellcontrolled.Bothflyashandbottomashareoften
loadedwithheavymetals(includinguraniumandthoriumseeNORMpaper).Flyashismostlyretainedfor
landdisposaltoday,andbottomashisnormallyburiedalso,butnotalwayssecurelyandwithouteffectson
groundwater.Groundwaterpollutionwitharsenic,boron,cobaltandmercuryisnotunusual,andtheUS
EPAin2011listed181UScoalashpondswhichposedasignificanthazard,47oftheseahighhazardand
threattolife.Burninganyfossilfuelsgivesrisetocarbondioxideemissions,andgaseouspollutantssuchas
nitrogenoxidesandoftensulfuroxides.

FurtherInformation
Appendices
Appendix1:TreatmentandConditioningofNuclearWastes
Appendix2:StorageandDisposalOptions
Appendix3:NationalPolicies
Appendix4:NationalFunding
Appendix5:EnvironmentalandEthicalAspectsofRadioactiveWasteManagement
Notes
a.Aradionuclideisaradioactiveisotopeofaparticularelement.Differentisotopesofagivenelementhave
differentnumbersofneutrons,butthesamenumberofprotonshence,isotopesofthesameelementshare
atomicnumbersbutnotmassnumbers.[Back]
b.Uraniumandplutoniumaremembersoftheactinidegroup,whichcomprisesthe15successivechemical
elementsfromactiniumontheperiodictable.Thesocalled'minoractinides'aretheactinidespresentin
usednuclearfuelotherthanuraniumandplutonium.[Back]
c.Usedfuelfromlightwaterreactorscontainsapproximately:
95.6%uranium(lessthan1%ofwhichisU235)
2.9%stablefissionproducts
0.9%plutonium
0.3%caesium&strontium(fissionproducts)
0.1%iodineandtechnetium(fissionproducts)
0.1%otherlonglivedfissionproducts
0.1%minoractinides(americium,curium,neptunium)
Increasingly,reactorsareusingfuelenrichedtoover4%U235andburningitlonger,toendupwithless
than0.5%U235intheusedfuel.Thisprovideslessincentivetoreprocess.[Back]
d.SeethehomepageoftheIAEA'sDivisionofRadiation,TransportandWasteSafety(www
ns.iaea.org/home/rtws.asp)forfurtherinformation.[Back]
e.SeetheradioactivewastemanagementsectionoftheNEA'swebsite(www.nea.fr/html/rwm)forfurther
information.[Back]
f.SeetheInternationalCommssiononRadiologicalProtection'swebsite(www.icrp.org)forfurther
information.[Back]

References
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Registeredoffice:TowerHouse,10SouthamptonStreet,London,
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