1.

INTRODUCTION
Energy undergirds civilization and has powered the sweeping economic
changes that have transformed the world over the last two and a half centuries. But
just as the economy has changed, so has the energy mix that fuels it. The development
of the modern world has been a story of evolving new uses for energy and constantly
growing energy demand. New forms of energy and new technology to harness that
energy have been developed over time, shifting the energy balance and expanding the
menu of energy sources.
Today there is great focus on the next transition on the expectation or the
possibility of a substantial change in the energy mix. What would be the nature of the
changing mix? What would drive it? How fast could it come? Or how long might it
take? The answers to these questions will have a profound impact on the global
energy system, on producers and consumers alike and on markets everywhere. The
very word transition suggests not a swift change from one reality to another, but
rather a process that unfolds over time and brings more diversity to the energy supply
system. Biomass dominated the primary energy mix until the turn of the twentieth
century when coal reached a 50% share. At that time, several other fuels also entered
the mix including crude oil, natural gas and hydropower.
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory, part of the US Department of
Energy, predicts that 80% of US electricity could be renewable by 2050.1 And the
same reorientation can be found in Chinas 12th Five Year plan, which calls for
reductions in greenhouse gas (GHG) and other air emissions and an increase in the
share of non-fossil fuel primary energy consumption.
The second factor is the shift of the worlds centre of gravity toward emerging
markets and the accompanying growth in energy demand. In 2000, the developed
world used two thirds of world oil. By 2011 it was split about evenly between
developed and developing countries and virtually all growth. From here on is
expected in emerging market nations. Rising incomes and population growth in
developing nations are paramount. Primary energy consumption is expected to mirror
the growth in global population.

Across the world, 1.3 billion people still do not have access to modern
sources of energy. Bringing an end to energy poverty is an important part of
integrating more people and countries into the modern economy, with the rising
standard of living that brings. The amount of energy that will be required to achieve
these goals perhaps 30% more two decades from now creates debate and even
anxiety about the ability of conventional energy supplies to meet the needs of
economic growth.
In response to these challenges, many policy-makers are looking for the next
energy transition to add more low carbon and renewable sources of energy to the mix.
But expectations for transition have to be matched up against present realities. Some
87% of total world primary energy demand is met by three hydrocarbons oil, coal
and natural gas. Add in nuclear and its over 92%. Wind, solar, geothermal and other
non-hydro renewable resources provide just 1.6% of total world energy.

fig. 1. 1. Growth in World Population and Primary Energy Consumption.

1990-2035
There are compelling reasons to improve our energy system to increase
accessibility, affordability and reliability and to reduce environmental impacts. Yet
the energy system has historically evolved much more slowly than other technologydependent sectors. It took eight decades for oil to overtake coal as the US primary
energy source Energy change is sluggish as a result of scale, ubiquity, longevity,
interdependence and incumbency. The problem is that they are not renewable biofuels
and their burning results in a net Increase in C0 accumulation in our atmosphere as
well as a variety of toxic by-products.
2

1.1 Driving Demand for Oil

Oil prevailed over coal in its energy density, adaptability and ease of transport.
Yet by 1900, despite the wealth it had generated, oils share of global primary energy
remained marginal at 1.5% globally, compared to woods 51% and coals 47% share,
as shown in figure 4.2 Oils big breakthroughs were yet to come.
By the late nineteenth century, oils main market, illumination, was threatened by
the development of the light bulb by Thomas Edison in the United States and Joseph
Swan in England. Electricity was clean, offered superior light and required no
attention from its user. But just as the lighting market was about to slip away, a new
market would open that would facilitate the transition to oil.

Fig. 1.2.World Consumption, Millions tonnes oil equivalent

1.2 Oil Dominates Transportation

The internal combustion engine entered the market as a competitor to the steam
engine in 1876, but several decades passed before its development and adoption
realized a scale large enough to impact oil demand. That scale came in 1908 when
Henry Ford introduced the Model-T automobile. Two years later, in 1910, Thomas
Edison predicted, More electricity will be sold for electric vehicles than light. On
the contrary, the internal combustion engine would be the clear winner. Gasoline
became the fuel of choice owing to its versatility, energy-density, reliability and
ability to be easily stored and transported.

Fig. 1.3. Gasoline Fuel Consumption by region

Oils superiority as a transportation fuel means that substitution in this sector is
much more difficult. In addition, any shift would require changes to the massive
infrastructure in place to support the worlds automotive and trucking sector.
Although alternative fuels are available in the market, oil still accounts for 87% of
transport fuel. Oil has remained the most widely used source of primary energy since
overtaking coal in 1964. In 2011 oil held a 32% share of primary energy consumption.

1.3 Todays Energy Change Mix Constancy and Change

World energy consumption has increased 27% since 2000, with some modest
shifts in the mix since then. Coals share changed the most, increasing from 23% in
2000 to 28% today. Oil was 36% in 2000; today, it is 32%. Renewables have doubled,
from 0.6% to 1.1%. Yet the simple shares mask dynamic changes. The first change is
in the engine of demand growth. As late as 2000, energy demand was concentrated in
the developed world, which consumed almost two-thirds of total oil. Today oil
consumption is split almost evenly between developed and developing countries. In
the future, virtually all the growth in oil and total energy will be in the emerging
nations as their incomes and populations increase, while demand will be largely flat or
even declining in developed nations.

1.4 The Next Big Energy Transition?

Over the past 100 years, growing access to modern forms of energy, mostly fossil
fuels, has accompanied human progress. But perspectives change. Concerns about the
4

environmental impacts of fossil fuel production, processing and consumption have

brought about regulation to reduce smog, air pollution, acid rain and ozone depletion.
More recently, climate change and a focus on reducing GHG emissions have taken
centre stage for public policy. The result is a new focus and debate on the prospect of
a new energy transition, decreasing reliance on the fossil fuels that made modern
society possible and increasing the supply of lower carbon alternatives.

Fig.1.4. Global CO2 Emissions from Fossil Fuels, 2000-11

1.5 Transportation Competitors to Oil?

Oil has dominated the transportation sector for almost a century, since Fords
Model T and the internal combustion engine entered the scene. Gasoline, diesel and
jet fuel have physical qualities that make them excellent transportation fuels. They are
energy dense, easily transportable and readily available around the world. Another
form of energy to match oils ability to fuel the transportation sector has yet to be
developed. Regions with growing gasoline consumption include Asia Pacific and
Latin America. By 2030, consumption is expected to increase 43% and 36%,
respectively, from 2010 levels. Continuing increases in fuel efficiency standards, a
growing share of hybrids and other advanced vehicles in the fleet as well as ageing
populations will dampen transport fuel demand in the OECD world.

1.6 Alternatives
1.6.1 Biofuels
Biofuels offer a relatively simple replacement for oil in the transportation
sector, since they do not require wholesale changes to vehicles or fuelling
infrastructure. However, the scale of the transportation sector and availability of land
5

and feedstock limit biofuels' role as substitute fuels. Even in countries such as the
United States that lead the world in biofuels production, only 10% of gasoline demand
by volume (7% by energy content) was met by biofuels in 2012.

Fig. 1.5. GHG Emissions per Kilometre Driven

1.6.2 Electric Vehicles
Electric and hybrid electric vehicles have received more attention over the past
few years, but they are till a tiny fraction of new vehicles sold. Electric vehicles
powered by low-carbon electricity could be game changers in the world's drive to
reduce GHG emissions. However, cost and utility are the main factors inhibiting
demand growth. Driving range of today's all-electric vehicles is limited to typically
100-150 kilometres and recharge time is usually measured in hours, compared to
roughly five minutes to refuel a gasoline vehicle.. But technology to carry energy on
the vehicle is way behind. Batteries are the crucial challenge for electric-powered
transportation. Batteries currently available have energy density meaning the
amount of energy they can hold per unit of weight roughly two orders of
magnitude smaller than those of liquid fuels.
1.6.3 Other Vehicle Fuels: Natural Gas and Hydrogen
Natural gas vehicles (NGVs) have been the primary alternative to petroleum
in several countries with large natural gas resources. More than 60% of all natural gas
vehicles on the road today are in just four countries Iran, Pakistan, Argentina and
Brazil. As the dynamics of global gas markets change, natural gas vehicles are
becoming more attractive in some new markets. For example, North America is
experiencing a substantial price gap between natural gas prices and those for gasoline
6

and diesel that is expected to remain well into the future. Increased fuel efficiency in
gasoline and diesel vehicles raises another competitive challenge. Infrastructure also
poses a barrier to greater adoption, since refuelling infrastructure for compressed
natural gas can be a costly undertaking for fuelling stations, which have limited
guarantee of a consumer base.

Fig. 1.6. Average alternative fuels consumption

Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) present another option Producing
hydrogen using nuclear or renewable power to split water molecules could transform
hydrogen vehicles into a nearly zero-emission option, but such technology is
prohibitively expensive today.

1.7 Aims and objectives of the project

This project aims at an experimental study of hydrogen blending by
deployment of a hydrogen cell into a two wheeler, which involves production of
hydrogen from distilled water and blending it with the air-fuel mixture through
carburettor. The variations in performance and emission characteristics due to
deployment of the cell are to be studied and compared with the former characteristics

Implementation of 1-11-10 booster

Mileage tests

Performance test (brake test)

Exhaust gas analysis

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Hydrogen
The chronicle of hydrogen begins with the Big Bang theory of universe
creation 15 billion years ago, when hydrogen atoms were first formed. Gravity acted
as the primitive force that caused the hydrogen to condense into vast clouds that
collapsed into stars, which consume the hydrogen as fuel.. Gravity eventually causes
the hydrogen to compress until it fuses into heavier elements. Without the energy
emitted by the sun, life as we know it could not exist. The primary fuel for the sun and
other stars is hydrogen while the force that allows the sun and other stars to burn is
gravity. Our sun consumes about 600 million tons of hydrogen every second. As this
hydrogen is fused into helium, photons of electromagnetic energy are released and
eventually find their way through the earth's atmosphere as solar energy. This solar
energy is the aftermath of nuclear fusion, while nuclear fission occurs in commercial
nuclear reactors. Without this energy there would be no life, there would be no fossil
fuels or wind or even elements in our world.
Hydrogen was discovered in 1766 when the English chemist Henry Cavendish
observed what he called an inflammable air rising from a zinc-sulfuric acid mixture. It
was identified and named in the 18th century by Antoine Lavoisier, who
demonstrated that this inflammable air would burn in air to form water. He identified
it as a true element, and called it hydrogen, which is Greek for water former.
Hydrogen is the simplest, lightest and most abundant of the 92 elements in the
universe. It makes up over 90% of the universe and 60% of the human body in the
form of water. As the most basic element, it can never be exhausted since it recycles
in a relatively short time.
Hydrogen could be an alternative to hydrocarbon fuels such as gasoline with
many potential uses, but it must be relatively safe to manufacture and use. Hydrogen
fuel cells can be used to power cars, trucks, electrical plants, and buildings but the
lack of an infrastructure for producing, transporting, and storing large quantities of
hydrogen inhibit its growth and practicality. Although the technology for
electrochemical power has been known since 1839, fuel cells are still not in
widespread use. The electrochemical process allows fuel cells have few moving parts.
8

Air compressors are often used to improve the efficiency although there are
compressors-less designs. Fuel cells operate like batteries expect that they combine a
fuel, usually hydrogen, and an oxidant, usually oxygen from the air, without
combustion. There are mainly two sources available for the production of hydrogen
fossil fuels and water including a wide range of production methods that can be
applied. The gasification of coal is the oldest method of obtaining hydrogen from
fossil fuels. The most efficient and widely used process, however, is steam reforming
of natural gas. At present, it is also the cheapest way of producing hydrogen. Another
method is the partial oxidation of fossil fuels, which can be combined with steam
reforming in a process called 'auto thermal reforming'. Hydrogen can also be
produced by the direct thermo catalytic decomposition (cracking) of methane or other
hydrocarbons (Farrell et al.2003; Rand and Dell 2005).
Electrolysis is the most common way to produce hydrogen from water but it is
also a relatively energy-intensive way. Although electrolysis is a mature technology,
only a few per cent of world hydrogen is obtained by this method, and mostly as a byproduct of the chlor-alkali process for the manufacture of chlorine and sodium
hydroxide. Other methods to split up water into hydrogen are still far from practical
realization, including the decomposition of water in thermo chemical cycles or
directly via the harnessing of solar radiation (Rand and Dell 2005). The worldwide
production of hydrogen amounts to around 50 million tonnes per annum. Over 90%
comes from fossil resources. Hydrogen is mainly used for the production of nitrogen
fertilizers and for refining petroleum products. Lesser applications are found e.g. in
chemical, food and plastics industries (Rand and Dell 2005).

2.2 Oxy-Hydrogen (HHO)

Oxy-hydrogen is an enriched mixture of hydrogen and oxygen bonded
together molecularly and magnetically (Brown, 1978). Oxy-hydrogen gas is produced
in a common-ducted electrolyser and then sent to the intake manifold to introduce into
combustion chamber of the engine. Oxy-hydrogen gases will combust in the
combustion chamber when brought to its auto-ignition or self-ignition temperature.
For a stoichiometric mixture at normal atmospheric pressure, auto-ignition of oxy
hydrogen gas occurs at about 5700C (1065 0F). The minimum energy required to
ignite such a mixture with a spark is about 20 micro joules. At normal temperature
9

and pressure, 'oxy-hydrogen gas' can burn when it is between about 4 and 94%
hydrogen by volume. When ignited, the gas mixture converts to water vapor and
releases energy. The amount of heat released is independent of the mode of
combustion, but the temperature of the flame varies. The maximum temperature of
about 28000C is achieved with a pure stoichiometric mixture, about 7000C hotter
than a hydrogen flame in air
Oxy-hydrogen gas (HHO) can be produced by the electrolysis process of
different electrolytes (KOH(aq), NaOH(aq), NaCl ) with different reactor (electrode)
designs in a leak-proof plexi glass reactor (hydrogen generator) can be used as a
supplementary fuel in SI and CI Engines. HHO is used as a sole fuel for gasoline and
diesel fuel is in brown colour and the form of unseparated hydrogen and oxygen
generated by the electrolysis process of water by a unique electrode design. Hydrogen
and oxygen do not form into O and H molecules. During compression stroke, pressure
and heat increases, the water explodes to steam and consequently, the fuel gets
atomized. After ignition, in cylinder temperature increases rapidly which results water
to be split into hydrogen and oxygen and re-ignition occurs which yields increased
combustion efficiency. Due to the simultaneous production and consumption of
hydrogen, no storage is necessary, which results in safe operation. HHO is generated
and used as a sole fuel in SI and CI engines to benefit from peculiar features and
minimize disadvantages of hydrogen.

2.3 Vehicle application

In general, there are two possible ways of using hydrogen in a vehicle: either
in fuel cells for the generation of electricity that powers an electric motor or in IC
Engines. At the moment, a widespread introduction of fuel cell vehicles is still far
from realization, last but not least due their prohibitive costs (up to 60 times higher
per kW of produced power compared to IC Engines), and numerous technical
difficulties that still have to be resolved (Rand and Dell 2005). According to the
purpose of this study, the following explanations are focused on hydrogen IC Engines,
which have the advantage of accessing the considerable operating experiences of SI
engines.

10

Properties

Diesel

Auto-ignition Temperature (K)

Minimum Energy (mJ)
Flammability Limits (vol % in air)
Stoichiometric Air-Fuel Ratio on mass Basis
Limits of Flammability (equivalence ratio)
Density at 16oC and 1.01 bar (kg/m3)
Net Heating Value (MJ/kg)
Flame Velocity (cm/s)
Diffusivity in air (cm2/s)
Octane Number (RON/MON)
Centane Number

530
0.7-5
14.5
833-881
42.5
30
30/40-55

Unleaded
Gasoline
533-33
0.24
1.4-7.6
14.6
0.7-38
721-785
43.9
37-43
0.08
92-98/80-90
13-17

Hydrogen
858
0.02
4-75
34.3
0.1-7.1
0.0838
119.9
265-325
0.63
130/-

Table 2.1. Properties of Diesel, Unleaded gasoline and Hydrogen

IC Engines that use hydrogen vary only slightly from commercial natural gas
engines and, thus, present no considerable technological challenges. The self-ignition
temperature of hydrogen is somewhat higher than that of gasoline. The major
problems connected to gaseous hydrogen, however, are its small molecular size,
which makes it easily diffusible, and a density much lower than that of petrol, which
consequently leads to a lower volumetric energy density (see Table 2.1). As a result,
compressed hydrogen at 350 bar and ambient temperature has merely around 9% of
the energy of gasoline, comparing the same volume. With regard to storage weight
and volume, liquid hydrogen would be more attractive since its density is about 850
times greater than that of the gaseous form. However, the energy required to liquefy
hydrogen is equal to approximately one-third of its energy content, while compression
(to about 350 bar) takes only one-tenth. Furthermore, the distribution is both complex
and costly, and the boil-off rate is such that the liquid can only be stored for a few
days at most. New storage technologies (e.g. carbon Nano tubes) may improve the
performance of storage systems, but progress has been slow (Das 2002; Farrell et al.
2003; Karim 2003; Rand and Dell 2005).
2.3.1 Performance and efficiency in previous Experiments conducted oh using
Hydrogen for application in vehicles:
Most early engine experiments have been designed for burning a variety of
gases, including natural gas and propane. When hydrogen is used in these engines it
11

may backfire. Since hydrogen burns faster than other fuels, the fuel-air mixture is
ignited in the intake manifold before the intake valve closes. Injected water controls
the backfiring. Hydrogen gives less power than gasoline with or without the water.
There have been many investigations on hydrogen enriched combustion in ICES.
Rudolf A. Erren has made practical the hydrogen-fuelled engine in the 1920s and
converted over 1,000 engines. His projects have included trucks and buses. After
World War Il the allies have discovered a submarine converted by Erren to hydrogen
power. Even the torpedoes have been hydrogen powered (Erren and Campbell, 1933).
Stebar and Parks investigated the effects of hydrogen-supplemented fuel on
emission control with lean operation and the test results demonstrated that with small
additions of hydrogen to the fuel, very low NO x and CO emissions were achieved for
hydrogen-isooctane mixtures leaner than equivalence ratio of 0.55. Also, significant
thermal efficiency improvements resulted from the extension beyond isooctane lean
limit operation (Stebar and Parks, 1974Cunningham et al. made researches on method
and apparatus for enhancing combustion in an ICE through electrolysis and produced
hydrogen along with oxygen yielded enhanced combustion at low engine loads for all
types of engines (Cunningham et al., 1992).
Dlger and Ozelik experimentally studied on fuel economy improvement by
on board electrolytic hydrogen production kit which could be installed on different
vehicles of various types and sizes of engines. Test results under city traffic
conditions showed that the fuel consumption for the Volvo 940 dropped to 61/100 km
from 10.5 1/100 km, a reduction of 43% in fuel consumption. It was 36% for
Mercedes 280 (Dlger and zelik, 2000). The fuel induction systems have been
developed and designed to provide two intake paths; one for hydrogen and one for air.
The fuel and air are kept separate until entering the cylinder to prevent
backfiring (Peavey, 2003). Saravanan et al. have experimentally investigated the
hydrogen-enriched air induction in a diesel engine system. The test results have
showed that an efficiency of 27.9% has been achieved without knocking over the
entire load range with 30% hydrogen enrichment. Also, they have observed that SFC
decreased with increase in hydrogen percentage over the entire range of operation
(Saravanan et al., 2007).

12

Ji and Wang experimentally studied on combustion and emissions

performance of a hybrid hydrogengasoline engine and they concluded that wide
flammability and fast burning velocity of hydrogen yielded reduced CO and HC
emissions at idle and lean conditions (Ji and Wang, 2009).The use of hydrogen in fuel
cell vehicles entails the electrification of the vehicle's power train, producing power at
efficiencies much higher than IC Engines an important attraction to automakers
also due to the high torque output of electric motors (Sperling and Cannon
200nohnston et al. 2005).
On the other hand, some experts assume that only a limited range of
performance up to some 50 kW can be reasonably covered by the interconnection of
fuel cell and electric motor, whereas IC Engines are considered to be more suitable
for higher power outputs (Das et al. 2000, Bargende and Greiner 2003). Comparing
the performance of IC Engines, a further loss of power can be expected when
switching from natural gas to hydrogen due to its lower volumetric heating value. The
energy of the air/fuel mixture, again, is somewhat lower for hydrogen than for natural
gas considering stoichiometric mixtures (= 1)due to a lower density of the mixture
and a higher stoichiometric air/fuel ratio. Unlike natural gas and gasoline, however,
hydrogen possesses a flame speed that is nearly an order of magnitude higher. Hence
the combustion duration is much shorter, which allows retarded ignition timing and
consequently leads to higher cycle efficiency (Norbeck et al. 1996;,Das 2002;,
Bargende and Greiner 2003; Karim 2003).
Another fuel characteristic of hydrogen that gains in importance for lean
operation is the minimum ignition energy, which is about an order of magnitude lower
than that of natural gas and gasoline. This ensures prompt ignition of lean mixtures
and, thus, good operating conditions. A drawback, however, is the higher risk of preignition and backfire. Since almost any hydrogen/air mixture can be ignited due to the
wide limits of flammability and only little energy is necessary to start up a
combustion reaction, hot spots and even hot residuals in the cylinder can serve as
sources of ignition, which particularly makes it difficult to operate a hydrogen engine
under stoichiometric conditions (Norbeck et al. 1996; Das 2002; Berckmller et al.
2003; Karim 2003).

13

It must be noted, however, that besides a gain of efficiency, operation on lean

air/fuel mixtures simultaneously leads to a lower power output of the engine due to
the lower heating value H of lean air/fuel mixtures. According to Karim (2003) , a
lean-burn hydrogen engine needs to be some 4060% larger in size than for
stoichiometric gasoline operation, considering the same power output. Among other
measures, the fast burning characteristics of hydrogen could be used for high-speed
engine operation, which would allow an increase in power output (see equation 2.1)
and hence, reduce the penalty for lean mixture operation. In contrast, Berckmller et
al. (2003) showed that with some engine modifications (supercharging, exhaust gas
recirculation) in connection with an appropriate operation strategy, hydrogen powered
IC ENGINE allows power density (power per engine size) and power output on the
same level as for gasoline engines and, at the same time, provides fuel efficiencies
above diesel engines under part-load conditions.
HHO benefit is not realized because it substitutes to the regular fuel, but
because it optimizes the combustion of fuel. The exhaust of engines is filled with
unused particles, there is an enormous amount of energy unused, and the HHO gas
simply "recovers" a part of this raging waste.

2.4 Emissions
When hydrogen is burned in an IC Engine, the primary combustion product is
water. In the absence of carbon and contaminants like sulphur and lead, the hydrogen
related exhaust emissions are free from oxides of carbon, unburned hydrocarbons and
almost all other limited and unlimited pollutants. Only oxides of nitrogen are emitted
that can directly be referred to the combustion of hydrogen.
Measurable CO and HC emissions originate from lubricating oil and are far
below the corresponding emissions from hydrocarbon-fuelled engines. Therefore,
they can be reduced to almost zero with conventional catalysts (Berckmller et al.
2003, karim 2003). As indicated above, NO levels of hydrocarbon-fuelled engines are
higher around stoichiometric operating conditions due to the combined effects of
higher combustion temperatures and available oxygen (see figure 2.2). The same
trend is reflected in hydrogen engines. Especially the high burning rates of hydrogen
may lead to higher pressures and temperatures that are reached during combustion.
14

However, it is possible to limit this pollutant to very low levels by using lean mixtures
1 (Norbeck et al. 1996; Das 2002).
Without performing engine modifications, blending hydrogen with gasoline
reduces the power output of the engine as a result of the lower volumetric energy
density of hydrogen in relation to natural gas (Karner and Francfort 2003). Due to the
significantly higher flame speed of hydrogen compared to natural gas and other
hydrocarbon fuels, however, adding hydrogen to natural gas consequently increases
the flame speed of the charge, which leads to an increased burn rate as well as an
improved combustion stability. On the one hand, the increased burn rate and, hence,
the reduced combustion duration allows retarded ignition timing, which decreases
heat losses and results in a higher cycle efficiency . Furthermore, the gain of stability
can be used to extend the lean limit of a SI engine.

Fig. 2.1. Air/Fuel ratio Vs. Emission

The above figure describes the general emission characteristics of an SI Engine
working with gasoline with variation in Air/ Fuel Ratio. Hydrogen addition in SI engines was
found to decrease carbon-based emissions like CO, CO and HC, mainly due to the direct
carbon replacement. Furthermore, the higher flame speed and burn rate of hydrogen,
respectively, leads to a higher combustion pressure, temperature and hence, higher oxidation
rates, which also contribute to a reduction of HC emissions. On the other hand, the higher
combustion temperature also results in increased NO emissions. However, Akansu et al.
(2004) showed that notable reductions in NO could be obtained by leaner operationas seen
aboveand by retarded ignition timing.

15

2.5 Electrolysis of Water

2.5.1 Definition:
Electrolysis is the passage of a direct electric current through an ion containing
solution (for us, water and electrolyte). Electrolysis produces chemical changes at the
electrodes.
When an electric current passes across a solid conductor, a magnetic field is
created around the conductor and the conductor is heated by the passage of the
current. Both the magnetic field and the heat bear a definite relationship to the
magnitude of the current passing; the stronger the current the stronger the magnetic
field; the stronger the current the more heat. Some liquids are conductors of
electricity; mercury for one. The passage of a current through such a conductor
produces identical results with those produced in solid conductors. Other liquids are
also conductors, but besides passing of current creating a magnetic field and a heating
effect, a portion of the liquid is split into two parts which may each be a chemical
element, or one, or either may be a chemical group.
By providing energy from a battery, water (H0) can be dissociated into the
diatomic molecules of hydrogen (H) and oxygen (0). This process is a good
example of the application of the four thermodynamic potentials.

Fig. 2.5.1 Electrolysis of water.

16

The electrolysis of one mole of water produces a mole of hydrogen gas and a
half-mole of oxygen gas in their normal diatomic forms. A detailed analysis of the
process makes use of the thermodynamic potentials and the first law of
thermodynamics. This process is presumed to be at 298K and one atmosphere
pressure, and the relevant values are taken from a table of thermodynamic properties.
Quantity

H2O

H2

0.5O2

Change

Enthalpy

-285.83KJ

H = -285.83
KJ

Enthalpy

69.91 J/K

130.68 J/K

0.5 x 205.14

TS = -48.7KJ

J/K
Table. 2.5.1. Entropy, Enthalpy changes
The process must provide the energy for the dissociation plus the energy to
expand the produced gases. Both of those are included in the change in enthalpy
included in the table above. At temperature 298K and one atmosphere pressure, the
system work is
W = PV = (101.3x 103 Pa)(1.5 mol)(22.4x10-3 m3 /mol)(295K/273K)=3715J
Since the enthalpy H= U+PV, the change in internal energy U is then
U H PV = 285.83 KJ -3.72 KJ = 282.1 KJ
This change in internal energy must be accompanied by the expansion of the
gases produced, so the change in enthalpy represents the necessary energy to
accomplish the electrolysis. However, it is not necessary to put in this whole amount
in the form of electrical energy. Since the entropy increases in the process of
dissociation, the amount TAS can be provided from the environment at temperature
TS. The amount which must be supplied by the battery is actually the change in the
Gibbs free energy:
G = H TS
= 285.83 KJ -48.7 KJ
= 237.1 KJ

17

Since the electrolysis process results in an increase in entropy, the

environment "helps" the process by contributing the amount TS. The utility of the
Gibbs free energy is that it tells you what amount of energy in other forms must be
supplied to get the process to proceed.
2.5.2 HHO Voltage and Amperage
"Amperage is the flow, or movement, of electrons on a conductor - such as a
copper wire or a stainless steel plate". Voltage is electrical pressure. The alternator
creates the voltage as it is turned by the engine.
A HHO Generator, or HHO Cell, uses voltage and amperage to force water to
give up its molecules of hydrogen and oxygen gases. The amount of gas depends
mostly on two things; how well the water passes the amperage, and how much
amperage travels across the electrodes surface area. The electrons do not pass through
the metal plates; they travel around the outer surface. They take the path of least
resistance. So it is very important to evenly space the electrode plates - equal distance
apart; perfectly parallel to one another. If not, electron current will not be equally
distributed across the plate surface. If that were to happen, electrons would pile up at
close crossing areas, and heat would build up.
The electrodes in the hydrogen generator are called Plates. The plates are
normally made of type 316L stainless steel (because of the durable characteristics of
the metal). The hydrogen and oxygen molecules form on the plate surfaces. So, the
more surface area a plate has the more amperage it can distribute; thus the more HHO
it can produce.
It has been determined that electrolysis of water is most efficient at 1.24 volts
(Faraday says 1.24V, Brown says 1.48V, and Boyce says 2 to 3 volts). We know that
each electrolyte has a different minimum voltage. NaOH minimum voltage is 1.69
and KOH minimum voltage is 1.67. As it turns out, the electrolyte solution affects the
voltage between multiple plates. Faraday's 1.24 volts was based on using battery acid.
Around 2 volts will provide long continuous operating times. So, if we keep the
voltage, between our plates, at or close to 2 volts, we will not have problems with
heat, as long as we distribute the amperage at no more than 0.54 amps per square inch
of a plate's surface. That is the key for efficiency.
18

Let's look at our operating voltage; our charging system and battery. The
voltage vanes, depending on automobiles, but it usually is between 12.5 volts and
14.5 volts. A single water cell needs let's say 2 volts to power it. We do not have a 2
volt power supply; we have a 12 to 14.5 volt power supply. So instead of using
expensive electronics to make our voltage, we will simply configure multiple cells
together in Series. That is, we will place additional electrode plates between the
positive and negative electrode plates. Each plate we add will make another water
area for the electrical current to cross. Each water area will cause a voltage drop
(reduction). The voltage drops need to be close to 2 volts each (measured across any
two adjacent plates).
2.5.2.1 Amperage needed:
Start with the spacing between the plates. The closer the plates are, the less
resistance there is between them in the water. Water has a very high resistance to
electrical current wanting to pass though it or across it. We must add electrolytes to it
in order to make it pass electrons better. The more electrolytes we add, the lower the
resistance gets between the negative and positive plates. When the resistance gets low
enough, electrons start moving through the water. The lower the resistance gets the
more amperage we get traveling through the water. If we build a cell with half inch
spaces or gaps between each plate, we will need to use twice as much electrolyte as
you would if the spacing was a 1/4 inch. Still better, 1/16 inch gaps would provide
even less resistance. The bubbles will keep the plate surface clear of water. We need
the water on the plates at all times. As the electrical pressure increase (that is the
voltage or the amperage) so increases the HHO output.

2.6 HHO Boosters

2.6.1 The Smack's Booster
The Smack's Booster is a piece of equipment which increases the performance
of a car or motorcycle, and reduces the harmful emissions dramatically. It does this by
using some current from the vehicle's battery to break water into a mixture of
hydrogen and oxygen gasses called "Oxy-hydrogen" gas which is then added to the
air which is being drawn into the engine. The Oxy-hydrogen gas improves the quality
19

of the fuel burn inside the engine, increases the engine power, cleans old carbon
deposits off the inside of an old engine, and reduces the unwanted exhaust emissions.

Fig. 2.6.1 Smacks booster line diagram

Smack's booster is essentially an electrolysis wet cell that consumes about
20A current to produce 1.7LPM of HHO gas. The Smack's booster is of medium
efficiency and can be equipped for engines with cylinder volume of 500cc and above
for the best performance. Since the volume of the HI-IO gas produced is very high, a
bubbler has to be implemented to prevent flash-backs. The bubbler will quench any
spark from a backfire.
2.6.2 The 'Hotsabi' Booster

Fig. 2.6.2. The Electric circuit of the Hotsabi cell

The Hotsabi booster is an electrolysis wet cell that consumes about IOA
current to produce 0.6LPM of HHO gas. The Hotsabi booster is of low efficiency and
can be equipped for engines with cylinder volume of 250cc or below for the best

20

performance. Since the volume of the HHO gas produced is low, wire mesh screens
are sufficient to prevent flash-backs.
2.6.3 Stanley MEYER Resonant Electrolysis Cell System:
Stanley MEYER is the most famous inventor in the 'Super-efficient
Electrolysis' field, His original Electrolysis Concept was able to produce many times
as much hydrogen gas as permits the Faraday's Law of electrolysis, and the Law of
Conservation of Energy, then he brought it up to a still un-understood high level he
called Thermal Explosive Energy'.
Stanley Meyer explained is super-efficient electrolysis with the electron
movement and exchange between water molecules/atoms themselves, induced by the
high voltage field accumulated between the electrodes, and bringing the water
molecules to split contrary to standard electrolysis where that exchange of electrons is
affected between the water molecules and electrodes.
The real differences occur in the power supply to the cell. Meyer uses an
external inductance which appears to resonate with the capacitance of the cell, pure
water apparently possesses a dielectric constant of about 5, to produce a parallel
resonant circuit. This is excited by a high power pulse generator which, together with
the cell capacitance and a rectifier diode, forms a charge pump circuit. High
frequency pulses build a rising staircase DC potential across the electrodes of the cell
until a point is reached where the water breaks down and a momentary high current
flows. A current measuring circuit in the supply detects this breakdown and removes
the pulse drive for a few cycles allowing the water to "recover".
Stanley Meyer successfully decomposed ordinary tap water into constituent elements
through a combination of high, pulsed voltage using an average current measured
only in milliamps. Reported gas evolution was enough to sustain a hydrogen /oxygen
flame which instantly melted steel. In contrast with normal high current electrolysis,
the witnesses report the lack of any heating within the cell.

21

3. SPARK IGNITION (SI) ENGINE OPERATION

3.1 Introduction to SI engines
The SI engine relies on a spark plug to ignite a volatile air-fuel mixture as the
piston approaches top dead centre (TDC) on the compression stroke. This mixture
may be supplied from a carburettor, a single throttle-body fuel injector, or by
individual fuel injectors mounted in the intake port of each cylinder. One combustion
cycle involves two revolutions of the crankshaft and thus four strokes of the piston,
referred to as the intake, compression, power and exhaust strokes. Intake and exhaust
valves control the flow of mixture and exhaust gases into and out of the cylinder, and
an ignition system supplies a spark-inducing high voltage to the spark plug at the
proper time in the cycle to initiate combustion. On the intake stroke, the intake valve
opens and the descending piston draws a fresh combustible charge into the cylinder.
During the compression stroke, the intake valve closes and the air-fuel mixture is
compressed by the upward piston movement. The mixture is ignited by the spark
plug, typically somewhat before TDC.
The rapid premixed homogeneous combustion process causes a sharp increase
in cylinder temperature and pressure that forces the piston down for the power stroke.
Near bottom dead centre (BDC) the exhaust valve closes and the intake valve opens to
repeat the cycle again.

Fig 3.1.1 Cross section schematic of a four stroke SI engine

22

In SI engines the air and fuel are usually mixed together in the intake manifold
using either a carburettor or fuel injection system. In automobile applications, the
temperature of the air intake system is controlled by mixing ambient air with air
heated by the exhaust manifold. For gasoline the ratio of mass flow of air to mass
flow of fuel must be held around 15 to ensure reliable combustion. The carburettor
meters an appropriate fuel flow for the engine air flow in the following manner. The
air flow through a venturi (a converging-diverging nozzle) sets up a pressure
difference between the venturi inlet and throat which is used to meter an appropriate
amount of fuel from the float chamber. Just below the venture is throttle valve or plate
which controls the combined air flow and fuel flow.
The intake flow is throttled to below atmospheric pressure by reducing the
flow area according to the power required. The maximum power is obtained when the
throttle is wide open. The intake manifold is usually heated to promote faster
evaporation of the liquid fuel thus obtaining a more uniform fuel distribution.
Fuel injection into the intake manifold or inlet port is a widely used alternative
to a carburettor. With port injection, fuel is injected through individual injectors from
a low-pressure fuel supply systems. Mechanical injection in which an injection pump
driven by the engine continuously injects fuel to the inlet port and electronically
controlled injection where an electronic control unit (ECU) measures the air flow rate
and accordingly supplies fuel

Fig 3.1.2 Cross section of a single barrel carburettor (Heywood , 1998)

23

The intake flow is throttled to below atmospheric pressure by reducing flow

area according to the power required. The maximum power is obtained when the
throttle is wide open. The intake manifold is usually heated to promote faster
evaporation of the liquid fuel thus obtaining a more uniform fuel distribution.
Fuel injection into the intake manifold or inlet port is a widely used alternative
to a carburettor. With port injection, fuel is injected through individual injectors from
a low pressure fuel supply into each intake port. There are several different types of
injection types. Mechanical injection in which an injection pump driven by the engine
continuously injects fuel to the inlet port and electronically controlled injection where
an ECU measures the air flow rate and accordingly supplies fuel. Fig shows an
electronically controlled system where air flows rate is metered directly; the ECU
actuates the injection valves by pulses whose durations are predefined and recorded in
the ECUs electrically erasable programmable read-0only memory (EEPROM),
Another alternative is the use of a single fuel injector located above the throttle plate
in the position normally occupied by the carburettor . This approach gives the
electronic control at reduced cost but also reduced accuracy (Kahraman, 2005; from
Heywood, 1998)

3.2 Combustion in Spark Ignition Engines

In SI engines, combustion of the fuel-air mixture is initiated by a spark
generated between the electrodes of a spark plug. The intake and compression strokes
are designed to prepare mixture for combustion by completely vaporizing the fuel and
heating the mixture to just below its auto-ignition temperature .This is one reason, in
addition to controlling emissions, for the current practice of limiting the maximum
compression ratio of SI engines to about 10:1 Near the end of compression, the
mixture is well conditioned for combustion and the spark is discharged to initiate the
combustion process. For best fuel economy, the combustion process must be
completed as close as possible to TDC .This requires that the spark timing be
controlled for varying operating speed and lo0ad conditions of the engine.
Fuel metering and control, according to the engine load requirements, and
maximum variation from cylinder to cylinder and cycle to cycle, is essential for good
fuel economy, power output , and emission control of the engine. Both carburettors
24

and fuel injection systems are used fuel metering control. Because of the superior
control capabilities of fuel injection systems, they are nearly universally used today in
automotive applications.
Carburettors are used for applications with less-stringent emission
requirements, like small engines for lawn and garden equipment. Optimum fuel
economy, coinciding with maximum thermal efficiency, is obtained at part throttle
with a lean mixture as a result of the fact that the heat release from the lean mixtures
suffers minimum lo0sses from dissociation and variation of specific heat effects when
compared with stoichiometric and rich fuel-air ratios. Maximum power is obtained at
full throttle with a slightly rich mixture, an indication of the full utilization of the air
inside the cylinders. Idling, with a nearly closed throttle, requires a rich mixture
because of the high percentage of exhaust gas residuals that remains in the cylinders.
The fuel-air mixture requirement under transient operation, such as acceleration,
requires a rich mixture to compensate for the reduced evaporation caused by the
sudden opening of the throttle.
Combustion normally starts across sparkplug gap when the spark is
discharged. The fuel molecules in and around the spark discharge zone are ignited and
a small amount of energy is released. The important criterion for the initial reaction to
be self-sustaining is that the rate of heat release from the initial combustion be larger
than the rate of heat transfer to the surroundings. The factors that play an important
role in making the initial reaction self-sustaining, and thereby establishing a flame
kernel, are the ignition energy level, the spark plug gap, the fuel-air ratio, the initial
turbulence, and the condition of the spark plug electrodes.
After a flame kernel is established, a thin spherical flame front advances the
spark plug region progressively into the unburned mixture zones. Flame propagation
is supported and accelerated by two processes. First the combined effect of the heat
transfer from the high temperature flame region and the bombardment by the active
radicals from the flame front into the adjacent unburned zones raises the temperature
and accelerates the rate of reactivity of the unburned mixture region directly adjacent
to the flame front. This helps to condition and prepare this zone of combustion.
Second, the increase in temperature and pressure of the burned gases behind the flame
front will cause it to expand and progressively create thermal compression of the
25

remaining unburned mixture ahead of the flame front. It is expected that the flame
speed will be low at the start of combustion, reach a maximum at about half the flame
travel;, and decrease near the end of combustion.
Overall, flame speed is strongly influenced by the degree of turbulence in the
combustion chamber, mixture strength, type of fuel, and the engine speed. When the
flame front approaches the walls of the combustion chamber, the high rate of heat
transfer top the walls slow down the flame propagation and finally the combustion
process terminates close to the walls because of surface quenching. This leaves a thin
layer of unburned fuel close to the combustion chamber walls which shows up in the
exhaust as unburned hydrocarbons.
Abnormal combustion may occur in SI engines associated with two
combustion phenomena: knock and surface ignition. Knock occurs near the end of the
combustion process if the end portion of the unburned mixture, which is being
progressively subjected to thermal compression, auto ignites prematurely before the
flame front reaches it. As a result of the sudden energy release\se, a violent pressure
wave propagates back and forth across the combustion chamber, causing the walls or
other parts of the engine to vibrate, producing a sharp metallic noise called knock. If
knock persists for a period of time, the high rate of heat transfer caused by the
travelling high pressure and temperature wave may overheat the sparkplug electrode
or ignite carbon deposits that may be present in the combustion chamber, causing
uncontrolled combustion and pre-ignition. As a result, loss of power and serious
engine damage may occur Knock is sensitive to factors that increase the temperature
and pressure of the end portion of the unburned mixture, as well as to fuel
composition and other time factors.
Surface ignition is the ignition of the unburned mixture by any source in the
combustion chamber other than the normal spark. Such sources could include
overheated exhaust valves or spark plug electrodes, glowing carbon deposits, or other
hot spots. Surface ignition will create secondary flame fronts which cause high rates
of pressure rise resulting in a low-pitched, thudding noise accompanied by engine
roughness. Severe surface ignition, especially when it occurs before spark ignition
may cause serious structural and/or component damage to the engine (Kahraman,
2005; from Heywood 1998)
26

3.3 Exhaust Emissions

The products of combustion from ICEs contain several constituents that are
considered hazardous to human health, including CO, unburned HC, and oxides of
nitrogen (NO). The concentration of gaseous emissions in the engine exhaust engine
exhaust gases are usually measured in parts per million (ppm) or percent (%) by
volume. There are principal schemes present for the reduction of these pollutants.
3.3.1 Carbon Monoxide (CO)
CO is a colourless, odourless, and tasteless gas that is highly toxic to humans.
Breathing air with a small volumetric concentration (0.3%) of CO in an enclosed
space can cause death in a short period of time. CO results from the incomplete
combustion of the rich fuel mixture that is present during idling and maximum power
steady state conditions and during such transient conditions as cold starting, warm-up,
and acceleration. Uneven fuel distribution, poor condition to the ignition system, very
lean combustion, and slow CO reaction kinetics also contribute to increased CO
production in SI engines.
3.3.2 Un-burnt Hydrocarbons (HC)
When unburned hydrocarbons combine with NO in the presence of sunlight,
ozone and photochemical oxidants form that can adversely affect human health.
Certain HCs are also considered to be carcinogenic. The principal cause of HC in SI
engines in incomplete combustion process at the combustion chamber walls, and
engine misfiring. Additional sources in four stroke engines may include fuel mixture
trapped of the top ring land of the piston and out gassed fuel during intake. In two
stroke SI engines, the scavenging process often results in a portion of the fresh
mixture exiting the exhaust port before it closes; resulting in large HC emissions
includes the fuel-air ratio, intake air temperature, and cooling water temperature.

27

3.3.3 Oxides of nitrogen (NO)

Nitric oxide (NO) is formed from the combination of nitrogen and oxygen
present in the intake air under the high-temperature conditions those results from the
combustion process.
As the gas temperature drops during the expansion stroke, the reaction is
frozen, and levels of NO persist in the exhaust products far in excess of the
equilibrium level at the exhaust temperature. In the presence of additional oxygen in
the air, some NO transforms to nitrogen dioxide (NO), a toxic gases. The NO and
NO combined are referred to as oxides of nitrogen or NO.
The production of NO is in general aggravated by conditions that increase the
peak combustion temperature. In SI engines the most important variables that affect
NO production are the air/fuel ratio, spark timing, intake air temperature, and amount
of residual combustion products remaining in the cylinder after exhaust. Lean mixture
combustion, which promotes good thermal efficiency, also results in low HC and CO
production but causes high levels of NO emission. Increasing the fuel/air ratio to
reduce NO results in increased CO and HC emissions.
Approaches to reduce total emissions fall under two categories; the first
concentrates on engine design and fuel modification and the second involves
treatment of exhaust gases after leaving the engine. In SI engines, the first approach
focuses on addressing engine variables and design modifications which improves in
cylinder mixing and combustion in an effort to reduce CO and HC emissions. To
reduce NO, attention is focused on factors that reduce peak combustion temperature
and reduce the oxygen available in the flame front.
Catalytic converters utilize a catalyst, typically a noble metal such as
platinum, rhodium, or palladium, deposited on ceramic substrate to promote reactions
at lower temperatures. Two types are in use, oxidation converters and reduction
converters. Oxidation catalytic converters and reduction converters. Oxidation
catalytic converters use the excess air available in lean mixtures (or supplied from an
external air pump) to oxidize CO and HC emissions. Reduction catalytic converters
operate with low levels of oxygen to cause reduction of NO.

28

If the combustion is too lean, NO is not adequately reduced, and if it is too

rich, HC and CO are not adequately oxidized. There is a narrow band for equivalence
ratio from about 0.999 to1.007 within which conversion efficiency is 80% or better
for all three pollutants. Maintaining engine operation within its tis narrow mixture
band requires a closed loop fuel-metering system that utilizes an oxygen sensor placed
in the exhaust system to monitor excess oxygen and control the fuel injection to
maintain near stoichiometric combustion (Kummer, 1980)

3.4 Combustion Stoichiometry

To develop a relation between the composition of the reactants (fuel and air)
of a combustible mixture and the composition of the products, it is necessary to meter
the air inlet and fuel supply rate.
The ratio of the air mass flow rate is called the air/fuel ratio (A/F)

A/F = /
The normal operating of A/F for a conventional SI engine using gasoline fuel
is between (12,18)
The relation between the composition of the reactants and the composition of
the products depends only on the conservation of mass of each chemical element in
the reactants, only the relative proportions of fuel and air are needed. If sufficient
oxygen is available, a hydrocarbon fuel can be completely oxidized. The carbon in the
fuel is then converted to carbon dioxide C02 and the hydrogen to water H2O. The
general equation for the complete combustion of one mole of a hydrocarbon with air.

+ ( + b) (2 + 3.7732 ) 2 +

b 2 +3.773 (a + b) 2
4

This is the equation for the stoichiometric (theoretical) proportions of fuel and
air. That is, just enough air is present to oxidize all of the fuel. It is obvious that the

29

stoichiometric air/fuel ratio or fuel/air ratios depend on the chemical fuel composition.
For gasoline (a reasonable approximation is CH) the equation becomes: -

7.9 14.8 +11.62 +43.7672 7.92 + 7.42 + 43.7672

Whereas for hydrogen H it is:

1
H2 + O2 + 1.887N2 H2 O + 1.887N2
2
The molecular weights of oxygen, atmospheric nitrogen, atomic carbon, and
atomic hydrogen are 32, 28.16, 12.001, and 1.008, respectively. Substituting these
values and a simplification
Y=b/a results in:

.(+)

(A/F)=.+.
Gasoline=C7.9 H14.8 (A/F)s = 14.6
Hydrogen=H2 (A/F)s = 34.3
Fuel-air mixtures with more than or less than the stoichiometric air
requirement can be burned. With excess air or fuel-lean combustion, the extra air
appears in the products in unchanged form. With less than the stoichiometric air
requirement, with fuel-rich combustion, there is insufficient oxygen to oxidize fully
the fuel. The products are a mixture of C0 and H0 with C0 and hydrogen as well
N.
The product composition cannot be determined from an element balance alone
and additional assumption about the chemical composition of the product species
must be made. Since the composition of the combustion products is significantly
different for fuel-lean and fuel-rich mixtures, and because the stoichiometric fuel/air
ratio depends on the fuel composition, the ratio of the actual fuel/air ratio to the

30

stoichiometric ratio (or its inverse) is a more informative parameter for defining
mixture composition.
The fuel-air equivalence ratio f:

(/)
(/)

The inverse of f, with the relative function l,

f 1 = l=

(/)
(/)

For fuel-lean mixtures:

f<1 or l>1

For stoichiometric equations:

f=l=1

For fuel-rich mixtures:

f>1 or l<1

In practice, although with excess air condition, the composition of the

products of combustion does not occur as in Equation 2.6. At normal combustion
temperatures significant dissociation of C0 and of H0 occurs. Whether, at low
temperatures, recombination brings the product composition to that indicated by these
overall chemical equilibrium equations depends on the rate of cooling of the product
gases (Kummer, 1980).

31

4. HHO BOOSTER INSTALLATION

The Booster kit was sourced from M/S. Aqua fuel technologies, Hyderabad.
The Booster kit consists of
i)

The wet cell

ii)

Hose pipes

iii)

Alkaline electrolyte

iv)

Zip fastening belts

4.1 Technical Data and Additional Information

Generator Type: Wet Cell

Fig. 4.1 Wet Cell

32

4.2 Specifications
Standard dimensions: 2" Dia& 5" Height
Water Top up:

Every 200 to 250 Kms

Service period:

Every 1000 Kms

Type of Service:

External

Level Indicator:

No

Voltage:

12V

Note: After every 1000 km wash the generator 1 to 2 times with normal distilled
water

4.3 Steps of installation

i)

First the air filter has to be removed.

Fig.4.3.1 Installation Step 1

33

ii)

The hose that is provided must be pushed through the air intake duct and
pulled out of the air filter duct. The hose pipe has to reach approximately to
the carburettor hence must pass through the air filter.

Fig.4.3.2 Installation Step 2

iii)

Make a small orifice in the air filter and push the hose pipe through the
orifice such that there is an interference fit. Push the hose pipe till it
approximately reaches the carburettor. Carefully place the air filter into the
air filter duct and close it.

34

Fig.4.3.3 Installation Step 3

iv)

The other end of the hose pipe must be connected to the booster. Hence
must be pushed through the chassis to the desired mounting location of the
booster.

v)

Before the mounting is done, the booster has to be filled with the diluted
solution of the electrolyte. Make the diluted solution, by adding the
provided alkaline concentrate to 900ml distilled water. This solution can
be filled into the booster by using a syringe. About 50 60 ml of the
electrolyte has to be filled.

35

Fig.4.3.4 Installation Step 5

vi)

Mount the booster to the chassis using a zip tie belts.

Fig.4.3.5 Installation Step 6

36

vii)

Connect the yellow cable to the ignition line and the black to the negative
terminal of the battery.

viii)

Using a dummy line test if the booster is able to generate the HHO gas.

ix)

Now connect the main hose pipe, and turn on the ignition and start the
engine. Tune down the petrol intake by adjusting the jet screw. Set the
idling RPM to approximately 1100RPM.

Fig.4.3.6 Installation Step 9

37

5. TESTING: THEORY
5.1 Brake Test: Performance Characteristics and Emission
Comparison
At a design and development stage an engineer would design an engine with
certain aims in his mind. The aims may include the variables like indicated power,
brake power, brake specific fuel consumption, exhaust emissions, cooling of engine,
maintenance free operation etc. The other task of the development engineer is to
reduce the cost and improve power output and reliability of an engine. In trying to
achieve these goals he has to try various design concepts. After the design the pans of
the engine are manufactured for the dimensions and surface finish and may be with
certain tolerances. In order to verify the designed and developed engine one has to go
for testing and performance evaluation of the engines.
Engine performance is an indication of the degree of success of the engine
performs its assigned task, i.e. the conversion of the chemical energy contained in the
fuel into the useful mechanical work. The performance of an engine is evaluated on
the basis of the following:
(a) Specific Fuel Consumption.
(b) Brake Mean Effective Pressure.
(c) Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions.
For the evaluation of an engine performance few more parameters are chosen
and the effects of various operating conditions, design concepts and modifications on
these parameters are studied. The basic performance parameters are the following:
(a) Power and Mechanical Efficiency.
(b) Mean Effective Pressure and Torque.
(c) Specific Output.
(d) Volumetric Efficiency.
(e) Fuel-air Ratio.
38

(f) Specific Fuel Consumption.

(g) Thermal Efficiency and Heat Balance.
(h) Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions.
(i) Specific Weight.
5.1.1 Power and Mechanical Efficiency
The main purpose of running an engine is to obtain mechanical power.
Power is defined as the rate of doing work and is equal to the product of
force and linear velocity or the product of torque and angular velocity.
Thus, the measurement of power involves the measurement of force (or
torque) as well as speed. The force or torque is measured with the help of a
dynamometer and the speed by a tachometer.
5.1.2 Indicated Power
It is the power developed in the cylinder and thus, forms the basis of
evaluation of combustion efficiency or the heat release in the cylinder.
5.1.3 Volumetric Efficiency
Volumetric efficiency of an engine is an indication of the measure of the
degree to which the engine fills its swept volume. It is defined as the ratio of the mass
of air inducted into the engine cylinder during the suction stroke to the mass of the air
corresponding to the swept volume of the engine at atmospheric pressure and
temperature.
Volumetric efficiency,
=

39

5.1.4 Fuel-Air Ratio (F/A)

Fuel-air ratio (F/A) is the ratio of the mass of fuel to the mass of air in the
fuel-air mixture. Air-fuel ratio (A/F) is reciprocal of fuel-air ratio. Fuel-air ratio of the
mixture affects the combustion phenomenon in that it determines the flame
propagation velocity, the heat release in the combustion chamber, the maximum
temperature and the completeness of combustion.
5.1.5 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
Specific fuel consumption is defined as the amount of fuel consumed for each
unit of brake power developed per hour. It is a clear indication of the efficiency with
which the engine develops power from fuel.
5.1.6 Thermal Efficiency
Thermal efficiency of an engine is defined as the ratio of the output to that of
the chemical energy input in the form of fuel supply. It may be based on brake or
indicated output. It is the true indication of the efficiency with which the chemical
energy of fuel (input) is converted into mechanical work. Thermal efficiency also
accounts for combustion efficiency, i.e., for the fact that whole of the chemical energy
of the fuel is not converted into heat energy during combustion.

Brake thermal efficiency

5.1.7 Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions

Smoke and other exhaust emissions such as oxides of nitrogen, unburned
hydrocarbons, etc. is nuisance for the public environment. With increasing emphasis
on air pollution control all efforts are being made to keep them as minimum as it
could be. Smoke is an indication of incomplete combustion. It limits the output of an
engine if air pollution control is the consideration.

40

5.2 Measurement of Brake Power

5.2.1 Rope Brake Dynamometer
The rope brake as shown is another simple device for measuring bp of an
engine. It consists of a number of turns of rope wound around the rotating drum
attached to the output shaft. One side of the rope is connected to a spring balance and
the other to a loading device. The power is absorbed in friction between the rope and
the drum. The drum therefore requires cooling.

Fig. 5.2.1. Rope brake Dynamometer

Rope brake is cheap and easily constructed but not a very accurate method
because of changes in the friction coefficient of the rope with temperature. The bp is
given by

bp = DN(W S)
Where,
D is the brake drum diameter
W is the weight in Newton and
S is the spring scale reading
41

5.3 Measurement of Friction Horse Power

In the design and testing of an engine; measurement of friction power is
important for getting an insight into the methods by which the output of an engine can
be increased. In the evaluation of ip and mechanical efficiency measured friction
power is also used.

5.4 Willan's Line Method or Fuel Rate Extrapolation

In this method, gross fuel consumption vs. bp at a constant speed is plotted
and the graph is extrapolated back to zero fuel consumption.
The point where this graph cuts the bp axis in an indication of the friction
power of the engine at that speed. This negative work represents the combined loss
due to mechanical friction, pumping and blow by.

Fig. 5.4.willians Line

5.5 Mileage Test: On Road

5.5.1 Introduction:
The fuel economy of an automobile is the fuel efficiency relationship between
the distance travelled and the amount of fuel consumed by the vehicle. Consumption
can be expressed in terms of volume of fuel to travel a distance, or the distance
travelled per unit volume of fuel consumed. Since fuel consumption of vehicles is a

42

great factor in air pollution, and since importation of motor fuel can be a large part of
a nation's foreign trade, many countries impose requirements for fuel economy.
Different measurement cycles are used to approximate the actual performance of the
vehicle. Driver behaviour can affect fuel economy; sudden acceleration and heavy
braking wastes energy.
5.5.2 Physics
The power to overcome air resistance increases roughly with the cube of the
speed, and thus the energy required per unit distance is roughly proportional to the
square of speed. Because air resistance increases so rapidly with speed, above about
48 km/h, it becomes a dominant limiting factor. Driving at 72 rather than 105 km/h
requires about one-third the power to overcome wind resistance, or about one-half the
energy per unit distance, and much greater fuel economy can be achieved. Increasing
speed to 145 km/h from 105 km/h increases the power requirement by 2.6 times, the
energy per unit distance by 1.9 times, and decreases fuel economy. In real world
vehicles the change in fuel economy is less than the values quoted above due to
complicating factors.
For a vehicle whose source of power is a heat engine (an engine that uses heat
to perform useful work), the amount of fuel energy that a vehicle consumes per unit of
distance (level road) depends upon:

1.

The thermodynamic efficiency of the heat engine;

2.

The forces of friction within the mechanical system that delivers engine
output to the wheels;

3.

The forces of friction in the wheels and between the road and the wheels
(rolling friction);

4.

Other internal forces that the engine works against (electrical generator, air
conditioner etc., water pump, engine fan etc.);

5.

External forces that resist motion (e.g., wind, rain);

6.

Non-regenerative braking force (brakes that turn motion energy into heat
rather than storing it in a useful form; e.g., electrical energy in hybrid
vehicles).
43

6. TESTING: Experimentation
6.1: Mileage test
6.1.1: Methodology
The bike was given for maintenance check well before the mileage tests were
made. The tire pressures are set to optimal value, oil levels checks. Through
inspection was done to check for any leaks.
Since there is no designated test tracks to utilize for these mileage test, we
chose a secluded section of the Nehru Outer Ring Road's service road between
Mallampet to Gagillapur. The road has scare traffic, almost straight with about 200
metres climb up and climb down with speed breakers which are about 5km apart.
Given these conditions it was ideal for us to perform the tests.
We procured a 100ml measuring jar from the chemistry lab equipment dealer,
which was the standard measuring jar for petrol.

Fig 6.1.1 Measuring jar used for mileage test

A 100ml shampoo bottle is used as the fuel reservoir for the mileage tests. A
plastic hose pipe is connected and sealed between the shampoo bottle and the fuel
input to the carburettor. The bottle was mounted on the console horizontally so that
the rider can see the petrol level clearly.

44

Fig. 6.1.2: Mileage test Setup

The driver around 75kg took the first test drive, to explore the test track. After
the first test drive the correct amount of fuel supplied has been calibrated and the
same into the bottle while trying our best to reduce vaporisation losses.
The tests were conducted at constant RPM of the engine starting with
2000RPM, and incrementing 1000RPM for every refill of 100ml petrol with booster
and without the booster. The booster was refilled with the electrolyte just before the
tests began so that correct amount of HHO gas is generated.

45

6.1.2 Specifications of CBZ Xtreme 149.2cc

Engine: 4 stroke, Single Cylinder, Natural air cooled.
Bore x Stroke: 58.00 mm x 56.40 mm
Engine Displacement: 149.2 cc
Compression Ratio: 9.5 + 0.5 :01
Max. Net Power: 11.64 kW at 9000 rpm
Max. Net Torque: 12.45 Nm at 6500 rpm
Ignition System: AMI - Advanced Microprocessor Ignition System.
Spark Plug: Champion RG 4 HC, 2 Nos.
Spark Plug Gap: 0.6 to 0.8 mm
Lubrication: Wet sump,
Forced Transmission: 5 speed constant mesh.
Front Brake: Hydraulic disc type.
Rear Brake: Mech. expanding shoe & drum type.
Vehicle Kerb Weight: 143 kg.
Gross Vehicle Weight: 273 kg

6.2: Test Rig- Brake Test and Emission Test

Fig. 6.2.1: Schematic layout of test rig

46

1. Air intake valve with manometers

2. Fuel tank with burette
3. HHO electrolyser
4. Carburettor
5. Engine with cooling systems
6. Rope brake dynamometer
7. Exhaust gas analyser
8. Exhaust gases outlet

6.2.2 Engine Specifications:

Make: Honda
Engine: 4 stroke, Single Cylinder, Natural air cooled.
Bore x Stroke: 50.00 mm x 55.00 mm
Engine Displacement: 108.9 cc
Compression Ratio: 10: 01
Max. Net Power: 6kW at 9000 rpm
Max. Net Torque: 8.74 Nm at 5500 rpm
The HHO booster (electrolyser) produces 0.6LPM of HHO gases, which is
measured using a flow meter.
The tests are performed at 700RPM, 1000RPM and 1500RPM individually
with and without the HHO blending.
The values obtained from the test are included in the appendix.

47

6.2.3 Sample calculations

Let us consider the case in N =1500RPM.
The load applied = 12kgf.
Hence the torque is T = 12 * 9.81 * 0.15 =17.658 Nm.
2

The brake power BP = 601000 =

21500017.658

= 2.772306 kW.

601000

Time taken for consumption of 20ml of fuel, mf =

200.73660

= 0.017664 kg/min

501000

Total fuel consumption, TFC = mf * 60 = 1.05984 kg/hr

mf

Specific fuel consumption, SFC =BP = 0.382295 kg/kWhr

From the Willian's line extrapolation, the frictional power is 1.35kW.
Therefore indicated power IP = BP + FP = 4.122306kW.
The heat input due to petrol HIp = TFC *(CVp/3600) =
The heat input due to Hydrogen =

1.0598448000
3600

VhCVhPh 0.61417200.0899
100060

100060

= 14.1312kW.

=0.127406kW.

Total heat input HI = HIp +HIh = 14.25861kW.

The room temperature is 34 degree C. Therefore density of air = (+) = 1.14

kg/m3
The manometer reading is 20cm(hw). Hence the head of air ha=

hwPw
Pa

Mass of air drawn = Cd *Ao * Pa * 2 9.81 = 0.003403 s

The A/F = mf = 11.55802

Volumetric efficiency=

Volume of air drawn

swept volume

*100 = 75.36394%

The mechanical efficiency mech= BP/IP = 67.25134%

The brake thermal efficiency bth= BP/HI = 19.4434%
The indicated thermal efficiency ith= IP/HI = 28.911

48

7. RESULTS & DISCUSSION

7.1 Brake Power (kW) Vs Total Fuel Consumption

Brake Power Vs Total Fuel

Consumption @700RPM
1.2

TFC (Kg/hr)

1
0.8
0.6

With Booster

0.4

Without Booster

0.2
0
0

10

15

20

25

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.1.1 Brake power Vs. Total Fuel Consumption @ 700 RPM
TFC reduced between 7-11% with the increase in the Brake power and with
the implementation of the blender. At 1.5 KW the values approximately converge
which probably is due to the high load at such low RPM.

Brake Power Vs Total Fuel

Consumption @1000RPM
1.2

TFC (Kg/hr)

1
0.8
0.6

With Booster

0.4

Without Booster

0.2
0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.1.2 Brake power Vs. Total Fuel Consumption @ 1000 RPM
TFC reduced between 7-10% with the increase in the Brake power and with
the implementation of the blender. This variation exists at all Brake powers.
49

Brake Power Vs Total Fuel

Consumption @1500RPM
1.6
1.4
TFC (Kg/hr)

1.2
1

With
Booster

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.1.3 Brake power Vs. Total Fuel Consumption @ 1500 RPM
TFC reduced between 7-15% with the increase in the Brake power with the
implementation of the blender. And the variation consistently increases over Brake
power.
We can observe that the TFC consumption reduces at all RPMs. It is more
pronounced at higher RPMs. Hence we can confer that HHO blending improves TFC
characteristics at higher RPMs

7.2 Brake Power (kW) Vs Specific Fuel Consumption

Brake Power Vs Specific

Consumption @700RPM

Fuel

1.8
1.6
SFC (Kg/kW-hr)

1.4
1.2
1
0.8

With Booster

0.6

Without Booster

0.4
0.2
0
0

10

15

20

25

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.2.1 Brake Power Vs. Specific Fuel Consumption @ 700 RPM

50

The SFC follows a normal trend , which is a hyperbolic curve. The variation is
between 7-10%.The graph converges at 1.5 kW which can be conferred as high load
at low RPM.

Brake Power Vs Specific Fuel

Consumption @1000RPM
1.4

SFC (Kg/kW-hr)

1.2
1
0.8
0.6

With Booster

0.4

Without Booster

0.2
0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.2.2 Brake Power Vs. Specific Fuel Consumption @ 1000 RPM
The SFC is reduced and the reduction is consistent at all loads. The variation
is between 5-10%.

SFC (Kg/kW-hr)

Brake Power Vs Specific Fuel

Consumption @1500RPM
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

With Booster
Without Booster

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.2.3 Brake Power Vs. Specific Fuel Consumption @ 1500 RPM
The SFC reduces over brake power which is consistent at all loads. The
variation is between 7-12%.
51

We can observe that the Specific Fuel Consumption reduces at all RPMs. It is
more pronounced at higher RPMs. Hence we can confer that HHO blending improves
SFC characteristics at higher RPMs.

7.3 Brake Power (kW) Vs Mechanical Efficiency

Brake Power Vs Mechanical

Efficiency @700RPM
Mechanical Efficiency (%)

60
50
40
30

With Booster

20

Without Booster

10
0
0

0.5

1.5

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.3.1 Brake Power Vs. Mechanical Efficiency @ 700 RPM

Brake Power Vs Mechanical

Efficiency @1000RPM
Mechanical Efficiency (%)

70
60
50
40
30

With Booster

20

Without Booster

10
0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.3.2 Brake Power Vs. Mechanical Efficiency @ 1000 RPM

52

Brake Power Vs Mechanical

Efficiency @1500RPM
Mechanical Efficiency (%)

80
70
60
50
40

Without Booster

30

With Booster

20
10
0
0

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.3.3 Brake Power Vs. Mechanical Efficiency @ 1500 RPM

Mechanical efficiency is independent of implementation of booster. Hence it
can be understood that booster improves only thermal characteristics of the system.
The mechanical efficiency follows the standard trend, the mechanical
efficiency increases at higher RPMs.

7.4 Brake Power (kW) Vs Volumetric Efficiency

Volumetric Efficiency (%)

Brake Power Vs Volumetric

Efficiency @700Rpm
87
86
85
84
83
82
81
80
79
78
77

With Booster
Without Booster

10

15

20

25

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.4.1 Brake Power Vs. Brake Thermal Efficiency @ 700 RPM

53

The volumetric efficiency reduces upon implementation of the Booster. The

reduction is maximum at 0.8 kW. The variation is about 7-10%.

Brake Power Vs Volumetric

Efficiency @1000Rpm
Volumetric Efficiency (%)

84
83
82
81

With Booster

80

Without Booster

79
78
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.4.2 Brake Power Vs. Brake Thermal Efficiency @ 1000 RPM
The volumetric efficiency reduces upon implementation of the Booster. The
variation is about 7-10%.

Volumetric Efficiency (%)

Brake Power Vs Volumetric

Efficiency @1500Rpm
78
77.5
77
76.5
76
75.5
75
74.5
74
73.5
73

With Booster
Without Booster

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.4.3 Brake Power Vs. Brake Thermal Efficiency @ 1500 RPM
The volumetric efficiency reduces upon implementation of the Booster. The
variation is about 7-10%.

54

We can clearly observe from all the above graphs that the volumetric
efficiency reduces. And the implementation of the booster further reduces the
efficiency. The performance is although unaltered as the Booster supplements some
amount of Oxygen.

7.5 Brake Power (kW) Vs Brake Thermal Efficiency

Brake Thermal Efficiency (%)

Brake Power Vs Brake Thermal

Efficiency @ 700RPM
12
10
8
6

With Booster

Without Booster

2
0
0

0.5

1.5

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.5.1 Brake Power Vs. Indicated Thermal Efficiency @ 700RPM

The Brake thermal efficiency is higher when booster is implemented that
without booster. The variation is about 5-10% overall. The graphs converge at 1.5kW
which can be conferred as high load at low RPM.

Brake Thermal Efficiency (%)

Brake Power Vs Brake Thermal

Efficiency @ 1000RPM
20
15
10

With Booster
Without Booster

5
0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.5.2 Brake Power Vs. Indicated Thermal Efficiency @ 1000RPM

55

The brake thermal efficiency is improved considerable with the

implementation of the booster over all brake powers. The variation is between 5-10%.

Brake Thermal Efficiency (%)

Brake Power Vs Brake Thermal

Efficiency @ 1500RPM
25
20
15
With Booster

10

Without Booster

5
0
0

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.5.3 Brake Power Vs. Indicated Thermal Efficiency @ 1500RPM

The brake thermal efficiency is improved considerable with the
implementation of the booster over all brake powers. The variation is between 5-12%.
We can observe that the Brake thermal efficiency increases at all RPMs. It is
more pronounced at higher RPMs. Hence we can confer that HHO improves the brake
thermal efficiency characteristics.

7.6 Brake Power (kW) Vs Indicated Thermal Efficiency

Ind. Thermal Efficiency (%)

Brake Power Vs Indicated Thermal

Efficiency @ 700RPM
23
22
21
20

Series1

19

Series2

18
0

0.5

1.5

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.6.1 Brake Power Vs. Volumetric Efficiency @ 700 RPM

56

The indicated thermal efficiency shows an improved characteristic between

0.5 kW to 1.5 kW. The variation is consistent throughout at 11-15%, except at 1.5 kW
where the fuel consumption is highest due to high load at lower RPM.

Ind. Thermal Efficiency (%)

Brake Power Vs Indicated Thermal

Efficiency @ 1000RPM
30
25
20
15

Series1

10

Series2

5
0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.6.2 Brake Power Vs. Volumetric Efficiency @ 1000 RPM

The indicated thermal efficiency increases with the implementation of the
Booster. The variation is significant over 1.5 kW of brake power. The variation is
between 8-12 %.

Ind. Thermal Efficiency (%)

Brake Power Vs Indicated Thermal

Efficiency @ 1500RPM
35
30
25
20
15

With Booster

10

Without Booster

5
0
0

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.6.3 Brake Power Vs. Volumetric Efficiency @ 1500 RPM

The indicated thermal efficiency characteristics increase considerably over 2
kW of Brake power. The variation is about 5-12%.

57

We can observe that the indicated thermal efficiency increases at all RPMs. It
is more pronounced at higher RPMs. Hence we can confer that HHO blending
improves the indicated thermal efficiency characteristics.

7.7 Brake Power Vs A/F

Brake Power Vs A/F @700RPM

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

With Booster
Without Booster

10
15
20
Brake Power (kW)

25

Fig 7.7.1 Brake Power Vs. A/F @ 700RPM

The air-fuel ratio is greater when Booster is implemented. The characteristics
reduce over load at constant RPM. They converge at 1.5 kW which can explain due to
high load at low RPM. The variation is between 6-18%. The A/F ratio reduces from
18 to 11.

Brake Power Vs A/F @1000RPM

80
70
60
50
40

With Booster

30

Without Booster

20
10
0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.7.2 Brake Power Vs. A/F @ 1000RPM

58

The air-fuel ratio decreases over load. Implementation of the booster

increases the air-fuel ratio. The variation is about 6-10%. The A/F ratio reduces from
about 16 to 11.

Brake Power Vs A/F @1500RPM

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

With Booster
Without Booster

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.7.3 Brake Power Vs. A/F @ 1500RPM

The air fuel ratio decreases over increase in Brake power. Implementation of
the Booster increases the A/F comparatively. The variation is about 5-10%. The A/F
reduces from 10 to 9.
Implementation of Booster increases the A/F ratio. Increase of A/F is a sign
of reduction in fuel consumption, hence an increase in the thermal efficiency
characteristics.

7.8 CO emission comparison

CO emission comparison @
700RPM
Volume of Gas

0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03

With Booster

0.02

Without Booster

0.01
0
0

0.5

1.5

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.8.1 CO Emission Comparison @ 700 RPM

59

The CO emission consistently decreases over the loads. Implementation of the

Booster reduces the CO emissions.

CO emission comparision @
1000RPM
Volume of Gas

0.1
0.08
0.06
With Booster

0.04

Without Booster

0.02
0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.8.2 CO Emission Comparison @ 1000 RPM

Between 0.5 to1.5 kW the CO emissions are higher. But beyond which the
emissions are lower comparatively.

CO emission comparision @
1500RPM
0.14
Volume of Gas

0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06

With Booster

0.04

Without Booster

0.02
0
0

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.8.3 CO Emission Comparison @ 1500 RPM

The CO emissions are lowered comparatively. And the trend over Brake
power follows similarity.
Clearly the CO emissions are reduced with the implementation of the Booster.
Although the same cannot concluded from the trend at 1000 RPM.
60

7.9 O emission comparison

O emission @ 700RPM
8
7
Volume of Gas

6
5
4

With Booster

Without Booster

2
1
0
0

0.5

1.5

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.9.1 O2 Emission @ 700 RPM

The Oxygen in the emissions are reduced when the Booster is implemented
consistently at all loads.

O emission @ 1000RPM
8
7
Volume of Gas

6
5
4

With Booster

Without Booster

2
1
0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.9.2 O2 Emission @ 1000 RPM

At 1000 RPM the trends are erratic although the emissions are reduced.

61

O emission @ 1500RPM
7

Volume of Gas

6
5
4
With Booster

Without Booster

2
1
0
0

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.9.3 O2 Emission @ 1500 RPM

The emissions are reduced considerably and the trend is very similar with each
other.
From the above the graphs it is clear that Oxygen amount is lower when the
booster is implemented.

7.10 NO emission comparison

Volume of Gas

NO emission comparision @
700RPM
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0

With Booster
Without Booster

0.5

1.5

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.10.1 CO2 Emission Comparison @ 700 RPM

At lower RPMs the NOx emissions are reduced when booster is implemented.
62

Volume of Gas

NO emission comparision @
1000RPM
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0

With Booster
Without Booster

0.5

1.5

2.5

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.10.2 CO2 Emission Comparison @ 1000 RPM

We can observe that lower brake power, the booster produces higher NOx
emissions but at 1.54kW that trend changes where higher NOx emissions are
observed without booster condition.

Volume of Gas

NO emission comparision @
1500RPM
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0

With Booster
Without Booster

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.10.3 CO2 Emission Comparison @ 1500 RPM

At higher RPM, with increase of considerably increases the NOx emissions
although implementation of booster reduces the NOx emissions.
From the above graphs, it can be concluded that the NOx emissions are
reduced when the booster is implemented which can be explained due to leaner
combustion.

63

7.11 CO emission comparison

Volume of Gas

CO emission comparision @
700RPM
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

With Booster
Without Booster

0.5

1.5

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.11.1 NOx Emission @ 700 RPM

CO2 Emissions are lowered at 700 RPM. Implementation of the booster
reduces the emissions. The trend is similar with each other.

Volume of Gas

CO emission comparision @
1000RPM
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

With Booster
Without Booster

0.5

1.5

2.5

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.11.2 NOx Emission @ 1000 RPM

CO2 Emissions are increased when booster is implemented. It can confer that
the combustion characteristics are better. Hence, lower unburned HC emissions.

64

Volume of Gas

CO emission comparision @
1500RPM
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

With Booster
Without Booster

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.11.3 NOx Emission @ 1500 RPM

The 2 Emissions are greater when booster is implemented. But, at above 3
kW of brake power emissions are higher without booster condition.
From the above graphs, we can conclude that the 2 Emissions are increased
which is a sign of better characteristics.

7.12 Unburned Hydrocarbons in emission comparison

Unburned Hydrocarbons in
emission comparision @ 700RPM
Volume of Gas

600
500
400
300

With Booster

200

Without Booster

100
0
0

0.5

1.5

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.12.1 Unburned Hydrocarbons in Emission @ 700 RPM

The unburned Hydrocarbons emissions are reduced with the increase in the
load. The implementation of booster increased the unburned HC.

65

Unburned HC emission comparision @

1000RPM
Volume of Gas

500
400
300
With Booster

200

Without Booster

100
0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.12.2 Unburned Hydrocarbons in Emission @ 1000 RPM

The unburned HC follows similar trend on comparison.

Volume of Gas

Unburned HC emission comparision @

1500RPM
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0

With Booster
Without Booster

Brake Power (kW)

Fig 7.12.3 Unburned Hydrocarbons in Emission @ 1500 RPM

At higher RPM the unburned HC emissions are reduced.
At lower RPMs, due to large time available for burning, rate at which the
hydrogen combusts precedes the rate of combustion of petrol, hence more unburned
HC are present. But at higher RPMs due to high turbulence, and lower time available
for burning the unburned HCs are reduced.

66

7.13 Mileage test Results

7.13.1 Mileage test with booster

S.No. RPM
1
2
3
4
5

2000
3000
4000
5000
6000

Mileage test with Booster

Fuel
Distance
qty.(ml)
(km)
100
7
100
6.2
100
5.4
100
4.5
100
3.9

Mileage
(kmpl)
70
62
54
45
39

7.13.2 Mileage test without booster

S.No. RPM
1
2
3
4
5

2000
3000
4000
5000
6000

Mileage test without Booster

Fuel
Distance
qty.(ml)
(km)
100
6.5
100
5.5
100
4.7
100
4
100
3.5

Mileage
(kmpl)
65
55
47
40
35

7.13.3 Percentage change in mileage

Percentage change in mileage
S.No.

RPM

% change

2000

7.69

3000

12.72

4000

14.89

5000

12.5

6000

11.42

67

Mileage Vs Engine RPM

80
70

Mileage (kmpl)

60
50
40

With Booster

30

Without Booster

20
10
0
0

2000

4000

6000

8000

Engine RPM

Fig 7.13.1 Mileage Test Vs. Engine RPM

% change in Mileage
16

% change in mileage

14
12
10
8
% change in Mileage

6
4
2
0
0

2000

4000

6000

8000

Engine RPM

Fig 7.13.2 Percentage Change in Mileage

The change in mileage can be seen maximum at around 4000 RPM, which is
the consistent with CBZ XTREME optimum mileage as specified by the OEM
(HERO HONDA). We can see an increase between 8-15% which gives a clear picture
about the decrease in the consumption of fuel.

68

8. CONCLUSION

It is noted from the above Testing results that the Performance Characteristics
of the used SI engine changed variably by HHO blending. The HHO blending kit is
installed on the CBZ Extreme- 2008 bike and Mileage test, Efficiency tests were
made to achieve the result.
With the installation of HHO booster, the Mechanical efficiency remained
unchanged but the other factors like Brake Thermal Efficiency, Indicated Thermal
Efficiency, Fuel Efficiency and Mileage increased at a stretch. Fuel consumption had
reduced when compared.
Different factors like CO emissions, NOx emissions were also compared at
different RPMs and the respected graphs are drawn for efficient results. The above
graphs clearly show the comparison between theoretical results and the practical
results. Thus, the aim of this project is achieved and the procedure followed in order
to achieve the results is unique.

8.1 FUTURE SCOPE

With the depletion of fossil fuels, there is a real urgency to reduce the usage of
those fuels by using alternate fuels like hydrogen etc., By HHO blending, the
consumption of fuel reduces and the mileage increases which is a great advantage
when compared to other methods available as of now. Thus there is a greater scope to
this process as it costs less too.
The emission of harmful gases like CO, NOx is also reduced in this process
which is an added advantage. Counting the advantages of HHO blending depicts the
scope of this project.

69

9. REFERENCES
[1]. APOSTOLESCU, N, and CHIRIAC, R., 1996. A study of Combustion of
Hydrogen-Enriched Gasoline in a Spark Ignition Engine. SAE Paper.
[2]. Akansu, S. 0., Z. Dulger, N. Kahraman and T. N. Veziroglu (2004). "Internal
combustion engines fueled by natural gas-hydrogen mixtures." International Journal
ofHydrogen Energy 2904): 1527-1539.
[3]. Bargende, M. and R. Greiner (2003). Verbrennungsmotoren. Lecture Notes.
Stuttgart, Germany, Institut fiir Verbrennungsmotoren und Kraftfahrwesen,
University of Stuttgart.
[4]. BELL S. R., and GUPTA, M., 1997. Extension of The Lean Operating Limit For
Natural Gas Fuelling of a Spark Ignited Engine Using Hydrogen Blending.
Combustion Science and Technology, 123:2348.
[5]. Berckmller, M. , H. Rottengruber, A. Eder, N. Brehm, G. Elssser, G.
MiillerAlander and C. Schwarz (2003). Potentials of a charged Sl-hydrogen engine.
SAE Technical Papers, 200301-3210. Warrendale, USA, Society of Automotive
Engineers, Inc.
[6]. CUNNINGHAM, J. E, and GOODENOUGH, R. Method and Apparatus for
Enhancing Combustion in an Internal Combustion Engine through Electrolysis.
United States Patent, April, 21, 1992.
[7]. D'ANDREA, T., HENSHAW, P. F., and TING, D. S., 2004. The Addition of
Hydrogen to a Gasoline-Fuelled SI Engine. International Joumal of Hydrogen Energy,
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[8]. DAS, L. M., 2002. Near-Term Introduction of Hydrogen Engines For Automotive
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[9]. DULGER, Z, and OZCELIK, K. R., 2000. Fuel Economy Improvement by On
Board Electrolytic Hydrogen Production, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy,
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[10]. ERREN, R. A., CAMPBELL, W. H, 1933. Hydrogen: A Commercial Fuel for
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[11]. Farrell, A. E., D. W. Keith and J. J. Corbett (2003). "A strategy for introducing
hydrogen into transportation." Energy Policy 31(13): 1357-1367.
[12]. FULTON, J., LYNCH F., and MARMORA, R., 1993. Hydrogen for Reducing
Emissions From Alternative Fuel Vehicles. SAE paper, 4719.
[13]. HEYWOOD, J. B., 1998. Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, McGrawHill Publication. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, USA. 15371
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[14]. Johnston, B., M. C. Mayo and A. Khare (2005). "Hydrogen: the energy source
for the 21st century." Technovation 25(6): 569-585.
[15]. JI, C, and WANG, S., 2009. Combustion And Emissions Performance of a
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[16]. Johnston, B., M. C. Mayo and A. Khare (2005). "Hydrogen: the energy source
for the 21st century." Technovation 25(6): 569-585.
[17]. KAHRAMAN, E. , 2005. Analysis of a Hydrogen Fueled Internal Combustion
Engine. The Graduate School of Engineering and Sciences of Izmir Institute of
Technology.
[18]. Karim, G. A. (2003). "Hydrogen as a spark ignition engine fuel." International
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[19]. KING, R. 0., and RAND, M., 1955. The Hydrogen engine. Canada Journal of
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[20]. MASOOD, M., ISHRAAT, M. M, and REDDY, A. S., 2007. Computational
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[25]. Rand, D. A. J. and R. M. Dell (2005). "The hydrogen economy: a threat or an
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International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 33: 1771 80.

71

10.APPENDIX
Table Readings:
Without Booster
RPM load BP

Time man.
Read

TI mF

TFC

SFC

Vol of mass of Vol Effc

air
air

swept
volume

0.014019
0.0154947
0.017664
0.0187915
0.0205395
0.0226462

vol
of
H
0
0
0
0
0
0

1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500

4
6
8
10
12
14

0.924102
1.386153
1.848204
2.310255
2.772306
3.234357

63
57
50
47
43
39

21
21
21
20
20
20

33
33
33
34
34
34

0.841143
0.929684
1.05984
1.127489
1.232372
1.358769

0.910227
0.670694
0.573443
0.488037
0.44453
0.420105

2.70288
2.70288
2.70288
2.63774
2.63774
2.63774

0.003487
0.003487
0.003487
0.003403
0.003403
0.003403

77.225058
77.225058
77.225058
75.36394
75.36394
75.36394

3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5

1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000

4
6
8
10
12
14

0.616068
0.924102
1.232136
1.54017
1.848204
2.156238

68
61
58
55
50
49

19
19
19
18
18
18

33
34
34
34
34
34

0.0129882
0.0144787
0.0152276
0.0160582
0.017664
0.0180245

0
0
0
0
0
0

0.779294
0.868721
0.913655
0.963491
1.05984
1.081469

1.264948
0.940071
0.741521
0.625574
0.573443
0.501554

2.57095
2.57095
2.57095
2.50238
2.50238
2.50238

0.003137
0.003137
0.003137
0.003228
0.003228
0.003228

82.933835
82.933835
82.933835
80.721867
80.721867
80.721867

3.1
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.1

700
700
700
700
700
700

4
6
8
10
12
14

5.886
8.829
11.772
14.715
17.658
20.601

75
69
62
59
55
51

18
18
18
18
17
17

33
33
33
34
34
34

0.011776
0.0128
0.0142452
0.0149695
0.0160582
0.0173176

0
0
0
0
0
0

0.70656
0.768
0.85471
0.89817
0.963491
1.039059

1.638409
1.187253
0.990973
0.833089
0.744731
0.688407

2.50238
2.50238
2.50238
2.50238
2.43187
2.43187

0.003228
0.003228
0.003228
0.003228
0.003137
0.003137

86.288893
86.288893
86.288893
86.288893
83.85773
83.85773

2.9
2.9
2.9
2.9
2.9
2.9

Page | 72

With Booster:
RPM

load

time

4
6
8
10
12
14

Brake
Power
0.924102
1.386153
1.848204
2.310255
2.772306
3.234357

1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500

TI

mF

68
61
57
53
50
44

Man.
Read
20
20
20
20
20
19

1000
1000
1000
1000
1000
1000

4
6
8
10
12
14

700
700
700
700
700
700

4
6
8
10
12
14

TFC

SFC

0.9557387
0.6371591
0.4778693
0.3822955
0.3185796
0.2730682

Vol
of H
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6

33
33
33
34
34
34

0.616068
0.924102
1.232136
1.54017
1.848204
2.156238

73
66
63
60
55
54

18
18
18
18
17
17

5.886
8.829
11.772
14.715
17.658
20.601

81
75
68
65
61
51

18
18
17
17
17
17

0.843299
0.626714
0.50302
0.432787
0.382295
0.372366

Vol of
air
2.63774
2.63774
2.63774
2.63774
2.63774
2.57095

mass of
Vol Effc
air
0.003403 75.36394
0.003403 75.36394
0.003403 75.36394
0.003403 75.36394
0.003403 75.36394
0.003137 73.455682

0.7792941
0.8687213
0.9296842
0.9998491
1.05984
1.2043636

33
33
33
34
34
34

0.0120986
0.0133818
0.014019
0.01472
0.0160582
0.0163556

0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6

34
34
34
34
34
34

0.0109037
0.011776
0.0129882
0.0135877
0.0144787
0.0173176

0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6

swept
volume
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5

0.7259178
0.8029091
0.8411429
0.8832
0.9634909
0.9813333

1.178308
0.868853
0.68267
0.573443
0.521312
0.455114

2.50238
2.50238
2.50238
2.50238
2.43187
2.43187

0.003228
0.003228
0.003228
0.003228
0.003137
0.003137

80.721867
80.721867
80.721867
80.721867
78.447554
78.447554

3.1
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.1
3.1

0.6542222
0.70656
0.7792941
0.8152615
0.8687213
1.0390588

1.517045
1.092273
0.903534
0.756189
0.671479
0.688407

2.50238
2.50238
2.43187
2.43187
2.43187
2.43187

0.003228
0.003228
0.003137
0.003137
0.003137
0.003137

80.721867
80.721867
78.447554
78.447554
78.447554
78.447554

2.9
2.9
2.9
2.9
2.9
2.9

Page | 73

700 RPM
HI
9.4208
10.24
11.3961
11.9756
12.8466
13.8541

FP
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35

Without Booster
IP
Mec eff IthEff
1.78125 24.2104 18.9076
1.99687 32.3942 19.5007
2.2125 38.9829 19.4144
2.42812 44.4014 20.2756
2.64374 48.936 20.5794
2.85937 52.7868 20.6391

BP
0.43125
0.64687
0.8625
1.07812
1.29374
1.50937

BthEff
4.57761
6.3171
7.56832
9.00264
10.0707
10.8947

HI
8.85037
9.54821
10.518
10.9976
11.7104
13.9815

BP
0.43125
0.64687
0.8625
1.07812
1.29374
1.50937

1000 RPM
HI
10.3906
11.583
12.1821
12.8466
14.1312
14.4196

BP
0.61607
0.9241
1.23214
1.54017
1.8482
2.15624

FP
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35

Without Booster
IP
Mec eff IthEff
1.96607 31.335 18.9216
2.2741 40.6359 19.6332
2.58214 47.7177 21.1962
2.89017 53.2899 22.4976
3.1982 57.7888 22.6322
3.50624 61.4972 24.3158

BthEff
5.9291
7.97812
10.1143
11.989
13.0789
14.9535

HI
9.80631
10.8329
11.3426
11.9034
12.974
13.2119

BP
0.61607
0.9241
1.23214
1.54017
1.8482
2.15624

1500 RPM
HI
BP
FP
11.2152
0.9241 1.35
12.3958 1.38615 1.35
14.1312
1.8482 1.35
15.0332 2.31026 1.35
16.4316 2.77231 1.35

Without Booster
IP
Mec eff IthEff
2.2741 40.6359 20.2769
2.73615 50.6607 22.0732
3.1982 57.7888 22.6322
3.66026 63.1173 24.3478
4.12231 67.2513 25.0876

BthEff
8.2397
11.1825
13.0789
15.3677
16.8718

HI
10.518
11.7104
12.5232
13.4587
14.2586

BP
0.9241
1.38615
1.8482
2.31026
2.77231

FP
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35

With Booster
IP
Mec eff
1.78125 24.2104
1.99687 32.3942
2.2125 38.9829
2.42812 44.4014
2.64374 48.936
2.85937 52.7868

IthEff
20.1263
20.9136
21.0353
22.0787
22.5761
20.451

BthEff
4.87265
6.77479
8.20019
9.80326
11.0479
10.7954

FP
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35

With Booster
IP
Mec eff
1.96607 31.335
2.2741 40.6359
2.58214 47.7177
2.89017 53.2899
3.1982 57.7888
3.50624 61.4972

IThEff
20.049
20.9926
22.7649
24.2802
24.651
26.5386

BthEff
6.28236
8.53054
10.8629
12.9389
14.2455
16.3205

With Booster
IP
Mec eff
2.2741 40.6359
2.73615 50.6607
3.1982 57.7888
3.66026 63.1173
4.12231 67.2513

IthEff BthEff
21.6211 8.78591
23.3652 11.837
25.5382 14.7582
27.1961 17.1655
28.911 19.443

FP
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35
1.35

Page | 74

1500 RPM
brake power
0.924102
1.386153
1.848204
2.310255
2.772306
3.234357
1000 RPM
Brake power
0.616068
0.924102
1.232136
1.54017
1.848204
2.156238

700 RPM
Brake power
0.4312476
0.6468714
0.8624952
1.078119
1.2937428
1.5093666

CO
0.1215
0.0855
0.074
0.0725
0.071
0.067

Without Booster
O2
CO2
6.55
4.47
5.7
5.59
5.25
6.4
4.565
7.19
3.99
8
3.475
8.65

CO
0.039
0.0325
0.0355
0.042
0.085
0.083

Without Booster
O2
CO2
6.85
4.04
6.85
4.01
5.95
5.19
5.25
6.19
5.45
6.37
4.9
7

CO
0.0525
0.0415
0.041
0.0355
0.037
0.0355

Without Booster
O2
CO2
6.75
4.12
6.05
5.21
5.3
6.11
4.68
7.08
4.14
7.8
3.655
7.4

Nox
76
87
110
243
395
390

Nox
60
76
109
244
376
390

Nox
142
75
105
247
386
389

HC
150
125
115
99
64
65

HC
441
366
236
139
99
156

HC
497
327
205
142
112
102

CO
0.1125
0.06
0.051
0.052
0.0555
0.0615

With Booster
O2
CO2
6.05
5
5.3
5.91
4.98
6.56
3.98
7.67
3.665
8.19
3.17
8.45

Nox
48
64
97
232
356
370

HC
136
111
101
85
60
54

CO
0.046
0.0475
0.0505
0.054
0.052
0.0605

With Booster
O2
CO2
6.7
5.36
6.05
6.91
5.005
6.92
4.095
8.01
3.565
8.31
2.705
8.91

Nox
101
120
176
250
261
312

HC
422
375
239
150
141
128

CO
0.0504
0.03984
0.03936
0.03408
0.0333
0.03195

With Booster
O2
CO2
6.48
3.6256
5.808
4.5848
5.088
5.3768
4.4928
6.2304
3.726
7.02
3.2895
6.66

Nox
55
40
55
97
127
103

HC
336
366
266
185
151
131

Page | 75

Page | 76